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THE  TREE  BOOK 


^ 


THE  TREE  BOOK  ^  ^^^u- 

LAR  GUIDE  TO  A  KNOWLEDGE  OF 
THE  TREES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 
AND  TO  THEIR  USES  AND  CULTIVA- 
TION 


BY 


JULIA   ELLEN    ROGERS 


WITH  SIXTEEN  PLATES  IN  COLOUR 

AND    ONE    HUNDRED    AND    SIXTY    IN 

BLACK-AND-WHITE    FROM    PHOTOGRAPHS 

BY  A.  RADCLYFFE   DUGMORE 


Garden  City         New  Yore 
DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1905,  by 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 


All  rights  reserved,   including  that  of 

translation  into  Joreign  languages, 

including  the  Scandinavian 


To 
TOoma^  l^usston  Q^acbrine 

UNDER   WHOM    IT  WAS   MY   GOOD    FORTUNE 

TO     BEGIN     THE     STUDY    OF    THE    TREE     FAMILIES 

THIS    BOOK    IS   GRATEFULLY   DEDICATED 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I 
HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  TREES 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

I  How  to  Know  the  Trees        .         .         ,         „  3 

II  The  Names  of  Trees        „         .         .         .         o  6 

III  The  Tree  Families    .         »         .         .         .         .  11 

IV  The  Conifers     .,..„..  17 
V  The  Pines         .         ,         „         ,         o         .         .  20 

VI  The  Larches      o         »         „         .         .         »         .  58 

VII  The  Spruces     .......  63 

VIII  The  Hemlocks          ......  72 

IX  The  Firs o        .         .  79 

X  The  Big  Tree  and  the  Redwood     .         »         .  86 

XI  The  Arbor  Vitaes 91 

XII  The  Incense  Cedar 94 

XIII  The  Cypresses 96 

XIV  The  Junipers 104 

XV  The  Torreyas   ,         .         .         ...        .         .  113 

XVI  The  Yews 115 

XVII  The  Palms  and  the  Palmettos    ,         .         .         .  118 

XVIII  The  Yuccas •    .  123 

XIX  The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories       ...  123 

XX  The  Poplars 145 

XXI  The  Willows 155 

XXII  The  Hornbeams 162 

XXIII  The  Birches 167 

XXIV  The  Alders 177 

XXV  The  Beeches 182 


Table  of  Contents 

Part  I — Continued 

CHAPTER 

XXVI 

The  Chestnuts 

XXVII 

The  Oaks 

XXVIII 

The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries     . 

XXIX 

The  Mulberries,  the  Osage  Orange  and  the  Fig 

XXX 

The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

XXXI 

The  Papaw  and  the  Pond  Apple 

XXXII 

The  Laurels  and  the  Sassafras 

XXXIII 

The  Witch  Hazel  and  the  Sweet  Gum 

XXXIV 

The  Sycamores 

XXXV 

The  Apples    .... 

XXXVI 

The  Mountain  Ashes     . 

XXXVII 

The  Service  Berries 

XXXVIII 

The  Hawthorns      . 

XXXIX 

The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

XL 

The  Pod  Bearers 

XLI 

The  Lignum  Vitaes 

XLII 

The  Prickly  Ash  and  the  Hop  Tree 

XLIII 

The  Paradise  Tree  and  the  Ailanthus 

XLIV 

The  Mahogany  and  the  Gumbo  Limbo 

XLV 

The  Sumachs  and  the  Smoke  Tree 

XLVI 

The  Hollies 

.     XLVII 

The  Burning  Bush 

XLVIII 

The  Maples    , 

XLIX 

The  Buckeyes 

L 

The  Buckthorns     . 

LI 

The  Lindens 

LII 

The  Gordonias 

LIII 

The  Mangroves      . 

LIV 

The  Hercules'  Club 

LV 

The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

LVI 

The  Heaths,  the  Rhododendron  and  the 

Mountain  Laurel 

LVII 

The  Persimmons    . 

Table  of  Contents 


Part  I — Continued 


CHAPTER 

LVIIl 
LIX 
LX 
LXI 


The  Silver  Bell  Tree  and  the  Sweet  Leaf 
The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 
The  Catalpas      .  .... 

The  Viburnums  and  the  Elders 


PART  II 
FORESTRY 

I  Forestry  in  the  United  States 

II  A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

III  Profitable  Tree  Planting 

IV  The  Woodlot  That  Pays 
V  Transplanting  Trees 

VI  How  Trees  Are  Multiplied 

VII  How  Trees  Are  Measured 

VIII  The  Pruning  of  Trees   . 

IX  The  Enemies  of  Trees  , 


PACK 

43  > 
445 
449 


455 
463 
470 
481 
486 
492 
501 
506 
5»3 


PART  III 
THE  USES  OF  WOOD 

I     The  Uses  of  Wood 527 

11     Wood  Preservation 5^6 

III  The  Finishing  of  Wood 540 

IV  Wooden  Paper 54^ 

PART  IV 
THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES 

I     The  Work  of  the  Leaves 551 

II     The  Growth  of  a  Tree 556 

III  The  Fall  of  the  Leaf 562 

IV  How  Trees  Spend  the  Winter      ....  566 

Appendix 5-7^ 

Index       .         , jng 


LIST   OF   COLOURED    PLATES 


The  Glory  of  Autumn  Trees     .... 

White  Pine  Grown  in  Open  Ground  (Pinus  Strobus) 

Dogwood  Tree  in  Full   Bloom  (Cornus  florida) 

Fruiting  Branch  of  Chestnut  (Castanea  deniaia) 

Swamp  Magnolia  {Magnolia  glauca) 

Prairie  Crab  Apple   (Mains  foensis) 

Scarlet  Haw  (Cratcegus  coccinea) 

Clammy  Locust  {Robinia  viscosa) 

Scarlet  Haw  (Crafcegus  Arnoldiana) 

Mountain   Laurel    {Kalmia  latifolia) 

Flowers  of  Silver  Bell  Tree  (Mohrodendron  ieiraptera) 

Fruit  of  Elder-leaved  Mountain  Ash  (Sorbus  sambucijolia) 

Fruit  and  Autumn  Leaves  of  Dogwood  {Cornus  florida) 

Flower  of  Tulip  Tree  (Liriodendron  Tulipijera) 

Flower  and  Bud  of  Great  Rhododendron  {Rhododendron 

maximum)  ....... 

Big  Trees  in  the  Giant  Forest  of  the  Sequoia  National  Park 

California  (Sequoia  {VellingtuaiaJ     . 


Frontispiece 

Facing  Page 
24 

124 

186 

250 

284 

304 

346 

390 

420 

430 

452 

480 

512 

542 

562 


LIST  OF  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  White  Pine  (Pinus  Strobus) 

The  Mountain  Pine  {Pinus  monttcola)     . 

The  Sugar  Pine  (Pinus  Lamheriiana) 

The  Foxtail  Pine  {Pinus  Balfouriana) 

The  Table  Mountain  Pine  {Pinus  pungens) 

The  Pitch  Pine  {Pinus  rigida)    . 

The  Shortleaf  Pine  {Pinus  echinata)  . 

The  Red  or  Norway  Pine  {Pinus  resinosa) 

The  Jersey  Pine   {Pinus  Virginiana) 

The  Red  Spruce  {Picea  rubens) 

The  Grey  Pine  {Pinus  divaricaia) 

The  American  Larch  {Larix  Americana)    . 

The  White  Spruce  {Picea  Canadensis) 

The  Black  Spruce  {Picea  Mariana)    . 

The  Engelmann  Spruce  {Picea  Engclmanni) 

The  Blue  Spruce  {Picea  Parryana)    . 

The  Douglas  Spruce  {P seudotsuga  mucronata) 

The  Hemlock  {Tsuga  Canadensis)     . 

The  Balsam  Fir  {Abies  balsamea) 

The  Balsam  Fir  {Abies  balsamea) 

The  Balsam  Fir  {Abies  lasiocarpa)    . 

The  Balsam  Fir  {Abies  Fraseri) 

The  White  Fir  {Abies  concolor) 

The  White   Fir   {Abies  grandis) 

The  Big  Tree  {Sequoia  IV ellingtonia) 

The  Arbor  Vitae  {Thuya  occidentalis) 

The  Monterey  Cypress  {Cupressus  macrocarpa) 

The  White  Cedar  {Chamcecyparis  ihyoides) 

The  Sitka  Cypress  {ChamcEcyparis  Nootkaiensis) 

The  Lawson    Cypress    {Chamcecyparis    Lawscniana) 

The  Bald  Cypress  {Taxodium  disiichiim) 

The  Bald  Cypress  {Taxodium  distichum) 

The  Juniper    {Juniperus   communis) 

The  Red  Cedar  {Juniperus  Virginiana)    . 


Facing  Page 
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27 

27 
38 

39 
39 

44 
45 
50 
51 
5' 
60 
61 
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65 
72 
73 
80 
81 
84 
85 
85 
85 
90 

9' 

98 

99 

99 

99 

102 

103 

1 10 

110 


List  of  Other  Illustrations 

Facing  Pagb 

The  Western  Juniper  (Juniperus  occidenialis)   .        .        .  1 1 1 

The  Lodge-pole  Pine  {Pinus  coniorta,  var.  Munayand)    .  1 1  c 

The  Desert  Palm  {W ashingionia  filamentosa)    .        .         .  120 

The  Cabbage   Palmetto   (Sabal  Palmetto)        .        .        .  121 

The  Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea) 128 

The  ^\2ick\^2\n\it  {Juglans  nigra) 129 

The  Pignut  (Hicoria  glabra) 134 

The  Pignut  {Hicoria  glabra)      .                 .        .        .        .  135 

The  Bitternut  Hickory   {Hicoria  minima)        .        ,        .  135 

The  Big  Shellbark  {Hicoria  laciniosa)      .        .        .        ,  138 

The  Shagbark  Hickory  {Hicoria  ovata)     .        .        .        .  139 

The  Shagbark  Hickory  {Hicoria  ovata)     .        .        .        .  142 

The  Pecan  {Hicoria  Pecan) 143 

The  Water  Hickory  {Hicoria  aquatica)     .        .        .        .  143 

The  Q)ttonwood   {Populus  delioidea)        .        .        .        .  146 

The  Silver  Poplar  {Populus  alba) 147 

The  Great-toothed  Aspen  {Populus  grandideniata)    .        .  147 

The  Narrow-leaved  Cottonwood  {Populus  angustifolia)     .  147 

The  Cottonwood  {Populus  Fremontii)      .        .        .        .  147 

The  Swamp  Cottonwood  {Populus  heterophylla)       .        .  147 

The  Balm  of  Gilead  {Populus  balsamifera)      .        .        =  147 

The  Quaking  Asp  {Populus  tremuloides)    .        .        .        .  1 50 

The  Quaking  Asp  {Populus  tremuloides)    .        .        .        .  151 

The  Golden  Osier  Willow  {Salix  alba,  var.  vitellina)       .  156 

The  Golden  Osier  {Salix  alba,  var.  vitellina)     .        .        .  157 

The  Silky  Willow  {Salix  sericea) 157 

The  Pussy  Willow  {Salix  discolor)     .        .        .        .        »  160 

The  Pussy  Willow  {Salix  discolor) 161 

The  Hop  Hornbeam  {Ostrya  Virginiana)  .        .        .        .  1 64 

The  American  Hornbeam  {Carpinus  Caroliniana)    .        .  165 

The  American  Hornbeam  {Carpinus  Caroliniana)    .        .  166 

The  American  White  Birch  {Betula  populifolia)      .        .  167 

The  American  White  Birch  {Betula  populifolia)      .        .  168 

The  Canoe  Birch  {Betula  papyrifera)       .        .        .        .  169 

The  Yellow  Birch  {Betula  lutea) 170 

The  Yellow  Birch  {Betula  lutea) 171 

The  Cherry  Birch  {Betula  lenta) 174 

The  Red   Birch    {Betula  nigra) 175 

The  Seaside  Alder  {Alnus  maritima)        .        »        „        ,  182 

The  Speckled  Alder  {Alnus  incana)        ,        :        c        •  182 


The  Beech   (Fagus  Americana) 

The  Beech    (Fagus  Americana) 

The  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentaia) 

The  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata) 

The  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila) 

The  CaHfornia  White  Oak  (Quercus  lobata) 

The  Live  Oak  (Quercus  Virginiana) 

The  CaHfornia  Live  Oak  (Quercus  agrifolia) 

The  White  Oak   (Quercus  alba) 

The  White  Oak  (Quercus  alba) 

The  Bur  Oak   (Quercus  macrocarpa) 

The  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  Prinus) 

The  Overcup   Oak    (Quercus  lyrata) 

The  Live  Oak   (Quercus  Virginiana) 

The  Willow  Oak    (Quercus   Phellos) 

The  Swamp  White  Oak  (Quercus  platanoides) 

The  Post  Oak   (Quercus  minor) 

The  Blue  Jack    (Quercus   brevijolia) 

The  Cow  Oak  (Quercus  Michauxii)  . 

The  Black  Jack  (Quercus  Marilandica)     . 

The  Water  Oak  (Quercus  nigra) 

The  Yellow  Oak  (Quercus  acuminata) 

The  Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra)    . 

The  Pin  Oak  (Quercus  palustris) 

The  Pin  Oak  (Quercus  palustris) 

The  Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra)    . 

The  Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra)    . 

The  Scarlet  Oak   (Quercus  coccinea) 

The  Scarlet  Oak  (Quercus  coccinea)    . 

The  Black  Oak  (Quercus  velutina)     . 

The  Black  Oak  (Quercus  velutina)     . 

The  Bear  Oak   (Quercus  nana) 

The  Bear  Oak   (Quercus  nana) 

The  Shingle  Oak  (Quercus  imbricaria) 

The  Shingle  Oak  (Quercus  imbricaria) 

The  Shingle  Oak  (Quercus  imbricaria) 

The  Lancaster  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana)    . 

The  American  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana)    . 

The  American  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana)    . 

The  Slippery  Elm  (Ulmus  fulva) 


List  of  Other  Illustrations 
Facing  Page 
183 
184 
185 


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194 

195 
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200 
201 
204 
204 
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208 
208 
208 
209 
210 
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212 
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214 
215 
216 
217 
218 
219 
220 
221 
228 
229 
232 

234 


List  of  Other  Illustrations 

Facing  Page 

The  Rock  or  Cork  Elm  (Ulmus  Thomasi) 

The  Hackberry    (Celtis  occidentalis) 

The  Red  Mulberry  (Morus  rubra)     . 

The  Osage  Orange  (Toxylon  pomijerum)    . 

The  Ear-leaved  Magnolia  {Magnolia  Fraseri) 

The  Large-leaved  Cucumber  Tree  {Magnolia  macrophylla) 

The  Great  Laurel  Magnolia   {Magnolia  joetida) 

The  Swamp  Magnolia   {Magnolia  glauca) 

The  Umbrella  Tree  {Magnolia  tripetala)    . 

The  Cucumber  Tree  {Magnolia  acuminata) 

The  Tulip  Tree  {Liriodendron  Tulipifera) 

The  Sassafras    {Sassafras  Sassafras) 

The  Sassafras    {Sassafras  Sassafras) 

The  Witch  Hazel  {Hamamelis  Virginiana) 

The  Sweet  Gum  {Liquidambar  Siyraciflua) 

The  Sweet  Gum  {Liquidambar  Siyraciflua) 

The  Sycamore  {Platanus  occidentalis) 

The  Wild  Crab  Apple  {Malus  coronaria)    . 

The  Prairie  Crab  Apple  {Malus  loensis)    . 

The  Narrow-leaved  Crab  Apple  {Malus  angustifolia) 

The  Mountain  Ash  {Sorbus  Americana)     . 

The  Service-berry  {Amelanchier  Canadensis) 

The  Service-berry  {Amelanchier  Canadensis) 

The  English   Hawthorn   {Cratcegus  Oxyacantha) 

The  Cockspur  Thorn  {Cratcegus  Crus-galli) 

The  Red  Haw  {Cratcegus  mollis) 

The  Dotted  Haw  {Cratcegus  punctata) 

The  Scarlet  Haw  {Cratcegus  pruinosa) 

The  Haw   {Cratcegus  Boyntoni) 

The  Haw  {Cratcegus  apiomorpha) 

The  Scarlet  Haw  {Cratcegus  Arnoldiana)    . 

The  Parsley  Haw  {Cratcegus  apiifolia) 

The  Scarlet  Haw  {Cratcegus  coccinea) 

The  Red  Haw  {Cratcegus  mollis) 

The  Haw  {Cratcegus  coccinioides) 

The  Washington  Thorn  {Cratcegus  cordata) 

The  Long-spine  Haw  {Cratcegus  macracantha) 

The  Pear  Haw  {Cratcegus  tomentosa) 

The  Canada  Plum  {Prunus  nigra)     . 

The  Canada  Plum  {Prunus  nigra)     . 


List  of  Other  Illustrations 


The  Canada  Plum  (Prunus  nigra)     . 

The  Wild  Red  Plum  (Prunus  Americana) 

The  Wild  Goose  Plum  {Prunus  hortulana) 

The  Beach  Plum  {Prunus  mariiima) 

The  Wild-Goose  Plum  {Prunus  hortulana) 

The  Alleghany  Sloe  (Prunus  Alleghaniensis) 

The  Bird  Cherry  (Prunus  P ennsylvanica) 

The  Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  Virginiana) 

The  Canada  Plum  (Prunus  nigra)     . 

The  Beach  Plum  (Prunus  mariiima) 

The  Red  Bud  (Cercis  Canadensis)     . 

The  Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  iriacanihos) 

The  Yellow  Locust  (Rohinia  Pseudacacia) 

The  New  Mexican  Locust  (Rohinia  Neo-Mexicana) 

The  Clammy  Locust  (Rohinia  viscosa) 

The  Yellow-wood    (Cladrastis  lutea) 

The  Staghorn   Sumach    (Rhus  hirta) 

The  Poison  Sumach  (Rhus  Vernix)    . 

The  Dwarf  Sumach  (Rhus  copallina) 

The  Smooth  Sumach   (Rhus  glabra) 

The  Swamp  Holly  (Ilex  decidua) 

The  Mountain  Holly  (Ilex  monticola) 

The  Evergreen  Holly  (Ilex  opaca)     . 

The  Burning  Bush  (Evonymus  atropurpureus) 

The  Red  Maple  (Acer  rubrum)   . 

The  Red  Maple  (Acer  rubrum)    . 

The  Silver  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum) 

The  Silver  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum) 

The  Sugar  Maple  (Acer  Saccharum)  . 

The  Sugar  Maple   (Acer  Saccharum) 

The  Mountain  Maple  (Acer  spicatum) 

The  Striped  Maple  (Acer  P ennsylvanicum) 

The  Striped  Maple  (Acer  P ennsylvanicum) 

The  Striped  Maple  (Acer  P ennsylvanicum) 

The  Vine  Maple  (Acer  circinatum)    . 

A  Japanese  Maple  (Acer  palmatum,  var.  dissectum) 

The  Dwarf  Maple  (Acer  glabrum)     . 

The  Black  Maple  (Acer  nigrum) 

The  Box  Elder  (Acer  Negundo) 

The  Ohio  Buckeye  (/Esculus  glabra)  . 


326 
326 
326 

327 
327 
327 
328 
329 
332 
332 
333 
336 

337 
342 
342 
343 
356 
356 
356 

357 
364 
364 
364 

365 
368 
369 
372 
373 
374 
375 
376 
376 
377 
378 
379 
379 
379 
384 
384 
385 


List  of  Other  Illustrations 

The  American  Linden  (Tilia  Americana)  . 

The  Red  Mangrove   (Rht^ophora  Mangle) 

The  White  Mangrove  (Laguncularia  racemosa) 

The  Black  Mangrove  {Avicennia  niiida)    . 

The  Hercules  Club   (Aralia  spinosa) 

The  Tupelo  (Nyssa  sylvatica)    . 

The  Tupelo  or  Pepperidge  (Nyssa  sylvatica) 

The  Flowering  Dogwood   (Cornus  florida) 

The  Alternate-leaved  Dogwood  {Cornus  alternijolia) 

The  Western  Dogwood  {Cornus  Nuttallii) 

The  Sourwood  {Oxydendrum  arboreum) 

The  Persimmon  {Diospyros  Virginiana)     . 

The  Silver  Bell  Tree  {Mohrodendron  ieirapiera) 

The  White  Ash  {Fraxinus  Americana) 

The  Black  Ash  {Fraxinus  nigra) 

The  Red  Ash  {Fraxinus  P ennsylvanica)    . 

The  Blue  Ash  {Fraxinus  quadrangulaia)    . 

The  Red  Ash  {Fraxinus  P ennsylvanica)    . 

The  Green  Ash  {Fraxinus  lanceolaia) 

The  Fringe  Tree  {Chionanthus  Virginica) 

The  Sheepberry  {Viburnum  Lentago) 

The  Rusty  Nanny  berry  {Viburnum  rufidulum) 

The  Black  Haw  {Viburnum  prunifolium) 

The  Red-berried  Elder  {Sambucus  pubens) 

The  Hop  Tree  {Ptelea  trifoliata) 

The  Catalpa   {Catalpa  Catalpa) 

The  Eucalyptus  {Eucalyptus  viminalis) 

The  Eucalyptus  {Eucalyptus  robusta) 

The  Eucalyptus  {Eucalyptus  globulus) 


Facing  Fagb 
400 
401 
401 
401 
406 
407 
410 
411 
416 
416 

426 

427 

434 
435 
435 
435 
442 
442 

443 
450 
450 
450 
45' 
451 
472 

473 
473 
473 


xvJii 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Abortive.    Not  developed. 

Acuminate.     Tapering  to  apex. 

Acute.     Pointed. 

Adventitious.     Out  of  the  natural  order,  as 

buds  that  are  formed  where  the  bark  is 

bruised,  or  about  a  stub. 
Anther.     The   pollen-producing  part  of  the 

stamen. 
Apetalous.     Without  petals. 
Apex.     The  tip. 

Arbourescent.     Having  tree   form. 
Arboretum.     An  assemblage  of  living  trees  of 

many  kinds. 
Aril.     Loose  bag  around  the  seed. 
Axil.     Angle  between  leaf  and  twig. 
Axillary.     Arising  from   the   angle   between 

stem  and  leaf. 
Baccate,     Berry-like. 
Bast.     Inner  fibrous  layer  of  bark. 
Bloom.    A    pale    film    covering    some    ripe 

plums,  grapes,  etc. 
Bract.     Modified  leaf  in  flower  cluster. 
Budding.     Setting  a  bud  upon  a  stock  so  it 

shall  grow  fast. 
Burs.    Woody,  irregular  excrescences  upon 

trunks     and     roots.       Spiny     husks     of 

nuts. 
Calyx.     The  outer  whorl  of  a  flower. 
Cambium.     The    mucilaginous    living    layer 

between  wood  and  bark. 
Capsule.     A  dry,  dehiscent  seed  case  of  more 

than  one  compartment. 
Carpel.    A  single  pistil,  or  a  division  of  a 

compound  pistil. 
Catkin.     A  slender  spike  of  minute,  crowded 

flowers,  as  in  willows. 
Chlorophyll.    The  green  colouring  matter  in 

leaves. 
Ciliate.     Fringed  with  hairs. 
Cion.     See  Scion. 
Coalesce.     To  grow  together. 
Collar.    The  place  where  trunk  and  roots 

meet. 
Compound.     Of  several  units  on  a  common 

stem,  as  the  leaflets  of  a  locust  leaf. 
Cone.     A  fruit  made  up  of  overlapping  scales, 

as  of  pines. 
Coppice.    Woods    made    up    of    sprouting 

stumps. 
Cordate.    Heart-shaped. 
Coriaceous.    Leathery. 


Corolla.     The  whorl  of  petals. 

Cotyledons.     Seed  leaves. 

Crenate.     Scalloped. 

Cross.     To   produce   seed   by  fertilizing  the 

ovules  of  one  flower  with  pollen  from  flowers 

of  another  species. 
Crustaceous.     Dry;  horny. 
Cutting.    A  piece  of  root  or  twig  by  which 

certain  species  are  able  to  reproduce  them- 
selves. 
Cyme.     A  flat  flower  cluster. 
Deciduous.     Falling  in  autumn. 
Dehiscent.     Opening  when  ripe,  as  the  husks 

of  hickory  nuts. 
Deltoid.     Triangular. 
Disuse.     Loosely  spreading. 
Dioecious.     Bearing  pistillate  and   staminate 

flowers  on  separate  trees. 
Disk.     Base  of  flower  to  which  all  floral  parts 

are   attached. 
Drupe.    A  stone  fruit,  as  a  plum. 
Duct.     A  tube. 
Elliptical.     Evenly     and     narrowly     oblong 

with  rounded  ends. 
Entire.     Without  teeth  or  lobes,  as  leaves  of 

magnolias. 
Exotic.     Not  native. 
Falcate.     Sickle-shaped. 
Fascicle.     A  crowded  cluster,  as  seen  in  the 

leaf  arrangement  of  larches. 
Fertilisation.     The  union  of  pollen  grain  and 

ovule.     The  setting  of  seed. 
Filament.     The  slender  thread  that  supports 

the  anther. 
Fungi.     Low  vegetable  organisms,  including 

mushrooms,   mildew,   rust    and   decay   in 

wood. 
Genus  (PI.  genera).     Subdivision  of  a  family. 
Germination.     The  sprouting  of  seeds. 
Glabrous.     Smooth. 
Glaucous.     Covered   with    a    pale,   powdery 

film. 
Grafting.     Inserting  a  cion  in  a  stock  so  it 

will  grow  fast. 
Habitat.     Chosen  situation  of  growth. 
Heartwood.     The   dead   wood   in  the  trunk 

under  the  sapwood. 
Humus.     Vegetable  mould. 
Hybrid.     A  seedling  resulting  from  a  cross. 
Indehiscent.     Not  opening  to  discharge  seeds 

at  maturity.    See  husks  of  walnuts. 


Glossaiy  of  Technical  Terms 


Involucre,     Whorl  of  green  leaves  or  bracts 

below  flower  or  flower  cluster. 
Leader.     A  terminal  shoot  or  bud. 
Lateral.     On  the  side. 
Lenticelt.     Corky  slits  or  dots  on  bark  for 

admission  of  air. 
Liber.     The  inner,  fibrous  layer  of  bark. 
Linear.     Long  and  narrow,  like  a  grass  blade. 
Membranaceous.     Thin  and  pliable. 
Monoecious.     Bearing    both    staminate    and 

pistillate  flowers  on  one  tree. 
Monotypic.     Having  but  one  representative, 

as  the  genus  Cladrastis. 
Nutlet.     Small,  hard  seed  case,  as  in  haws. 
Oblanceolate.     Lance-shaped,    but    broadest 

toward  apex. 
Obovate.     Ovate,  with  broadest  part  toward 

apex. 
Obtuse.     Blunt. 
Osmosis.     The  passing  of  liquids  and  gases 

through   cell   walls   and   other   continuous 

membranes. 
Ovary.     Base    of    pistil    containing    ovules. 

Becomes  the  seed  vessel. 
Ovule.    A  rudimentary  seed. 
Palmate.     With  leaflets  all  arising  from  the 

end  of  the  petiole,  as  m  the  horse  chestnut 

leaves. 
Panicle.     Spreading,   conical    flower    cluster 

as  m  yellow-wood. 
Parasite.     Any  organism   that   is   supported 

and  nourished  by  another  one. 
Pedicel.     Secondary    flower-stalks;    branches 

of  the  peduncle. 
Peduncle.     Main  flower-stalk. 
Perfect.     Having   both   stamens   and    pistils, 

as  the  flowers  of  apple  and  magnolia. 
Pericarp.     The  matured  ovary. 
Persistent.     Remaining  longer  than  ordinary. 

Evergreen. 
Petiolate,     Provided  with  a  petiole. 
Petiole.     Stem  of  a  leaf. 
Pinnate.     Feather-like.     With  leaflets   along 

sides   of   main  leaf-stalk,  as  in   ash   and 

walnut  leaves. 
Pistil.     Central,  seed-producing  part   of  the 

flower,    consisting     of     ovary,    style    and 

stigma. 
Pistillate.     Having  pistils. 
Pollen.     The  fertilising  dust  formed  in  the 

anther. 
Polygamous.     Bearing     (i)    staminate,     (2) 

pistillate,  and  (3)  perfect  flowers  on  the 

same  tree,  as  in  hackberry. 
Pome.     Fleshy  fruit  with  a  core. 
Procumbent.     Sprawling. 
Pubescent,     Covered  with  fine,  short  hairs. 
Raceme.     Loose   flower  cluster  with   flowers 

arranged  on  short  pedicels  along  peduncle, 

jw  wild  black  cherry. 


Receptacle.     Base  to  which  parts  of  the  flower 

are  attached. 
Resin.     Viscid    exudation    of    the    wood    of 

conifers. 
Rhombic.     Diamond-shaped. 
Rosin.     Hard,    brittle    substance    left    after 

distilling  turpentine  from  the  resin  of  cer- 
tain pines. 
Rufous.     Red  or  ta-«ny. 
Samara.     Key  fruit;  a  winged  seed  case,  at 

of  elm,  ash  and  maple. 
Sapling.     Any  young  tree. 
Sapwood.     The  living  wood  near  the  bark. 
Scion  {Cion).     The  budded  twig  that  js  set 

in  the  stock  in  grafting. 
Seedling.     A    tree    that   has    come    from    a 

seed. 
Serrate.     Saw-toothed. 
Sessile.     Without  a  stalk. 
Simple.     Of  one  part,  as  the  pistils  and  leaves 

of  elms  and  cherries. 
Sinuate.     Winding. 
Sinus.     Bay  between  lobes,  as  in  black  oak 

leaf. 
Slash.     Branches     and     defective     material 

discarded  in  lumbering. 
Species.     Subdivision  of  a  genus. 
Spike.     Pencil-like  receptacle  crowded  with 

small  flowers. 
Stamen.     Pollen-producing     organ     of     the 

flower,  consisting  of  filament  and  anther. 
Staminate.     Having  stamens. 
Stellate.     Star-shaped  in  branching. 
Stigma.     The  tip  of  the  pistil  which  receives 

the  pollen. 
Stipule.       Leaf-like     growth,     at    base     of 

petiole. 
Stomates.     Breathing  holes  on  under  side  of 

leaves. 
Stratified.     Spread  out  in  layers,  alternating 

with  sand  and  gravel. 
Strobile.     A  cone. 
Style.     Slender  part  of  pistil  between  stigma 

and   ovary. 
Subtermtnal.     Near  the  tip. 
Sucker.      Sprout     from     root     or     stub     of 

branch. 
Suture.     A    seam    where    parts    are    united 

until  maturity.     See  burs  of  chestnut  and 

beech. 
Symmetrical.     Well   proportioned. 
Terete.     Cylindrical. 
Tomentose.     Velvety. 
Umbel.     Flat  flower  cluster  in  which  many 

pedicels     rise     from     the     end     of     the 

peduncle. 
Unisexual.     Lacking    either    pistils    or    sta- 
mens. 
Valves.     Divisions,  as  of  a  pod  or  husk. 
Variety.    Subdivision  of  a  species. 


PART  I. 
HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  TREES 


K. 


THE  TREE  BOOK 


CHAPTER  I:     HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  TREES 

"  And  surely  nobody  can  find  anything  hard  in  this ;  even  the  blind  must 
enjoy  these  woods,  drinking  in  their  fragrance,  listening  to  the  music  of  the  winds 
in  their  groves,  and  fingering  their  flowers  and  plumes  and  cones  and  richly 
furrowed  boles.     The  kind  of  study  required  is  as  easy  and  natural  as  breathing." 

— John  Muir. 

Occasionally  I  meet  a  person  who  says :  "I  know  nothing  at 
all  about  trees."  This  modest  disclaimer  is  generally  sincere, 
but  it  has  always  turned  out  to  be  untrue.  "Oh,  well,  that 
old  sugar  maple,  I've  always  known  that  tree.  We  used  to  tap  all 
the  sugar  maples  on  the  place  every  spring."  Or  again :  "Every- 
body knows  a  white  birch  by  its  bark."  "  Of  course,  anybody 
who  has  ever  been  chestnutting  knows  a  chestnut  tree."  Most 
people  know  Lombardy  poplars,  those  green  exclamation  points 
so  commonly  planted  in  long  soldierly  rows  on  roadsides  and 
boundary  lines  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Willows,  too, 
everybody  knows  are  willows.  The  best  nut  trees,  the  shag- 
bark,  chestnut  and  butternut,  need  no  formal  introduction.  The 
honey  locust  has  its  striking  three-pronged  thorns,  and  its  purple 
pods  dangling  in  winter  and  skating  off  overthesnow.  The  beech 
has  its  smooth,  close  bark  of  Quaker  grey,  and  nobody  needs  to 
look  for  further  evidence  to  determine  this  tree's  name. 

So  it  is  easily  proved  that  each  person  has  a  good  nucleus  of 
tree  knowledge  around  which  to  accumulate  more.  If  people 
have  the  love  of  nature  in  their  hearts — if  things  out  of  doors  call 
irresistibly,  at  any  season — it  will  not  really  matter  if  their  lives 
are  pinched  and  circumscribed.  Ways  and  means  of  studying 
trees  are  easily  found,  even  if  the  scant  ends  of  busy  days  spent 
indoors  are  all  the  time  at  command.  If  there  is  energy  to  be- 
gin the  undertaking  it  will  soon  furnish  its  own  motive  power. 
Tree  students,  like  bird  students,  become  enthusiasts.  To 
understand  their  enthusiasm  one  must  follow  their  examples. 

3 


How  to  Know  the  Trees 

The  beginner  doesn't  know  exactly  how  and  where  to  begin. 
There  are  great  collections  of  trees  here  and  there.  The  Arnold 
Arboretum  in  Boston  is  the  great  dendrological  Noah's  Ark  in 
this  country.  It  contains  almost  all  the  trees,  American  and  for- 
eign, which  will  grow  in  that  region.  The  Shaw  Botanical 
Garden  at  St.  Louis  is  the  largest  midland  assemblage  of  trees. 
Parks  in  various  cities  bring  together  as  large  a  variety  of  trees 
as  possible,  and  these  are  often  labelled  with  their  English  and 
botanical  names  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 

Yet  the  places  for  the  beginner  are  his  own  dooryard,  the 
streets  he  travels  four  times  a  day  tc  his  work,  and  woods  for 
his  holiday,  though  they  need  not  be  forests.  Arboreta  are  for 
his  delight  when  he  has  gained  some  acquaintance  with  the  tree 
families.  But  not  at  first.  The  trees  may  all  be  set  out  in  tribes 
and  families  and  labelled  with  their  scientific  names.  They  will 
but  confuse  and  discourage  him.  There  is  not  time  to  make 
their  acquaintance.  They  overwhelm  with  the  mere  number  of 
kinds.  Great  arboreta  and  parks  are  very  scarce.  Trees  are  every- 
where.    The  acquaintance  of  trees  is  within  the  reach  of  all. 

First  make  a  pLn  of  the  yard,  locating  and  naming  the 
trees  you  actually  know.  Extend  it  to  include  the  street,  and 
the  neighbours'  yards,  as  you  get  ready  for  them.  Be  very  care- 
ful about  giving  names  to  trees.  If  you  think  you  know  a  tree, 
ask  yourself  how  you  know  it.  Sift  out  all  the  guesses,  and 
the  hearsays,  and  begin  on  a  solid  foundation,  even  if  you  are 
sure  about  only  the  sugar  maple  and  the  white  birch. 

The  characters  to  note  in  studying  trees  are:  leaves,  flowers, 
fruits,  bark,  buds,  bud  arrangement,  leaf  scars  and  tree  form. 
The  season  of  the  year  determines  which  features  are  most  promi- 
nent. Buds  and  leaf  scars  are  the  most  unvarying  of  tree 
characters.  In  winter  these  traits  and  the  tree  frame  are  most 
plainly  revealed.  Winter  often  exhibits  tree  fruits  on  or  under 
the  tree,  and  dead-leaf  studies  are  very  satisfactory.  Leaf  arrange- 
ment may  be  made  out  at  any  season,  for  leaf  scars  tell  this  story 
after  the  leaves  fall. 

Only  three  families  of  our  large  trees  have  opposite  leaves. 
This  fact  helps  the  beginner.  Look  first  at  the  twigs.  If  the 
leaves,  or  (in  winter)  the  buds  and  leaf  scars,  stand  opposite,  the 
tree  (if  it  is  of  large  size)  belongs  to  the  maple,  ash  or  horse- 
chestnut  family.     Our  native  horse  chestnuts  are  buckeyes.     If 

4 


How  to  Know  the  Trees 

the  leaves  are  simple  the  tree  is  a  maple;  if  pinnately  compound, 
of  several  leaflets,  it  is  an  ash;  if  palmately  compound,  of  five  to 
seven  leaflets,  it  is  a  horse  chestnut.  In  winter  dead  leaves  under 
the  trees  furnish  this  evidence.  The  winter  buds  of  the  horse 
chestnut  are  large  and  waxy,  and  the  leaf  scars  look  like  prints  of 
a  horse's  hoof.  Maple  buds  are  small,  and  the  leaf  scar  is  a  small, 
narrow  crescent.  Ash  buds  are  dull  and  blunt,  with  rough, 
leathery  scales.  Maple  twigs  are  slender.  Ash  and  buckeye 
twigs  are  stout  and  clumsy. 

Bark  is  a  distinguishing  character  of  many  trees — of  others 
it  is  confusing.  The  sycamore,  shedding  bark  in  sheets  from 
its  limbs,  exposes  pale,  smooth  under  bark.  The  tree  is  recognis- 
able by  its  mottled  appearance  winter  or  summer.  The  corky 
ridges  on  limbs  of  sweet  gum  and  bur  oak  are  easily  re- 
membered traits.  The  peculiar  horizontal  peeling  of  bark  on 
birches  designates  most  of  the  genus.  The  prussic-acid  taste  of 
a  twig  sets  the  cherry  tribe  apart.  The  familiar  aromatic  taste  of 
the  green  twigs  of  sassafras  is  its  best  winter  character;  the 
mitten-shaped  leaves  distinguish  it  in  summer. 

It  is  necessary  to  get  some  book  on  the  subject  to  discover 
the  names  of  trees  one  studies,  and  to  act  as  teacher  at  times.  A 
book  makes  a  good  staff,  but  a  poor  crutch.  The  eyes  and  the 
judgment  are  the  dependable  things.  In  spring  the  way  in 
which  the  leaves  open  is  significant;  so  are  the  flowers.  Every 
tree  when  it  reaches  proper  age  bears  flowers.  Not  all  bear  fruit, 
but  blossoms  come  on  every  tree.  In  summer  the  leaves  and 
fruits  are  there  to  be  examined.  In  autumn  the  ripening  fruits 
are  the  special  features. 

To  know  a  tree's  name  is  the  beginning  of  acquaintance — 
not  an  end  in  itself.  There  is  all  the  rest  of  one's  life  in  which  to 
follow  it  up.  Tree  friendships  are  very  precious  things,  John  Muir, 
writing  among  his  beloved  trees  of  the  Yosemite  Valley,  adjures 
his  world-weary  fellow  men  to  seek  the  companionship  of  trees. 

"To  learn  how  they  live  and  behave  in  pure  wildness, 
to  see  them  in  their  varying  aspects  through  the  seasons  and 
weather,  rejoicing  in  the  great  storms,  putting  forth  their  new 
leaves  and  flowers,  when  all  the  streams  are  in  flood,  and  the 
birds  singing,  and  sending  away  their  seeds  in  the  thoughtful 
Indian  summer,  when  all  the  landscape  is  glowing  in  deep,  calm 
enthusiasm — for  this  you  must  love  them  and  live  with  them,  as 
free  from  schemes  and  care  and  time  as  the  trees  themselves." 

5 


CHAPTER  II:  THE  NAMES  OF  TREES 

Two  Latin  words,  written  in  italics,  with  a  cabalistic  abbrevia- 
tion set  after  them,  are  a  stumbling  block  on  the  page  to  the  reader 
unaccustomed  to  scientific  lore.  He  resents  botanical  names, 
and  demands  to  know  the  tree's  name  "in  plain  English."  Trees 
have  both  common  and  scientific  names,  and  each  has  its  use. 
Common  names  were  applied  to  important  trees  by  people,  the 
world  over,  before  science  was  born.  Many  trees  were  never 
noticed  by  anybody  until  botanists  discovered  and  named  them. 
They  may  never  get  common  names  at  all. 

A  name  is  a  description  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms.  It 
consists  usually  of  a  surname  and  a  descriptive  adjective  :  Mary 
Jones,  white  oak,  Quercus  alba.  Take  the  oaks,  for  example, 
and  let  us  consider  how  they  got  their  names,  common  and 
scientific.  All  acorn-bearing  trees  are  oaks.  They  are  found  in 
Europe,  Asia  and  America.  Their  usefulness  and  beauty  have 
impressed  people.  The  Britons  called  them  by  a  word  which  in 
our  modern  speech  is  oak,  and  as  they  came  to  know  the  dif- 
ferent kinds,  they  added  a  descriptive  word  to  the  name  of  each. 
But  "plain  English"  is  not  useful  to  the  Frenchman.  Chene 
is  his  name  for  the  acorn  trees.  The  German  has  his  Eichen- 
baum,  the  Roman  had  his  Quercus,  and  who  knows  what  the 
Chinaman  and  the  Hindoo  in  far  Cathay  or  the  American  Indian 
called  these  trees  ?  Common  names  made  the  trouble  when  the 
Tower  of  Babel  was  building. 

Latin  has  always  been  the  universal  language  of  scholars.  It 
is  dead,  so  that  it  can  be  depended  upon  to  remain  unchanged  in 
its  vocabulary  and  in  its  forms  and  usages.  Scientific  names  are 
exact,  and  remain  unchanged,  though  an  article  or  a  book  using 
them  may  be  translated  into  all  the  modern  languages.  The 
word  Quercus  clears  away  difficulties.  French,  English, 
German  hearers  know  what  trees  are  meant  —  or  they  know 
just  where  in  books  of  their  own  language  to  find  them 
described. 

The  abbreviation  that  follows  a  scientific  name  tells  who 
6 


The  Names  of  Trees 

first  gave  the  name.  "  Linn."  is  frequently  noticed,  for  Linnaeus 
is  autinority  for  thousands  of  plant  names. 

Two  sources  of  confusion  make  common  names  of  trees  un- 
reliable: The  application  of  one  name  to  several  species,  and  the 
application  of  several  names  to  one  species.  To  illustrate  the 
first:  There  are  a  dozen  ironwoods  in  American  forests.  They 
belong,  with  two  exceptions,  to  different  genera  and  to  at 
least  five  different  botanical  families.  To  illustrate  the  second: 
The  familiar  American  elm  is  known  by  at  least  seven  local 
popular  names.  The  bur  oak  has  seven.  Many  of  these  are  ap- 
plied to  other  species.  Three  of  the  five  native  elms  are  called 
water  elm;  three  are  called  red  elm;  three  are  called  rock  elm. 
There  are  seven  scrub  oaks.  Only  by  mentioning  the  scientific 
name  can  a  writer  indicate  with  exactness  which  species  he  is 
talking  about.  The  unscientific  reader  can  go  to  the  botanical 
manual  or  cyclopedia  and  under  this  name  find  the  species 
described. 

In  California  grows  a  tree  called  by  three  popular  names: 
leatherwood,  slippery  elm  and  silver  oak.  Its  name  is  Fremontia. 
It  is  as  far  removed  from  elms  and  oaks  as  sheep  are  from 
cattle  and  horses.  But  the  names  stick.  It  would  be  as  easy  to 
eradicate  the  trees,  root  and  branch,  from  a  region  as  to  persuade 
people  to  abandon  names  they  are  accustomed  to,  though  they 
may  concede  that  you  have  proved  these  names  incorrect,  or 
meaningless,  or  vulgar.  Nicknames  like  nigger  pine,  he  huckle- 
berry, she  balsam  and  bull  bay  ought  to  be  dropped  by  all  people 
who  lay  claim  to  intelligence  and  taste. 

With  all  their  inaccuracies,  common  names  have  interesting 
histories,  and  the  good  ones  are  full  of  helpful  suggestion  to  the 
learner.  Many  are  literal  translations  of  the  Latin  names.  The 
first  writers  on  botany  wrote  in  Latin.  Plants  were  described 
under  the  common  name,  if  there  was  one;  if  not,  the  plant  was 
named.  The  different  species  of  each  group  were  distinguished 
by  the  descriptions  and  the  drawings  that  accompanied  them. 
Linnaeus  attempted  to  bring  the  work  of  botanical  scholars  to- 
gether, and  to  publish  descriptions  and  names  of  all  known 
plants  in  a  single  volume.  This  he  did,  crediting  each  botanist 
with  his  work.  The  "Species  Plantarum,"  Linnaeus's  monu- 
mental work,  became  the  foundation  of  the  modern  science  of 
botany,  for  it  included  all  the  plants  known  and  named  up  to 

7 


The  Names  of  Trees 

the  time  of  its  publication.  This  was  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  vast  body  of  information  which  the  "Species  Plantarum" 
contained  was  systematically  arranged.  All  the  different  species 
in  one  genus  were  brought  together.  They  were  described, 
each  under  a  number;  and  an  adjective  word,  usually  descriptive 
of  some  marked  characteristic,  was  written  in  as  a  marginal  index. 

After  Linnaeus's  time  botanists  found  that  the  genus  name  in 
combination  with  this  marginal  word  made  a  convenient  and 
exact  means  of  designating  the  plant.  Thus  Linnaeus  became 
the  acknowledged  originator  of  the  binomial  (two-name)  system 
of  nomenclature,  now  in  use  in  all  sciences.  It  is  a  delightful 
coincidence  that  while  Linnaeus  was  engaged  on  his  great  work, 
North  America,  that  vast  new  field  of  botanical  exploration,  was 
being  traversed  by  another  Swedish  scientist.  Peter  Kalm  sent 
his  specimens  and  his  descriptive  notes  to  Linnaeus,  who  described 
and  named  the  new  plants  in  his  book.  The  specimens  swelled 
the  great  herbarium  at  the  University  of  Upsala. 

Among  trees  unknown  to  science  before  are  the  Magnolia, 
named  in  honour  of  the  great  French  botanist,  Magnol.  Robinia, 
the  locust,  honours  another  French  botanist,  Robin,  and  his  son. 
Kalmia,  the  beautiful  mountain  laurel,  immortalises  the  name  of 
the  devoted  explorer  who  discovered  it.  Linnaea,  the  little  twin 
flower  of  the  same  mountains,  is  the  one  which  the  great  botanist 
loved  best. 

It  is  inevitable  that  duplication  of  names  attend  the  work  of 
the  early  scientists,  isolated  from  each  other,  and  far  from  li- 
braries and  herbaria.  Anyone  discovering  a  plant  he  believed  to 
be  unknown  to  science  published  a  description  of  it  in  some 
scientific  journal.  If  someone  else  had  described  it  at  an  earlier 
date,  the  fact  became  known  in  the  course  of  time.  The  name 
earliest  published  is  retained,  and  the  later  one  is  dropped  to  the 
rank  of  a  synonym.  If  the  name  has  been  used  before  to  describe 
some  other  species  in  the  same  genus,  a  new  name  must  be  sup- 
plied. In  the  "  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture  "  the  sugar  maple  is 
written  :  ''  Acer  saccharum,  Marsh.  (Acer sacchariin/m,  Wang. 
Acer  barbatum,  Michx.)"  This  means  that  the  earliest  name  given 
this  tree  by  a  botanist  was  that  of  Marshall.  Wangheimer  and 
Michaux  are  therefore  thrown  out;  the  names  given  by  them  are 
among  the  synonyms. 


The  Names  of  Trees 

Our  cork  elm  was  until  recently  called  "  Ulmus  racemosa, 
Thomas."  The  discovery  that  the  name  racemosa  was  given 
long  ago  to  the  cork  elm  of  Europe  discredited  it  for  the  Ameri- 
can tree.  Mr.  Sargent  substituted  the  name  of  the  author,  and 
it  now  stands  "Ulmus  Thomasi,  Sarg."  Occasionally  a  generic 
name  is  changed.  The  old  generic  name  becomes  the  specific 
name.  Box  elder  was  formerly  known  as  ''  Negundo  aceroides, 
Moench."  It  is  changed  back  to  ''Acer  Negiindo,  Linn."  On  the 
other  hand,  the  tan-bark  oak,  which  is  intermediate  in  character 
between  oaks  and  chestnuts,  has  been  taken  by  Professor  Sargent 
in  his  Manual,  1905,  out  of  the  genus  Quercus  and  set  in  a  genus 
by  itself.  From  ''Quercus  denstflora,  Hook,  and  Arn.,"  it  is  called 
"Pasania  densiflora,  Sarg.,"  the  specific  name  being  carried  over 
to  the  new  genus. 

About  one  hundred  thousand  species  of  plants  have  been 
named  by  botanists.  They  believe  that  one-half  of  the  world's 
flora  is  covered.  Trees  are  better  known  than  less  conspicuous 
plants.  Fungi  and  bacteria  are  just  coming  into  notice.  Yet 
even  among  trees  new  species  are  constantly  being  described. 
Professor  Sargent  described  367  native  species  in  his  "Silva  of 
North  America,"  published  1892-1900.  His  Manual,  1905,  con- 
tains 630.  Both  books  exclude  Mexico.  The  silva  of  the  tropics 
contains  many  unknown  trees,  for  there  are  still  impenetrable 
tracts  of  forest. 

The  origin  of  local  names  of  trees  is  interesting.  History 
and  romance,  music  and  hard  common  sense  are  in  these  names 
— likewise  much  pure  foolishness.  The  nearness  to  Mexico 
brought  in  the  musical  pinon  and  madrona  in  the  Southwest. 
Pecanier  and  bois  dare  came  with  many  other  French  names 
with  the  Acadians  to  Louisiana.  The  Indians  had  many  trees 
named,  and  we  wisely  kept  hickory,  waahoo,  catalpa,  persimmon 
and  a  few  others  of  them. 

Woodsmen  have  generally  chosen  descriptive  names  which 
are  based  on  fact  and  are  helpful  to  learners.  Botanists  have 
done  this,  too.  Bark  gives  the  names  to  shagbark  hickory, 
striped  maple  and  naked  wood.  The  colour  names  white  birch, 
black  locust,  blue  beech.  Wood  names  red  oak,  yellow-wood 
and  white-heart  hickory.  The  texture  names  rock  elm,  punk  oak, 
and  soft  pine.  The  uses  name  post  oak,  canoe  birch  and  lodge- 
pole  pine. 

9 


The  Names  of  Trees 

The  tree  habit  is  described  by  dwarf  juniper  and  weeping 
spruce.  The  habitat  by  swamp  maple,  desert  willow  and  sea- 
side alder.  The  range  by  California  white  oak  and  Georgia  pine. 
Sap  is  characterised  in  sugar  maple,  sweet  gum,  balsam  fir  and 
sweet  birch.  Twigs  are  indicated  in  clammy  locust,  cotton  gum, 
winged  elm.  Leaf  linings  are  referred  to  in  silver  maple,  white 
poplar  and  white  basswood.  Colour  of  foliage,  in  grey  pine, 
blue  oak  and  golden  fir.  Shape  of  leaves,  in  heart-leaved  cu- 
cumber  tree  and  ear-leaved  umbrella.  Resemblance  of  leaves  to 
other  species,  in  willow  oak  and  parsley  haw.  The  flowers  of 
trees  give  names  to  tulip  tree,  silver-bell  tree  and  fringe  tree. 
The  fruit  is  described  in  big-cone  pine,  butternut,  mossy-cup 
oak  and  mock  orange. 

Many  trees  retain  their  classical  names,  which  have  become 
the  generic  botanical  ones,  as  acacia,  ailanthus  and  viburnum. 
Others  modify  these  slightly,  as  pine  from  Pinus,  and  poplar  from 
Populus.  The  number  of  local  names  a  species  has  depends 
upon  the  notice  it  attracts  and  the  range  it  has.  The  loblolly 
pine,  important  as  a  lumber  tree,  extends  along  the  coast  from 
New  Jersey  to  Texas.     It  has  twenty-two  nicknames. 

The  scientific  name  is  for  use  when  accurate  designation  of 
a  species  is  required  ;  the  common  name  for  ordinary  speech. 
"  What  a  beautiful  Qiiercus  alba  !"  sounds  very  silly  and  pedan- 
tic, even  if  it  falls  on  scientific  ears.  Only  persons  of  very  shal- 
low scientific  learning  use  it  on  such  informal  occasions. 

Let  us  keep  the  most  beautiful  and  fitting  among  common 
names,  and  work  for  their  general  adoption.  There  are  no  hard 
names  once  they  become  familiar  ones.  Nobody  hesitates  or 
stumbles  over  chrysanthemum  and  rhododendron,  though  these 
sonorous  Greek  derivatives  have  four  syllables.  Nobody  asks 
what  these  names  are  "in  plain  English." 


CHAPTER  III:     THE  TREE  FAMILIES 

It  is  quite  possible  for  a  person  who  has  never  had  any  par- 
ticular interest  in  trees  to  acquire  by  himself  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  tree  families  represented  in  our  American  forests,  and  to 
form  an  intimate  and  delightful  acquaintance  with  particular 
species  and  individual  trees,  as  his  personal  preferences  dictate. 
And  it  is  not  to  be  undertaken  as  a  herculean  task,  a  duty  to  be 
performed,  a  means  of  grace,  or  an  ill-tasting  medicine  that  does 
one  good.  True,  there  are  half  a  hundred  families  or  more,  and 
over  six  hundred  distinct  species  of  trees,  if  we  wander  from  Key 
West  to  the  far  Aleutians,  and  from  Maine  to  Mexico,  and  count 
every  species  any  botanist  has  discovered  and  named.  But  the 
average  forest  contains  comparatively  few  families.  Different 
families  have  traits  in  common  that  indicate  their  relationship. 
Within  the  family  closer  kinship  still  is  revealed. 

The  discovery  of  these  family  ties  and  family  groups  comes 
easy  and  as  naturally  as  breathing,  once  it  is  begun.  The  neces- 
sary botany  is  unconsciously  imbibed.  One  borrows  that  from 
the  books  as  need  is.  Every  acorn-bearing  tree  is  an  oak.  The 
needle  leaves  set  in  scaly  sheaths  at  the  base  distinguish  the 
pines  from  all  other  evergreens.  The  hickories  have  close  rela- 
tives in  all  the  nut  trees.  The  sycamores  have  no  near  relatives 
at  all.  The  willows  and  poplars  are  alike  in  catkin  flowers  and 
fluffy  seeds.     All  locusts  bear  pods. 

The  key  that  follows  is  a  simple  tool.  It  unlocks  mysteries 
that  are  largely  imaginary  as  to  the  common  tree  families  by 
setting  them  forth  in  brief,  descriptive  terms,  giving  a  bird's-eye 
view  of  them,  and  emphasising  their  chief  points  of  similarity 
and  difference.  Botanical  terms  have  been  avoided,  and  such 
characters  selected  as  shall  be  obvious  to  the  inexperienced 
observer. 

The  plan  of  construction  is  easily  grasped.  A  and  AA  are 
the  two  grand  divisions  into  which  trees  naturally  fall.  Being 
co-ordinate,  these  have  the  same  letter  of  the  alphabet,  and  are 
set  on  the  extreme  left  margin  of  the  page.     The  second  has  an 

1 1 


The  Tree  Families 

added  letter;  if  there  were  a  third  division  it  would  have  three 
A's.  The  subdivisions  of  A  are  always  B,  BB,  etc.,  according 
to  their  number.  B  is  divided  into  C,  C  into  D,  and  so  on  down 
the  list.  In  every  instance  co-ordinate  letters  are  set  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  left  margin,  forming  a  vertical  line  down  the 
page.  They  are  also  grouped  by  their  "catch  words" — as  will 
be  seen. 

A  includes  the  chief  families  of  the  evergreens.  Under  A 
are  two  groups,  B  and  BB,  based  upon  the  character  of  the  fruit. 
Under  B  there  are  two  subdivisions,  based  upon  the  general 
shape  of  the  le:;f.  The  cone-bearing  evergreens,  B,  show  two 
types  of  foliage,  described  under  C  and  CC.  The  former  is 
divided  into  three  groups,  D,  DD,  and  DDD,  on  "Arrangement 
of  leaves."  The  catch  word  of  B  and  BB  is  "Fruit";  of  C  and 
CC,  "Foliage." 

D  and  DD  each  describes  a  family;  DDD  includes  more,  and 
must  be  subdivided.  E  and  EE  are  the  headings  and  "Leaves" 
the  catch  word.  E  contains  F  and  FF,  based  on  the  cones  and 
other  characters.  EE,  CC,  and  BB  are  undivided,  as  each  describes 
a  single  family. 

The  next  step  is  to  learn  how  to  use  the  key.  It  is  worthless 
unless  it  unlocks  closed  doors  and  reveals  hidden  things  worth 
finding.  Go  out  with  the  key  and  approach  the  first  evergreen 
in  sight.  It  belongs  in  the  group  A,  your  convnon  sense  tells 
you.  Very  well.  Which  B  does  it  agree  with  ?  Look  for  signs 
of  fruit  on  and  under  the  tree.  Are  they  cones  or  berries  ? 
Cones.?  Then  this  tree  belongs  in  B.  All  right.  Is  its  foliage 
needle-like,  etc.,  or  scale-like — C  or  CC  ?  Needle-like.  Now 
you  must  study  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  twigs,  and 
decide  which  one  of  the  three  D's  fits.  Perhaps  the  leaves  are 
solitary  and  scattered.  Still  closer  study  of  them  is  necessary. 
If  they  agree  with  EE  you  know  that  the  tree  is  a  spruce. 

Suppose  at  the  start  your  tree  has  borne  blue  berries  instead 
of  cones.  You  would  have  dropped  to  BB  at  once  and  found 
your  tree  to  be  a  juniper. 

Nov/  the  beauty  of  a  key  is  that  you  so  soon  outgrow  the 
need  of  it.  There  are  seven  great  families  of  the  native  ever- 
geens.  To  make  it  as  simple  as  possible,  the  rare  and  local 
evergreens,  like  the  sequoias,  the  bald  cypress  and  the  yews, 
have  been  omitted.     It  should  take  but  a  single  encounter  with 

12 


The  Tree  Families 

a  tree  to  run  it  down  to  its  family  in  the  key.  The  intentness  of 
this  exercise  will  fix  on  the  mind  the  characters  that  distinguish 
the  family.  You  find  yourself  rolling  a  leaf  between  thumb  and 
finger  to  see  if  it  has  the  four  sharp  edges  that  set  the  spruces  apart 
from  all  the  others.  Or  you  look  intently  for  the  tiny  leaf  stem 
of  a  pale-lined  flat  leaf,  to  know  whether  it  is  a  hemlock  or  a  fir. 

In  the  grand  division  AA  the  broad-leaved  trees  are  set  in 
their  proper  families.  There  are  more  of  these  than  of  the  ever- 
greens. They  are  best  studied  while  leaves  are  to  be  had  for 
identification.  Often  the  seeds  remain  in  winter,  and  we  can 
get  on  with  only  the  evidence  of  dead  leaves.  There  are  few 
weeks  in  the  year  when  the  key  may  not  be  effectively  used  on 
any  tramp  in  the  woods. 

As  in  the  evergreens,  the  local  and  rare  families  of  broad- 
leaved  trees  have  been  omitted,  that  the  key  may  not  discourage 
beginners  by  its  complexity.  In  all,  the  thirty-three  families 
given  include  between  four  and  five  hundred  species,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  those  left  out  are  esteemed  chiefly  by  the  botanists. 
Many  of  these  will  be  found  described  later  in  this  book. 

The  key  to  the  families  introduces  the  reader  to  the  more 
intricate  distinctions  between  trees  of  various  genera  and  species 
in  the  family.  The  keys  to  species  are  made  on  the  same  plan. 
Having  determined  that  a  certain  tree  belongs  to  the  maple 
family,  the  inquirer  is  able  to  turn  to  "The  Maples,"  and  by  the 
key  to  decide  which  of  the  various  species  this  individual  tree 
represents.  This  is  the  final  end  of  any  key — to  lead  the  student 
to  discover  the  name  of  the  individual  tree. 


KEY  TO  THE  PRINCIPAL  TREE  FAMILIES. 

A.  The  Evergreens,  or  Conifers, 
B.  Fruit,  a  cone. 

C.  Foliage  needle-like,   conspicuous,  spirally  arranged. 
D.  Arrangement  of  leaves,  few  in  sheathed  bundle. 

The  Pines 
DD.  Arrangement  of  leaves,    many  in  unsheathed 

tufts,  deciduous  The  Larches 

DDD.  Arrangement  of  leaves,  solitary  and  scattered. 
E.  Leaves  flat,   blunt,  pale  beneath,  2-ranked 
on  twig. 
F.  Cones  erect,  large;  branches  stiff;  bark 
smooth,  with  resin  blisters.     The  Firs 
FF.  Cones  pendant,    small ;    branches  sup- 
ple ;    bark  rough  ;  leaves  on  minute 
stalks.  The  Hemlocks 

EE.  Leaves  4-sided,  sharp  at  tip,  not  pale  be- 
neath; standing  out  in  all  directions. 

The  Spruces 
CC.  Foliage  scale-like,  minute,  4-ranked,  close  pressed 

to  twig;  cones  small.  The  White  Cedars 

BB.  Fruit,   a   blue   berry;    foliage   spiny  or   scale-like,  or 
both.  The  Junipers,  ox  Red  Cedars 

AA.  The  Deciduous,  Broad-leaved  Trees. 
B.   Position  of  leaves  opposite. 
C.   Leaves  simple. 

D.  Fruit  winged,  i -sided  keys  in  pairs.    The  Maples 
DD.   Fruit  clustered  berries. 

E.  Flowers  4-parted;    berry  2-seeded;  leaves 
not  saw-toothed  on  margins.   The  Dogwoods 
EE.  Flowers  5-parted;   berry,    i -seeded;  leaves 
finely  saw-toothed  on  margins. 

The  Viburnums 
DDD.  Fruit  long,  rod-like  pods,  with  thin  seeds. 

The  Caialpas 
CC.  Leaves  compound. 

D.  Fruit  slender,  winged  darts  in  thick  clusters; 
leaflets  set  along  central  leaf  stem.    The  Ashes 
DD.    Fruit    large    nuts   in   leathery    husks;  leaflets 

clustered  on  end  of  leaf  stalk.        The  Buckeyes 
BB.   Position  of  leaves  alternate. 

14 


Key  to  the  Principal  Tree  Families 

C.  Leaves  simple. 

D.   Bases  oi"  leaves  symmetrical. 

E.  Fruit  fleshy,  globular,  more  or  less  edible. 
F.  Seeds  solitary. 

G.  Margins  of  leaves  saw-toothed. 

Tht  Plums  and  Cherries 
GG.  Margins  of  leaves  not  saw-toothed. 

The  Tupdos 
FF.  Seeds  several  in  walled  cells. 
G.  Cores  papery. 

H.  Fruit  small,  berry-like. 

The  Jtmeherries 
HH.  Fruit  large.  The  Apples 

GG.  Cores  bony;  fruit  thin  fleshed. 

The  Hawthorns 
EE.  Fruits  dry. 

F.  Seeds    borne    in     protecting    cups    or 
burs. 
G.  Burs  scaly,  not  opening  when  ripe; 
nut  conical.  The  Oaks 

GG.  Burs  spiny,  4-valved,  opening  when 
ripe. 
H.  Nuts  triangular,  small.     The  Beech 
HH.  Nuts  conical,  larger.    The  Chestnut 
FF.  Seeds  borne  in  swinging  balls. 

G.   Leaves  star  shaped;  branches  corky 

ridged.  The  Sweet  Gum 

GG.  Leaves  broad,  3  to  5-lobed,  bark  shed 
in  sheets,  leaving  pale,  irregular 
patches. 

The  Sycamore,  or  Btittonwood 
FFF.  Seeds  borne  in  cone-like  heads. 
G.   Bark  in  horizontal  sheets. 

The  Birches 
GG.  Bark  smooth;  leaves  large,  leathery. 
H.  Leaves    pointed    at     tip;     seeds 
scarlet,    berry-like,    on   elastic 
threads.  The  Magnolias 

HH.  Leaves   truncate   at   apex;  seeds 
dry,  with  long,  flat  wing. 

The  Tulip  Tree 
FFFF.  Seeds  borne  in  2-valved  pods  on  elon- 
gated catkins;  minute  and  hid  in  cot- 
tony down. 
G.  Leaves  narrow;  branches  supple. 

The  Willows 
GG.  Leaves    broad;     leaf    stalks     flat, 

branches  stiff,  angular.     The  Poplars 
IS 


Key  to  the  Principal  Tree  Families 

DD.  Bases  of  leaves  unsym metrical. 

E.  Fruit,    a    berry;    leaves   with   three   main 
veins;  bark  warty.  The  Hackberries 

EE.   Fruit  dry  with  circular  wing;  leaves  oval 

with  prominent,  straight  veins.     The  Elms 
EEE.   Fruit   a    woody    ball   on    leaf-like    blade; 
leaves  large,  distinctly  one-sided. 

The  Lindens,  or  Basswoods 
CC.  Leaves  compound. 

D.  Fruit,  a  flat  pod.  The  Locusts 

DD.   Fruit,  a  nut. 

E.   Husk  opening  when  ripe  by  four  valves. 

The  Hichories 
EE.  Husk  not  opening  when  ripe.      The  Walnuts 


i6 


CHAPTER   IV:   THE  CONIFERS 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  tiiis  great  tree  group  is  the 
cone-bearing  habit.  The  overlapping  scales  of  the  cone  are  at- 
tached to  a  central  stem,  and  each  scale  bears  one  or  more  naked 
ovules  when  the  time  of  flowering  comes.  Pollen  from  the 
staminate  flowers  falls  on  the  exposed  ovules,  fertilising  them, 
and  thus  seed  is  set.  The  fertile  scales  are  favourably  situated 
near  the  middle  of  the  cone.  Here  the  best  seeds  are  found.  The 
terminal  scales  crowd  at  both  ends  of  the  cone,  and  their  seeds 
usually  fail  utterly  or  are  stunted  in  development. 

The  coalescence  of  scales  to  form  soft  berries  characterises  the 
junipers,  but  the  cone-like  flowers  indicate  that  the  modification 
in  fruit  is  more  apparent  than  real.  The  scale  tips  are  there  on 
the  outside  of  the  berry  to  indicate  the  close  kinship  of  these  trees 
with  other  conifers. 

The  yews  are  not  conifers,  but  are  set  in  a  family  by  them- 
selves. A  single  ovule  stands  erect  in  the  pistillate  flower,  and 
becomes  in  fruit  a  i -seeded  drupe,  or  soft  berry.  Two  genera  of 
yews,  with  two  species  of  trees  in  each,  constitute  the  family  in, 
the  United  States.  The  conifers  include  thirteen  genera  and  a 
great  number  of  species,  quite  overshadowing  the  yews  in  im- 
portance. Together  the  two  families  form  the  botanical  grand 
division  of  the  Gymnosperms,  resinous  plants  (mostly  trees) 
whose  flowers  have  no  true  pistils,  but  bear  their  ovules  naked — 
on  a  cone  scale  in  the  conifers — without  even  a  scale  to  lean 
upon  in  the  yews. 

The  Ginkgo  or  Maidenhair  Tree  {Salisburia  adiantifolia), 
of  Japan  and  China,  is  a  tree  whose  botanical  affinities  seem  to  be 
with  the  conifers  on  one  side  and  the  ferns  on  the  other.  The 
leaves  are  fan-shaped,  usually  cleft  with  one  deep  suture  to  the 
petiole.  The  venation  is  the  strange  character.  Unbranched 
veins  extend  in  radiating  lines  to  the  upper  border  of  the  fan,  just 
as  in  the  leaf  of  maidenhair  fern.  The  texture  is  leathery,  and  the 
leaves  are  fascicled  on  the  ends  of  very  short  side  twigs.  Bright 
yellow  green  in  summer,  they  turn  to  gold,  and  fall  in  the  autumn. 

17 


The  Conifers 

The  ginkgo  is  a  narrow,  tapering  tree  when  young,  very  trim 
and  pretty,  widening  to  pyramidal  form  with  years.  It  grows 
rapidly  and  has  been  planted  as  a  street  tree,  notably  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  A  serious  drawback  appears  in  the  fruit,  which  is 
a  soft,  plum-like,  oily  drupe  with  an  unpleasant  odour.  While 
they  are  dropping  they  keep  sidewalks  in  a  bad  state,  disgusting 
people  with  the  tree.  The  ginkgo  has  had  a  great  vogue  among 
planters,  though  until  recently  none  have  been  old  enough  to 
bear  fruit. 

The  Chinese  esteem  the  pits  a  great  delicacy.  They  roast 
the  nuts  as  we  do  almonds  and  use  them  as  a  confection  or  an 
appetiser  at  dinners  and  banquets. 


KEY  TO  THE  GENERA 

A.  Fruit  a  woody  cone. 

B.  Cone  scales  each  in  axil  of  a  bract;  seeds  2,  inverted, 
on  each  scale. 
C.  Foliage  needle-like,  fascicled. 

D.  Cones  requiring  2  to  3  years  to  mature;  leaves 
evergreen,  i  to  5  in  papery  basal  sheath. 

Genus  Pinus,  The  Pines 
DD.  Cones  annual;  leaves  deciduous. 

Genus  Larix,  The  Larches 
CC.  Foliage  linear,  solitary,   scattered. 

D.  Leaves  flat,  borne  on  short  petioles ;  cones  pendant. 
E.  Twigs  set  with  projecting  leaf  bases. 

Genus  Tsuga,  The  Hemlocks 
EE.  Twigs  smooth. 

Genus  Pseudotsuga,  The  Douglas  Spruce 
DD.  Leaves  4-angled,  or  flattened,  without  petioles. 
E.  Twigs  rough;  cones  pendant. 

Genus  Picea,  The  Spruces 
EE.  Twigs  smooth;  cones  erect. 

Genus  Abies,  The  Firs 
BB.  Cone  scales  without  bracts. 

C.  Leaves  linear,  alternate;  cone  scales  many. 
D.  Seeds  many  under  each  scale;  leaves  evergreen. 

Genus  Sequoia,  The  Sequoias 
DD.  Seeds  2  under  each  scale;  leaves  2-ranked,  decidu- 
ous. Genus  Taxodium,  The  Bald  Cypress 
CC.  Leaves  scale-like,  usually  of  two  forms;  cones  small. 
D.  Cones  elongated,  thin  scaled,  annual,  with  2  seeds 
under  each  scale. 
18 


The  Conifers 

E.  Scales  of  cone  6;  seed  wings  unsymmetrical. 

Genus  Libocedrus,  The  Incense  Cedar 
EE.  Scales  of  cone  8  to  12;  seed  wings  symmetrical. 
Genus  Thuya,  The  Arbor  ViT/ts 
DD.  Cones  globular,  thick  scaled, 

E.  Seeds  many  under  each  scale;  cones  biennial. 

Genus  Cupressus,  The  Cypresses 
EE.  Seeds  2  under  each  scale;  cones  annual. 

Genus  CnAMy^cYPARis,  The  Cypresses 
AA.  Fruit  a  berry;  by  union  of  scales  of  the  flower;  leaves 
scale-like  or  awl  shaped,  3  to  4  ranked. 

Genus  Juniperus,.The  Junipers 


19 


CHAPTER  V:  THE  PINES 

Family  Conifers 

Genus  PINUS,  Duham. 

Leaves  evergreen,  of  two  forms:  primary,  short,  broad  at 
base,  scattered;  secondary,  needle-like,  in  sheathed  bundles. 
Flowers  monoecious,  naked;  staminate,  clustered;  pistillate, 
lateral  or  subterminal,  with  spirally  arranged  scales;  ovules,  2  on 
each  scale.     Fruit,  a  woody  cone,  maturing  in  2  or  3  years. 

"  What  the  apple  is  among  the  fruits,  what  the  oak  is  among 
broad-leaved  trees  of  the  temperate  zone,  the  pines  are  among 
the  conifers,  excelling  all  other  genera  in  this  most  important 
family  in  number  of  species,  in  fields  of  distribution  in  extent  of 
area  occupied,  in  usefulness  and  importance  to  the  human  race." 

— B.  E.  Fernow. 

Six  hundred  species  and  varieties  have  been  described  and 
named  in  the  genus  Pinus.  They  are  distributed  in  vast  forests 
over  the  northern  half  of  the  globe,  reaching  into  the  tropics  by 
following  mountain  chains.  The  East  and  West  Indian  Islands 
have  each  their  own  pines.  Out  of  the  hundreds  of  named  kinds 
about  eighty  distinct  species  are  now  recognised.  Half  of  this 
number  are  found  in  North  America.  Forests  of  pine  still  cover 
mountain  slopes  in  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent. Lumbering  has  been  going  on  for  a  century  in  the  Eastern 
States;  more  recently  the  Great  Lakes  region  and  the  pine  forests 
of  the  Southern  States  have  been  exploited  to  supply  the  demand 
for  pine. 

The  foremost  lumber  trees  in  this  country,  pines  have  still 
other  important  uses.  They  offer  a  great  variety  of  trees  for  pro- 
tective and  ornamental  planting.  Windbreaks  from  the  seashore 
to  the  semi-arid  prairie,  from  the  low  seaboard  plain  to  the 
mountain's  crests,  may  all  be  of  pine.  Arid  soil  or  rich,  cold  or 
warm  climate,  swamp  and  desert  sand — all  offer  congenial  con- 
ditions for  some  native  pine.     In  the  parks  of  cities,  in  private 

20 


The  Pines 

grounds  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  pines  are  planted  for  shade  and 
shelter  and  ornament.  Only  in  very  smoky  cities,  St.  Louis  and 
Pittsburg,  for  instance,  do  pines  with  other  conifers  decline  after 
a  few  years  of  growth.  It  is  believed  that  sulphur  and  other 
substances  in  the  noxious  gases  that  constantly  pour  from  great 
chimneys  choke  the  evergreens.  Nobody  is  able  yet  to  give  a 
final  answer  to  the  question.     It  is  now  under  investigation.        -^ 

The  by-products  of  pine  trees  include  oil,  pitch,  turpentine,  / 
and  rosin,  products  of  the  resin  that  impregnates  the  wood  of  j 
pitch  pines.     Minor  products  are  the  seeds  of  the  nut  pines,  used 
as  food;  pine  wool,  spun  from  the  leaves  of  certain  species;  and) 
pine  shoots  used  for  Christmas  decoration. 

All  pines  are  evergreens  and  cone  bearers.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished from  other  genera  of  the  family  Coniferae  by  bearing 
their  needle-like  leaves  in  clusters  of  i  to  5  leaves,  each  of  which 
is  enclosed  at  its  base  by  a  sheath  made  of  papery  scales.  No 
other  conifer  has  this  sheath.  The  soft  pines,  so  called  from 
their  soft^  light  wood,  shed  their  leaf  sheaths  as  soon  as  the 
young  leaves  are  fully  developed.  The  pitch  pines,  so  called  be- 
cause their  heavy,  dark-coloured  wood  is  full  of  resin,  retain  the 
leaf  sheath  until  the  leaves  are  shed. 

In  the  lumber  trade  there  is  a  certain  fine  scorn  of  "  techni- 
cal names,"  and  a  consequent  confusion  in  the  use  of  local  and 
trade  names  of  the  kinds  of  pines.  This  is  unfortunate,  for 
woods  that  resemble  each  other  so  closely  as  to  deceive  experi- 
enced men  have  often  very  different  ways  of  behaving  in  use. 
Lumbermen  and  carpenters  are  misled  by  dependence  on  trade 
names,  and  so  are  engineers  and  architects,  to  the  great  disad- 
vantage of  those  whose  interests  they  are  supposed  to  serve  in- 
telligently. 

"Hard  pine"  is  a  carpenter's  term  applied  to  pines  whose 
wood  is  heavy,  close  and  resinous.  It  includes  everything  but 
soft  pine  among  staple  lumber  pines. 

The  "  hard  pines  "  are  P.  palustrh,  P.  taeda,  P.  echinafa  and 
P.  heterophylla  in  the  South  ;  P.  ponderosa,  and  P.  pondcrosa, 
var.  Jeffreyi,  in  the  West,  and  P.  resinosa  in  the  East  and  North. 

"  Yellow  pine/'  a  very  vague  and  general  colour  designa- 
tion, includes  the  Southern  hard  pines  named  above,  also  P. 
rigida  in  the  East,  and  R  ponderosa  in  the  West. 

"Pitch  pine"  is  a  term  applied  to  species  whose  wood  is 
21 


The  Pines 

rich  in  resin.  Chief  among  these  is  P.  palustria.  It  includes  the 
other  Southern  lumber  pines  and  P.  rigida  in  the  Eastern  States. 

"  Georgia  pine  "  is  P.  palustris.  "  North  Carolina  pine  "  is 
P.  echinata. 

The  "soft  pines"  have  soft,  light  wood,  with  little  resin, 
easy  to  work — the  carpenter's  delight.  The  principal  ones  are 
P.  Strobus,  in  the  North  and  East,  P.  Lambert/ana,  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  two  Rocky  Mountain  species,  P.  monticola  and  P. 
flexilis. 

"Jack  pines,"  used  locally  for  ties  and  timbers,  but  not  in 
the  regular  lumber  trade,  are  small  or  medium-sized  trees  :  P. 
rigida,  P.  l^irginiana  and  P.  divaricata  in  the  East  and  North  ; 
P.  contorta,  var.  Murrayana,  one  in  the  West. 


THE  SOFT  PINES 

Leaf  bundles   in   loose,    deciduous    sheaths.        Cone   scales 
usually  unarmed.     Wood  soft,  light  coloured,  close  grained. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  5  in  a  bundle. 

B.  Cones    long   stemmed;    scales    thin;    leaves  3  to  4 
inches  long. 
C.  Leaves  slender,  flexible;  cones  5  to  8  inches  long. 
D.  Cone  scales  not  recurved  at  maturity;    leaves 
bluish  green.  {P.  Strobus)  white  pine 

DD.  Cone  scales  recurved  at  maturity;  leaves  pale 
green.       {P.  strobiformis)  Arizona  white  pine 
CC.  Leaves  stout,  stiff. 

D.  Cones  5  to  12  inches  long;  limbs  grey. 

(P.  monticola)  mountain  pine 
DD.  Cones  12  to  18  inches  long;  limbs  green. 

{P.  Lambertiana)  svGAK  pine 
BB.  Cones  short  stemmed;    scales   thick;    leaves  i  to  2 
inches  long. 
C.   Leaf  bundles  scattered;    cones  3  to  10  inches  long, 
opening  at  maturitv. 

(P.  flexiiis)  ROCKY  mountain  white  pine 
CC.  Leaf  bundles  in  crowded  clusters. 

D.  Leaf  clusters  at  ends  of  twigs;  cones  not  open- 
ing; bark  pale. 

(P.  albicaulis)  white-bark  pine 
22 


The  Pines 

DD.  Leaf  clusters  along  sides  of  twig;  cone  scales 
with  spiny  beaks. 
E.  Spines  of  cone  scales  minute,  incurved. 

(P.  Balfouriana)  foxtail  pine 
EE.  Spines  of  cone  scales,  long,  slender. 

{P.  aristata)  bristle-cone  pine 
AA.  Leaves    i    to  4  in  a  bundle,   i  to  2  inches   long;   cones 
globose;  seeds  nut-like. 
B.  Bundles  4-leaved,  pale,  glaucous  green. 

{P.  quadrifolia)  nut  pine 
BB.  Bundles  2  to  3-leaved,  dark  green. 

C.  Leaves  slender.  {P.  cembroides)  nut  pine 

CC.  Leaves  stout.  {P.  edulis)  nut  pine 

BBB.  Bundles  i-leaved,  pale,  glaucous  green. 

{P.  monophylla)  nut  pine 

White  Pine  {Pinus  Strobus,  Linn.) — A  stately  tree,  100  to 
120  feet  high,  conical,  with  spreading,  horizontal  branches  in 
whorls  of  five.  Bark  grey,  furrowed,  thick,  with  broad,  scaly 
ridges.  Wood  light,  soft,  close  grained,  resinous,  easily  worked. 
Buds,  a  strong,  terminal,  set  round  by  five  lateral  ones  in 
whorl ;  i  to  i  inch  long,  pointed,  with  thin,  pale-brown  scales. 
Leaves  evergreen,  needle-like,  in  fives,  sheathed  at  base  of  bun- 
dle, 3  to  5  inches  long,  slender,  3-sided,  flexible,  blue-green. 
Flowers  in  June,  monoecious;  staminate,  clustered  at  base  of  sea- 
son's shoots,  §  to  I  inch  long,  catkin-like,  yellowish  ;  pistillate, 
subterminal,  single  or  in  twos,  stemmed,  elliptical,  pink  or  pur- 
plish, and  scaly,  2  ovules  on  each  scale.  Fruit  biennial,  5  to  10 
inches  long,  slender,  stalked,  with  thin,  unarmed  scales  ;  seeds 
winged.  Preferred  habitat,  good  soil,  moist  woodlands,  or  up- 
lands. Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba;  south  through 
Iowa,  Illinois  and  Ohio  to  northern  Georgia  ;  southern  Canada 
and  Eastern  States,  along  AUeghanies  to  eastern  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  Uses :  One  of  the  best  ornamental  conifers  and 
formerly  the  chief  lumber  tree  in  this  country. 

Pines  bear  their  evergreen  leaves  in  sheathed  bundles  set  on 
little  projecting  shelves  along  the  twigs.  The  sheaths  are  shed 
during  the  spring  in  all  the  white  pines,  and  the  number  of 
leaves  in  a  bundle  is  always  five.  Certain  pitch  pines  have 
leaves  in  fives,  but  the  sheaths  will  be  found  at  the  bases  of  the 
bundles  throughout  the  season.  These  5-Ieaved  pitch  pines  are 
all  Western  trees.  In  Eastern  woods  a  5-leaved  pine  is  a  white 
pine,   P.  Strobus,  whether  it  is  a  flourishing  little  sapling,  with 

23 


The  Pines 

only  three  or  four  whorls  of  branches  coming  out  from  its  central 
stem,  or  a  great  forest  tree  towering  above  its  broad-leaved 
neighbours,  noble  and  picturesque,  though  storms  have  destroyed 
the  symmetry  of  its  youth. 

Stroke  the  leaves  of  a  white-pine  branch — they  are  soft  and 
flexible.  As  they  sway  in  the  wind  they  are  graceful  and  light; 
the  tree  seems  decked  with  plumes  of  dark  blue-green.  The 
young  shoots,  pale  yellowish  green,  lighten  the  sombre  pine 
woods,  and  the  clustering  catkins,  shaking  out  their  abundant 
pollen,  sift  gold  dust  through  the  whole  forest.  The  pistillate 
flowers  show  themselves  clustered  about  the  terminal  bud,  which 
keeps  on  growing,  leaving  them  to  ripen,  through  two  seasons, 
into  long,  slender  green  cones.  The  pinkish  purple  of  these  tiny 
cone  flowers  adds  a  rich  colour  to  the  upper  twigs,  where  they 
stand  erect  until  autumn.  Below  them,  hanging  down  with  their 
weight,  are  the  half-grown  cones,  slim,  fmger-like  and  green, 
with  tight,  smooth  scales,  that  will  turn  brown  and  discharge 
their  ripened  seed  at  the  end  of  their  second  summer. 

This  white  pine  of  ours  is  built  on  a  semi-decimal  plan, 
which  it  is  quite  worth  our  while  to  notice.  In  the  gracefully 
winged  seed,  that  reminds  us  of  the  samara  of  a  maple,  there  are 
ten  cotyledons,  or  seed  leaves,  that  mount  the  stem,  and  sur- 
round the  precious  terminal  bud  when  the  seed  germinates. 
This  bud  is  the  "  leader."  If  anything  happens  to  it  the  central 
shaft  is  maimed  for  life,  and  either  one  side  bud  will  have  to  bend 
upward  and  take  the  leader's  place,  or  two  will  divide  the  honour, 
and  a  forked  pine  is  the  result. 

The  buds  on  the  crown  of  a  baby  white  pine  cluster  at  the 
top — a  circle  of  five  around  the  central  bud.  In  spring  the  leader 
grows  upward,  and  at  its  base  five  branches  radiate.  Next  year 
the  crown  repeats  the  same  story,  and  the  tips  of  the  side 
branches  divide  and  elongate  in  the  same  way.  The  best  growth 
is  generally  made  by  the  crown  buds  in  the  very  top  of  the  tree. 
So  it  happens  that  we  may  count  the  years  of  our  sapling  by  the 
whorls  of  branches  it  bears.  In  the  early  years  the  growth  is 
beautifully  symmetrical,  if  there  is  room  for  sun  and  air  to  reach 
the  little  tree.  Later  the  branches  crowd  each  other,  and  some 
are  killed.  In  deep  woods  where  trees  interfere,  the  stems  are 
bare  of  living  branches  almost  to  the  top. 

This  is  the  lumberman's  pine,  a  tree  whose  limbs  die  so 
24 


Covyri:;.ht.  1905.  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 


WHITE    PINE    GROWN    IN    OPEN    GROUND     ( Pinus  Strobus) 

Forest-grown  trees  have  no  branches  on  lower  part  and  upper  branches  are  shorter. 


The  Pines 

young  that  there  are  practically  no  big  knots  in  the  lumber.  He 
cuts  clear,  beautiful  boards  out  of  such  a  tree,  and  there  is  very 
little  waste.  Or  he  squares  the  trunk  for  a  big  bridge  timber 
whose  value  and  strength  would  be  greatly  lessened  by  large 
knots. 

The  great  pine  forests  of  lower  Canada  and  the  Northern 
States  seemed  inexhaustible  to  the  early  settlers.  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  had  pineries  that  promised  a  lumber  supply  for 
generations  to  come.  But  alas!  for  human  foresight.  The 
avarice  of  lumber  companies  and  the  blindness  of  politicians  have 
squandered  the  heritage  of  the  people.  The  virgin  forests  are 
gone  except  in  areas  too  scattered  and  small  to  tempt  the  lumber- 
men. Second  growth  covers  some  of  the  territory  that  was 
stripped,  but  it  will  be  hundreds  of  years  before  another  such 
crop  can  come  to  maturity.  The  wanton  wastefulness  in  the 
original  slaughter  of  the  pines  is  the  greatest  pity  of  it  all.  Forest 
fires,  once  started,  eagerly  fed  on  the  "slash"  the  loggers  left 
behind,  and  devoured  untold  acres  of  virgin  woods. 

The  soft,  white,  resinous  wood  of  P.  Strobus  is  remarkably 
easy  to  work.  It  was  used  in  all  kinds  of  construction — from 
masts  of  ships  to  matches — it  was  shipped  over  the  country  for 
house  building,  for  furniture,  fencing  and  the  like.  Now  its 
scarcity  has  led  to  the  substitution  of  other  woods,  notably  the 
hard  pines  of  the  Southern  States. 

The  white  pine  has  considerable  vigour,  reseeding  lumbered 
areas,  where  poplars  or  other  short-lived  trees  come  in  and 
furnish  shade  for  the  young  seedlings.  Careful  forestry  will 
restore  pines  to  many  tracts  too  broken  for  agricultural  use.  In 
fact,  work  to  this  end  is  being  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  the  Northeastern  and  Middle  States.  Much  of  this  work  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry.  White  pine  is  one 
of  the  most  profitable  timber  crops  to  plant  at  the  present  time. 
Horticulturally  considered,  P.  Sirobus  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
pines.  It  is  quick  growing,  symmetrical,  and  handsome  in  its 
early  years  ;  later  it  becomes  more  irregular,  but  full  of  character, 
and  beautiful  in  clean  limbs  and  the  plume-like  tufts  of  blue-green 
leaves.  The  tree  is  picturesque,  even  in  decrepit  age,  towering 
in  stately  dignity  over  the  heads  of  neighbour  trees,  adding 
distinction  to  all  sylvan  scenery  A  white  pine  grown  in  the 
open   has  a  broad  crown  that  often  keeps  its  lower  branches, 

25 


The  Pines 

and  these  are  borne  to  the  ground  by  their  own  weight.  Such 
a  tree  is  a  joy  the  whole  year  through  to  all  tree  lovers,  including 
people  and  birds  and  squirrels. 

The  Arizona  White  Pine  (R  si robif ormis, )  Engelm.,  is 
scattered  scantly  over  gravelly  ridges  and  on  canon  sides  in  the 
southern  part  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  on  into  Mexico. 
Its  pale-green  leaves  and  glaucous,  downy  branchlets  blend  it 
with  the  semi-arid  landscape.  Its  scarcity  and  the  inaccessibility 
of  its  habitat  and  range  defend  this  tree  from  the  lumberman, 
though  it  occasionally  reaches  the  height  of  80  feet  or  more,  and 
a  trunk  diameter  of  2  feet. 

Mountain  Pine,  Silver  Pine  {Finns  monticola,)  D.  Don. 
— A  spreading,  pyramidal  tree  with  stout  trunk  and  slender, 
pendulous  branches.  Bark  light  grey  and  thin,  becoming 
checked  into  square  plates,  with  purplish  scales  and  cinnamon- 
red  under  bark.  Wood  light  brown  or  red,  soft,  fine  grained, 
easily  split,  weak.  Buds  pointed,  scaly,  large,  hoary,  clustered, 
terminal.  Leaves  i^  to  4  inches  long,  thick,  stiff,  blue-green 
with  pale  bloom.  Flowers  similar  to  those  of  F.  Strobits.  Fruit 
biennial,  cones  slender,  10  to  18  inches  long;  scales  thin,  broad, 
tipped  with  abrupt  beak;  seeds  winged.  Fref erred  habitat, 
sub-alpine  valleys  of  streams.  Distribution,  Vancouver  Island 
and  southern  British  Columbia  to  northern  Idaho  and  Montana, 
and  south  into  California.  Elevations  7,000  to  10,000  feet.  Uses: 
Not  equal  to  F.  Strobits  in  cultivation.  Locally  used  for  lumber 
in  Idaho  and  Montana. 

The  mountain  white  pine  is  the  Western  counterpart  of  F. 
Strobus,  which  it  resembles  in  general  appearance  and  in  the 
qualities  of  its  wood.  Its  foliage  is  denser  and  its  cones  nearly 
twice  as  large  as  those  of  our  Eastern  white  pine,  with  a  beak 
on  each  scale  that  the  latter  species  lacks. 

It  is  unusual,  even  in  the  Sierras,  to  find  a  tree  of  gigantic 
size  climbing  mountains.  This  one  at  the  elevation  of  10,000 
feet  shows  specimens  6  to  8  feet  in  diameter  and  90  feet 
high,  apparently  "growing  nobler  in  form  and  size  the  colder 
and  balder  the  mountains  about  it."  The  tree  companions  of  this 
pine  crouch  at  its  feet;  whatever  they  may  be  at  lower  levels, 
here  they  are  dwarfs,  and  only  the  white  pine  keeps  its  noble 
proportions  unmindful  of  the  blasting  winds  and  cold. 

F.  monticola  surprises  and  delights  the  Eastern  lover  of  noble 
26 


THE    WHITE    PINE  {Pinus  Sirohus) 
This  tree  has   plume-hke  tufts  of  blue-green  leaves  in  bundles  of  fives.     The  twigs  have  five  buds  around  the  central  one, 
so  the  trunk  and  limbs  send  out  whorls  of  five  branches  each   spring.     The  pistillate  flowers  are  near  the  top  of  the  twig  and 
hidden  among  the  leaves.     The  staminate  cones  cluster  behind  the  new  shoot  and  are  vellow  when  ripe.     The  cones  are  slender^ 
curved,  pendant,  with  thin,  unarmed  scales.     The  tree  is  chief  among  the  soft  pines  in  the  lumber  trade 


Winter  buiis  Ueaves  cut  to  show  budsi 

THE    MOUNTAIN  PINE  {Pinus  montkola) 
Silvery,  stiff  leaves  in  bundles  of  fives  distinguish  the  white  pine  of  the  Western  mountains 


THE    SUGAR    PIN^;  {Ptnus  Lambertiana) 

"The  largest,  noblest  and  most  beautiful  of  all  the  pine  trees  in  the  world."     The  leaves,  in  bundks  of  fives,  are  sWif  and  very 
dark  green.     The  soft  wood  is  creamy  white 


The  Pines 

trees,  for  it  submits  gracefully  to  a  complete  change  of  altitude 
and  location.  Seedlings  from  veteran  trees  in  their  native  fast- 
nesses are  growing  to-day  in  Eastern  nurseries,  and'  thriving 
on  lawns  in  New  England  villages.  At  the  Arboretum  in  Boston 
the  young  trees  form  a  narrower  pyramid  than  saplings  of  P. 
Strobus  at  the  same  age.  No  Western  pine  makes  as  vigorous 
growth  in  the  East  as  this  one  does.  A  tree  12  feet  high  bore 
several  cones  last  year.  The  species  has  long  been  grown  in 
Europe. 

Great  Sugar  Pine  (P.  Lambertiana,  Dougl.) — A  majestic 
tree,  200  to  220  feet  high,  6  to  10  feet  through,  pyramidal,  be- 
coming flat  topped,  with  spreading,  pendulous  branches.  Bark 
thick,  furrowed,  breaking  into  plates;  dark  grey,  becoming 
purplish  or  cinnamon-red.  Wood  brownish,  straight  grained, 
soft,  light.  Buds  pointed,  scaly,  clustered  at  tips.  Leaves  stout, 
stiff,  3  to  4  inches  long,  in  fives,  sheathed,  serrate,  needle-like, 
dark  green.  Flowers  much  like  those  of  P.  Strobus.  Fruits  12 
to  18  inches  long,  heavy,  scales  2  inches  long  and  i-|  inches 
wide;  seeds  ripe  in  second  autumn,  edible.  Preferred  habitat, 
mountain  slopes  and  canon  sides.  Distribution,  coast  region  in 
mountains  from  Oregon  into  Lower  California.  Uses:  Unsuc- 
cessful in  cultivation;  lumber  used  in  carpentry,  for  doors,  blinds, 
sashes,  shingles  and  in  cooperage.    Sap  yields  sugarJ 

"The  largest,  noblest,  and  most  beautiful  of  all  the  seventy 
or  eighty  species  of  pine  trees  in  the  world  " — thus  writes  John 
Muir,  who  knows  the  sugar  pine  of  the  Sierras  as  he  knows  his 
other  neighbours,  the  mountains  and  the  glaciers,  with  which  he 
has  kept  fellowship  all  his  life.  Fortunately  these  gigantic  pines 
do  not  go  down  to  the  sea,  nor  overhang  the  banks  of  seaward- 
tending  streams  to  tempt  the  lumberman.  The  hungry  mills 
would  have  swallowed  the  best  of  them  long  ago  had  not  Nature 
fenced  them  in  by  barriers  too  great  to  be  overpassed,  and  the 
Government  has  now,  by  the  reservation  of  the  Yosemite 
National  Park,  insured  the  preservation  of  these  mighty  pines  in 
sufficient  number  to  remind  those  who  visit  the  region  of  what 
all  the  Sierra  forests  were  before  they  were  laid  waste. 

The  cones  of  the  sugar  pine  are  the  longest  known.  In 
spring  cone  flowers  an  inch  in  length  stand  upright  in  clusters; 
they  thicken,  lengthen  and  turn  down  on  the  coming  of  the 
second  spring.     They  are  now  2   or  3  inches  long,   and  quite 

27 


The  Pines 

heavy.  By  September  they  are  close  to  2  feet  in  length  and  3 
or  4  inches  in  diameter,  pale  green,  flushing  to  purple  on  the  side 
exposed  to  the  sun.  High  above  the  earth  these  cones  hang  like 
dangling  tassels,  none  too  large  for  the  giant  arm  that  holds  them 
forth.  Now  the  scales  spread,  and  the  cone's  diameter  is 
doubled.  The  seeds  fall,  and  are  frugally  hoarded  by  squirrels, 
bears  and  Indians,  for  their  food  value  is  no  secret  to  any 
creature  that  has  tasted  them.  The  empty  cones  hang  on  the 
trees  until  the  new  crop  is  ready  to  harvest,  and  hard  on  its  heels 
are  the  half-grown  yearlings,  sealed  tight  to  encounter  the  untried 
winter  weather. 

The  wood  of  the  sugar  pine  is  the  apotheosis  of  pine  lumber. 
Soft,  golden,  satiny,  fragrant — inviting  the  woodworker  through 
every  one  of  his  senses  to  handle  it.  Crystals  of  sugar  accumu- 
late at  the  end  of  a  stick  when  it  is  burning — the  bleeding  of  the 
heart  wood,  which  gives  the  trees  its  name.  White  masses,  crisp 
and  candy-like,  gather  at  axe  wounds.  It  tastes  like  maple  sugar, 
but  one  is  soon  surfeited  in  eating  it. 

Up  the  mountain  side,  where  these  trees  grow  to  greatest 
size,  the  shingle  maker  climbs  and  pitches  his  tent  in  spring. 
He  fells  the  biggest  tree  he  can  find,  never  caring  whose  it  is, 
saws  out  a  few  blocks  of  shingle  length  (often  only  one),  above 
the  stump,  and  splits  it  into  shingles.  Why  should  he  discard 
the  rest  of  that  great  trunk  and  fell  another,  leaving  the  first  to 
rot  and  to  invite  forest  fires.?  There  might  be  a  knot  in  the  next 
section,  and  who  is  he  that  he  should  worry  himself  over  knotty 
lumber.?  So  he  does  not  stay  his  axe  and  saw  all  through  the 
season,  and  has  bundles  of  shingles  to  sell  in  the  valley,  all  made 
from  straight-grained  sugar  pine  from  the  butts  of  logs.  For 
every  bundle  he  has  to  sell  he  has  destroyed  thousands  of  feet  of 
lumber.  He  and  thieving  mill  owners  are  companions  in  crime, 
and  should  be  in  the  state  prison  together.  For  each  has  been 
preying  upon  the  public  forest  lands  for  years. 

The  sugar  pine  is  various  in  form,  spreading  its  slender  arms 
like  feathery  drooping  plumes.  Like  the  crown  of  a  palm  tree, 
but  far  broader  than  the  royalest  of  palms,  it  rises  above  a  feath- 
ering of  shorter  branches,  and  above  all  neighbour  trees.  Or  with 
more  room,  the  tapering  spire  of  a  fir  tree  is  imitated.  The 
average  tree  tapers  to  the  top,  and  is  feathered  half  way  down 
with  short  horizontal  branches. 

28 


The  Pines 

"The  old  trees  are  as  tellingly  varied  and  picturesque  as 
oaks.  No  two  are  alike,  and  we  are  tempted  to  stop  and  admire 
every  one  we  come  to  as  it  stands  silent  in  the  calm,  balsam- 
scented  sunshine  or  waving  in  accord  with  enthusiastic  storms. 
No  traveller,  whether  he  be  a  tree  lover  or  not,  will  ever  forget 
his  first  walk  in  a  sugar-pine  forest," — John  Muir. 

Rocky  Mountain  "White  Pine. — [P.  flexilis,  James.) — 
A  broad,  stout-trunked  tree,  40  to  75  feet  high,  with  ascending 
branches  in  a  diffuse  head.  Bark  very  dark,  furrowed  and 
broken  into  square  plates;  younger  stems  smooth,  pale  grey  or 
white.  Wood  light,  soft,  close  grained,  yellow  to  red.  Buds 
scaly,  pointed,  clustered  at  branch  tips.  Leaves  in  fives,  thick, 
rigid,  li  to  3  inches  long,  dark  green,  sheathed  and  tufted  on 
end  of  branches;  shed  during  fifth  or  sixth  years.  Flowers  like  P. 
Strobus,  but  rose  coloured.  Fruit  annual,  cones  3  to  10  inches 
long,  purple;  scales  rounded  and  abruptly  beaked  at  apex;  seeds 
with  narrow  wings  all  around;  ripe  in  September.  Preferred 
habitat,  mountain  slopes,  at  altitude  of  7,000  to  12,000  feet. 
Distribution,  Rocky  Mountains,  Alberta  (British  Columbia),  Mon- 
tana to  Mexico  and  California.  Uses:  Important  timber  tree  of 
semi-arid  regions.     Used  in  construction  as  P.  Strobus  is. 

It  is  a  fortunate  region  that  has  its  own  white  or  soft  pine  for 
all  sorts  of  construction.  This  "  limber  pine  "  is  notable  because 
it  thrives  where  other  pines  fail.  It  grows  on  the  sides  of  the 
desert  ranges  of  mountains  in  Nevada  and  Arizona.  It  is  the 
chief  dependence  of  builders  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rockies 
in  Montana.  Lacking  this  pine,  the  lumber  problem  in  these 
regions  would  be  serious.  It  is  true  that  trees  growing  in  scat- 
tered groups  and  open  forests  as  these  do  produce  knotty  timber; 
but  the  important  fact  is  that  P.  flexilis  does  grow  in  these  re- 
gions, and  the  trees  are  appreciated,  knots  and  all. 

The  best  specimens  grow  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona — 
sturdy  trees,  as  broad  as  they  are  high,  with  trunks  5  feet 
through,  and  limbs  of  exceeding  length,  flexibility  and  tough- 
ness. From  these  characters  the  tree  takes  its  specific  name  and 
the  common  name  given  above. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  white  pine  grows  where  the  wind 
tests  the  fibre  of  its  long  arms,  which  reach  out  and  up  as  if 
eager  to  meet  the  challenge  and  prove  themselves.  The  foliage 
is  thick  and  beautiful,  even  where  the  tree  crouches  a  prostrate 

29 


The  Pines 

shrub  at  the  timber  line.  The  tree's  blossoms  are  its  most 
striking  feature.  The  staminate  clusters  are  tinged  with 
rose  colour.  On  the  tips  of  the  branches  the  slim  cones 
glow  from  their  first  appearance  like  tips  of  flame.  The  summer 
deepens  them  to  purple,  and  as  they  turn  down  they  fade  to 
cinnamon-brown,  before  the  springing  of  the  scales  releases  the 
almost  wingless  seeds.  In  the  most  favourable  locations  the 
branchlets  are  stout  and  the  cones  approach  a  foot  in  length. 
Farther  north,  and  at  higher  levels,  the  twigs  are  slim  and  the 
cones  considerably  shorter. 

The  White-Bark  Pine  {P.  albicaulis,  Engelm.)  shouts  its 
name  at  the  traveller  who  climbs  the  snow-clad  peaks  where  it 
rims  the  forests  at  the  timber  line.  The  snowy  bark  glistens  in 
the  sun  as  if  it  reflected  the  icy  mantle  that  blankets  the  roots  for 
a  large  part  of  the  year.  Its  range  is  from  British  Columbia  to 
Montana  and  Wyoming,  south  into  California.  It  keeps  near  the 
timber  line,  but  goes  down  to  5,000  feet  level,  becoming  a  tree 
40  feet  high  in  some  places.  Usually  it  is  flattened  and  broad 
topped;  its  matted  branches,  cumbered  with  needles  and  snow, 
make  a  platform  on  which  one  may  walk  with  perfect  safety. 
Travellers  sometimes  spread  their  blankets  upon  the  branches  and 
sleep  as  comfortably  as  on  a  spring  bed.  These  gnarled,  shrubby 
trees  are  often  astonishingly  old.  John  Muir  measured  one  care- 
fully.    It  was 

"Three  feet  high,  with  a  stem  6  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
ground,  and  branches  that  spread  out  horizontally  as  if  it  had 
grown  up  against  a  ceiling;  yet  it  was  426  years  old,  and  one  of 
its  supple  branchlets,  about  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter  inside  the 
bark,  was  seventy-five  years  old,  and  so  tough  that  I  tied  it  into 
knots.  At  the  age  of  this  dwarf  many  of  the  sugar  and  yellow 
pines  and  sequoias  are  7  feet  in  diameter  and  over  200  feet  high." 

The  Foxtail  Pines  include  two  species  whose  branchlets 
are  clothed  with  crowded  leaf  bundles,  while  the  branches  are 
bare.  P.  Balfoiiriana,  M.  Murr.,  has  stiff,  stout,  dark-green 
leaves  lightened  by  pale  linings.  The  tree  forms  an  open  pyra- 
mid of  more  or  less  irregularity  when  old,  but  picturesque, 
whether  a  tree  of  40  to  80  feet  on  the  higher  foothills  of  the  Cali- 
fornia mountains  or  a  straggling  shrub  at  the  timber  line. 

P.  aristata,  Engelm.,  the  other  species,  has  the  same  brush- 
of-a-fox  leaf  distribution,   and   it  is  distinguished  by  the  long, 

30 


The  Pines 

slender  prickles  which  arm  the  scales  of  its  cones,  giving  the  tree 
its  common  name,  "  prickle-cone  pine."  The  tree  is  bushy, 
with  whorls  of  short  branches,  regular  at  first,  but  unsymmetri- 
cal  when  old.  Its  range  extends  from  western  Colorado  to 
southern  California  and  includes  Nevada  and  Arizona.  It  keeps 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  timber  line,  and  varies  from  a  stocky 
tree  40  feet  high  to  a  prostrate  shrub.  In  cultivation  in  the  East- 
ern States  it  is  a  handsome,  bushy  shrub. 

The  Nut  Pine  {P.  quadrifolia,  Sudw.)  is  easily  distin- 
guished by  its  leaves,  which  are  usually  in  fours.  No  other  pine 
has  this  number  of  leaves  in  a  bundle.  The  tree  inhabits  the 
mountains  of  southern  and  Lower  California,  growing  to  the 
height  of  40  feet  in  favourable  localities:.  It  is  a  desert  pine,  fur- 
nishing the  Indians  an  important  article  of  food  in  its  rich,  nut- 
like seeds.     Its  cultivation  is  confined  to  southern  California. 

The  Nut  Pine  {P.  cembroides,  Zucc),  a  bushy  tree  of  the 
canon  sides  in  Arizona  and  Lower  California,  may  also  be  men- 
tioned as  an  important  source  of  food.  The  nuts  are  sold  in 
most  towns  in  northern  Mexico.  Its  scaly  bark  distinguishes  this 
tree  from  other  nut  pines. 

The  Nut  Pine,  or  Pinon  {P.  edtilis,  Engelm.),  of  Colorado, 
New  Mexico  and  Texas,  is  an  important  source  of  food  to  Mexi- 
cans and  Indians.  The  tree  grows  in  forests  on  the  high  South- 
western table  lands,  and  follows  the  mountains  into  Mexico.  Its 
leaves  are  very  short,  stiff,  and  in  clusters  of  threes,  its  globular 
cones,  scarcely  over  an  inch  in  length,  are  woody,  and  the  wing- 
less seeds,  two  on  each  scale,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  honey- 
locust  seeds,  are  sweet  and  nutritious. 

The  one-leaved  Nut  Pine  (T'.  monophvlla,  Torr. )  is  small 
and  irregular,  with  the  form  of  an  old  apple  tree.  Its  single, 
cylindrical  leaf,  pale  greyish  green  (in  a  cluster  evidently  intended 
to  have  two),  sets  it  apart  from  other  pines.  Its  plenteous  little 
cones  invest  the  tree  with  its  greatest  human  interest. 

"It  is  the  commonest  tree  of  the  short  mountain  ranges  of 
the  Great  Basin.  Tens  of  thousands  of  acres  are  covered  ^^'ith  it, 
forming  bountiful  orchards  for  the  red  man.  Being  so  low  and 
accessible,  the  cones  are  easily  beaten  off  with  poles,  and  the 
nuts  procured  by  roasting  until  the  scales  open.  To  the  tribes  of 
the  desert  and  sage  plains  these  seeds  are  the  staff  of  life.  They 
are  eaten  either  raw  or  parched,  or  in  the  form  of  mush  or  cakes 

3» 


The  Pines 


after  being  pounded  into  meal.  The  time  of  nut  harvest  is  the 
merriest  time  of  the  year.  An  industrious  squirreHsh  family  can 
gather  fifty  or  sixty  bushels  in  a  single  month  before  the  snow 
comes,  and  then  their  bread  for  the  winter  is  sure." — J.  Muir. 


THE  PITCH  PINES 

L^a/ bundles  in  persistent  sheaths.  Cone  scales  thick,  usually 
arnied.  IVood  heavy,  resinous,  coarse  grained,  usually  dark 
coloured. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  5  in  a  bundle,  stout,  dark  green. 

B.  Cones  4  to  6  inches  long;  leaves  9  to    13  inches 
long.  {P.  Torreyana)  torrey's  pine 

BB.  Cones  2   to  2^  inches  long;    leaves  5  to  7  inches 

long.  {P.  Ariionica)  Arizona  yellow  pine 

AA.  Leaves  3  in  a  bundle. 

B.   Length  of  leaf,  more  than  6  inches. 
C.  Colour  of  foliage  pale  green. 

D.  Cones  6  to   14  inches  long;  leaves  8  to  12 
inches  long,  bluish,  stout,  flexible. 

(A   Sabiniana)  digger  pine 
DD.  Cones  3   to    5    inches   long;  leaves  6  to   9 
inches  long,  slender,  stiff,  twisted. 

{P.    Tcvda)    LOBLOLLY  PINE 

CC.  Colour  of  foliage  dark  green. 

D.  Cones   2   to   3   inches  long;  leaves  6  to  8 
inches  long,  yellowish,  slender,  flexible. 

{P.  serotina)  pond  pine 
DD.  Cones  6  to  10  inches  long;;  leaves  8  to    18 
inches  long,  slender,  flexible. 

{P.  paliistris)  longleaf  pine 
DDD.  Cones  10  to  14  inches  long  ;  leaves  6  to   12 
inches  long,  bluish,  stout,  stiff. 

{P.  Coulteri)  big-cone  pine 
BB.   Length  of  leaf  less  than  6  inches. 

C.   Leaves  3  to  5  inches  long,  stiff,  yellow  green; 
cones  I  to  3  inches  long,  opening  when  ripe. 

{P.  rigida)  pitch  pine 
C.  Leaves  4  to  5  inches  long,   slender,  stiff;  cones 
3    to    6   inches   long,    unsymmetrical,     not 
opening  when  ripe. 

{P.  attenuata)  knob-cone  pine 
AAA.  Leaves  2  or  3  in  a  bundle. 

32 


The  Pines 

B.  Length  of  leaf  more  than  6  inches ;  stout,  dark  green. 
C.  Leaves  8  to  12  inches  long;  cones  3  to  6  inches 
long,  lateral.  (A  Cariba^a)  cuban  pine 

CC.  Leaves  5  to  1 1  inches  long;  cones  3  to  15  inches 
long,  terminal.  {P.  ponderosa)  yellow  pine 

BB.  Length  of  leaf  less  than  6  inches;  slender. 

C.  Leaves  3  to  5  inches  long,  bluish  green;  cones 
i^  to  2^  inches  long,  symmetrical. 

{P.  echinata)  shortleaf  pine 
CC.  Leaves  4  to  6  inches  long,  bright  green;  cones  3 
to  5  inches  long,  unsymmetrical, 

{P.  radiaia)  Monterey  pine 
AAAA.  Leaves  2  in  a  bundle. 

B.   Length  of  leaf  4  to  6  inches;  colour,  dark  green. 
C.  Cones  about  2  inches  long,  scales  unarmed. 

(P.  resinosa)  red  pine 
CC,  Cones  about   3  inches  long,  scales  armed  with 

stout  beaks.     {P.miiricata)  prickle-cone  pine 
BB.  Length  of  leaf  i  to  3  inches;  cones   i  to  3  inches 
long. 
C.  Leaves  blue-green,  stiff,  twisted. 

{P.  pungetis)  table-mountain  pine 
CC.  Leaves  dark  green,  slender. 

D.  Cones    oblique,    set    with    stout,  recurved 
prickles. 
E.   Branches  dark  brown. 

{P.  contorta)  scrub  pine 
EE.  Branches  ashy  grey.     {P.  clausa)  sand  pine 
DD.  Cones  not  oblique,  set  with  minute  prickles. 

{P.  glabra)  spruce  pine 
CCC.  Leaves  grey-green,  stout,  in  remote  clusters. 

D.  Cones  2  to  3  inches  long;  scales  armed  with 
sharp  prickles.     {P.  Firginiana)  jersey  pine 
DD.  Cones   i^  to  2  inches  long;  scales  unequal, 

unarmed.  (P.  divaricaia)  grey  pine 

Torrey's  Pine  {P.  Torreyana,  Parry)  grows  on  a  strip  of 
territory  eight  miles  long  and  less  than  two  miles  wide  along  the 
mouth  of  the  Soledad  River  in  southern  California,  and  on  the 
neighbouring  Island  of  Santa  Rosa.  It  is  a  nut  pine  with  large, 
thick,  edible  seeds  upon  which  Indians  and  Mexicans  formerly 
subsisted,  eating  them  raw  or  roasted. 

The  tree  is  distinguished  by  its  dark-green,  tufted  leaves, 
which  are  9  to  13  inches  long,  and  cluster  in  fives  in  close 
sheaths.  The  cones  are  abundant,  oval,  woody  and  heavy,  the 
scales  set  with  stout  recurving  beaks. 

33 


The  Pines 

Though  driven  to  the  wall,  as  it  were,  this  pine  seems  dis- 
posed to  make  the  most  of  its  chances.  Seedlings  are  numerous 
and  vigorous  among  the  elder  trunks,  and  as  there  is  little 
demand  for  its  wood,  the  species  is  likely  to  hold  its  own. 

The  Yellow  Pine  {P.  /lrt{ouica,  Engelm.)  is  the  Southern 
counterpart  of  its  close  relative,  P.  ponderosa.  They  are  both 
lumber  trees  of  importance  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions.  The 
Arizona  yellow  pine  is  often  inaccessible,  as  it  grows  on  steep 
declivities  and  in  deep  canons  from  which  the  logs  cannot  be 
taken,  even  after  the  trees  are  felled.  This  tree  is  one  of  the  5- 
leaved  pitch  pines,  with  leaves  5  to  7  inches  long,  and  small 
spiny  cones.  The  bulk  of  the  forests  of  this  tree  grow  across 
the  Mexican  border,  at  elevations  6,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the 
sea. 

The  Digger  Pine  {P.  Sabimana,  Dougl.),  growing  only  on 
the  sun-baked  foothills  of  western  California,  deserves  mention 
here  on  account  of  its  peculiar  sparse  foliage,  pale,  bluish  green, 
and  8  to  12  inches  long,  that  in  no  wise  conceals  the  angular 
limbs,  and  the  great  cones,  6  to  10  inches  long,  which  fairly  load 
the  tree,  and  are  carried  for  several  years.  The  thickened  scales 
protrude  separately  as  two-edged,  thick  projections  that  end  in  a 
beak  shaped  like  a  shark's  tooth. 

The  Digger  Indians  once  gathered  the  seeds  of  this  pine  for 
food.  The  nuts  are  as  big  as  lima  beans,  and  rich  in  oils  and 
other  food  elements. 

Loblolly,  or  Old-Field  Pine  (P.  Tcvda,  Linn.)— A  tall, 
straight,  deep-rooted  tree,  80  to  100  feet  high,  with  short,  much- 
branched  horizontal  limbs.  Bark  bright  red-brown,  broadly 
ridged,  scaly;  branchlets  smooth,  yellow-brown,  thickly  set  with 
the  recurved  inner  scales  ot  the  branch  buds.  Wood  resinous, 
weak,  coarse  grained,  pale  brown.  Buds  obovate-oblong,  with 
pointed  brown  scales.  Leaves  in  threes,  slender,  stiff,  twisted, 
pale  green,  glaucous,  6  to  10  inches  long;  sheaths  close,  thin, 
persistent.  Flowers:  staminate,  crowded  on  short  spikes,  in- 
curved, cylindrical,  in  scaly  involucres;  pistillate,  lateral,  one  to 
three  in  a  cluster,  below  apex  of  new  shoot,  with  yellow  scales, 
oval  on  short,  scaly  stalks,  April.  Fruits  ovate-oblong,  3  to  5 
inches  long,  i^  to  2  inches  broad;  ridged,  purplish  knobs,  with 
prickles  on  scales;  seeds,  rhomboidal,  with  wing  f  inch  long. 
Preferred  habitat,  swampy  lands  near  tidewater;  low  ground, 

34 


The  Pines 

sterile  and  worthless.  Distribution  intermittent,  New  Jersey 
(Cape  May),  south  along  coast  to  Tampa  Bay  and  Texas.  Inland, 
from  the  Carolinas  to  Arkansas  and  Louisiana.  Uses  :  Lumber 
not  distinguished  from  longleaf  or  yellow  pine — shipped  north 
in  quantities.  Used  in  heavy  construction — building  of  docks, 
ships,  cars  and  houses.  Valuable  tree  for  reforesting  waste  land, 
and  for  fuel. 

There  is  probably  no  pine  tree  that  has  more  nicknames  than 
this,  nor  one  more  variable  in  its  habits  of  growth  and  in  the 
quality  of  its  wood.  "  Old-field  "  and  "  meadow  pine  "  refer  to 
its  habit  of  invading  land  abandoned  by  farmers.  "Sap," 
"frankincense  "  and  "torch  pine  "  mean  that  it  is  rich  in  resin. 
Several  local  names  refer  to  its  long  leaves;  others  to  the  dark 
colour  of  its  bark.     Some  names  are  meaningless. 

The  loblolly  pine  is  one  which  Nature  seems  to  have  favoured 
in  the  race  for  life.  It  bears  seed  copiously  every  year.  It  has 
remarkable  vitality  of  seed  and  seedlings.  It  chooses  low,  water- 
soaked  ground,  or  rolling  upland  terraces  where  soil  is  light  and 
sandy,  though  wet,  and  where  there  are  comparatively  few  trees 
to  contend  with.  The  young  trees  grow  with  tremendous  vigour 
for  the  first  ten  years,  crowding  so  that  animals  cannot  get  in  to 
harm  them.  After  that  they  are  beyond  this  danger,  and  their 
struggle  is  among  themselves.  Fires  do  little  harm  in  the  marshy 
regions,  so  that  these  forests  have  a  great  advantage  over  others.- 
The  trees  are  deep  rooted,  and  in  spite  of  fungus  and  insect 
attacks,  thrive  throughout  the  Southern  States. 

In  Michaux's  travels  he  noted  that  three-fourths  of  the  houses 
of  lower  Virginia  were  built  of  loblolly  pine.  Giant  trees  grew 
there,  and  down  in  the  rich  marsh  lands  that  reached  back  from 
Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds  the  finest  specimens  of  these 
loblolly  pines  furnished  the  navies  of  many  countries  with  masts 
unsurpassed  in  quality  and  size.  These  were  of  the  famous 
"rosemary  pine,"  heavy,  hard,  fine-grained  heart  wood,  with 
a  thin  rind  of  sap  wood.  Now  they  are  all  gone,  practically,  and 
there  are  left  the  slash  pines,  coarse  grained,  with  half  their 
diameter  sap  wood.  Virgin  woods  and  second  growth  furnish 
the  mills  with  lumber  which  is  not  distinguished  in  the  trade 
from  longleaf  pine,  though  inferior  to  it.  The  third  grade  of 
lumber,  with  sap  wood  three  times  as  thick  as  heart  wood,  and 
exceedingly  coarse  grained,  is  known  to  lumbermen  as  old-field 

35 


The  Pines 

pine,  and  is  locally  consumed  as  lumber  and  fuel  in  the  coast 
regions.  Its  poor  quality  is  the  result  of  very  rapid  growth. 
"Kiln-drying"  of  the  lumber  has  greatly  improved  its 
quality  by  adding  to  the  durability  and  hardness  of  it.  Heat 
kills  a  fungus  which  in  ordinary  seasoning  turns  the  wood  blue. 
Loblolly  timbers  are  made  durable  by  the  "creosoting"  process. 
Though  rich  in  resin,  the  tree  is  not  one  which  yields  resinous 
substances,  such  as  turpentine  and  pitch,  for  when  tapped  there 
is  scarcely  any  flow,  and  contact  with  the  air  hardens  the  little 
resin  that  starts.  As  a  fuel  tree  the  cheap  loblolly  pine  is  un- 
excelled. It  gives  a  quick,  intense  heat  when  dried,  and  is 
used  in  bakeries,  kilns  and  in  charcoal  burning, 

The  Pond,  or  Marsh  Pine  {P.  serotina,  Michx. )  is  the 
water-loving,  round-headed  pine,  with  yellow-green  leaves  from 
6  to  8  inches  long,  and  sturdy  cones  that  open  only  after 
they  have  hung,  matured,  for  a  year  or  two.  In  the  flat,  peaty 
and  sandy  swamps  from  North  Carolina  down  the  coast  to  the 
St.  John's  River  in  Florida,  the  traveller  finds  this  pine  with  the 
longleaf.  It  supplies  some  turpentine  and  some  lumber  in 
North  Carolina,  but  is  not  an  important  commercial  tree. 

Longleaf  Pine  {P.  palustris,  Mill.) — A  tall,  slender  trunk, 
90  to  120  feet  high,  with  deep  tap  root  and  short,  stout,  twisted 
limbs,  which  form  an  elongated  open  head.  Bark  furrowed, 
and  crossed  by  deep  fissures  into  thin,  scaly  plates;  colour  red- 
dish brown,  with  blue  tinge.  Wood  heavy,  strong,  yellowish 
brown,  resinous,  durable.  Excels  that  of  all  other  pines.  Buds 
elongated,  large,  silvery,  with  linear  scales.  Leaves  in  threes,  in 
long,  pale  sheaths,  tufted  on  ends  of  branches,  12  to  18  inches 
long,  pendant,  flexible,  dark  green,  shining,  persistent  2  years. 
Flowers',  staminate,  2  inches  long,  cylindrical,  crowded  at  base 
of  new  shoot,  anthers  purplish;  pistillate,  subterminal,  clustered, 
oval,  with  broad  purple  scales.  Fruits  narrow,  tapering,  reddish 
brown;  scales  thickened,  and  keeled  crosswise  at  tip,  and  set 
with  small  recurved  spine;  seed  triangular,  with  long,  lustrous 
wing.  Preferred  habitats:  (i)  low  coast  sands,  imperfectly 
drained;  (2)  uplands,  rocky  and  well  drained,  with  marl  and 
limestone  deposits;  (3)  upland  pine  barrens.  Distribution,  Vir- 
ginia to  Florida  (Tampa  Bay),  west  to  Mississippi  River;  a  belt 
about  125  miles  wide  somewhat  back  from  coast;  isolated 
forests  in  northern  Alabama,  in  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

36 


The  Pines 

The  average  Northerner  probably  first  sees  this  Southern  yel- 
low pine  as  lumber  in  the  woodwork  and  floors  of  a  dwelling 
house  or  in  the  arches  that  support  the  roof  of  a  church.  The 
rich  orange  wood,  with  its  pale,  soft  spring  wood  and  the  darker, 
harder  summer  wood  in  alternating  bands,  produces  patterns  of 
exquisite  beauty  and  variety,  to  which  the  "natural  finish"  is 
generally  given.  A  coat  of  oil  is  all  sufficient,  and  time  deepens 
and  enriches  the  colour  of  this  wood.  The  "  curly  pine  "—high- 
est in  value  because  of  finest  and  most  intricately  waved  grain- 
grows  slowly  in  hard,  sandy  soils,  on  the  damp,  flat  plains  of  the 
Gulf  coast. 

Within  the  past  few  years  this  Southern  pine  has  come  North 
in  another  form.  The  seedling  trees  just  tall  enough  to  show 
themselves  above  the  forest  floor  are  cut  by  thousands  and 
shipped  North  for  Christmas  greens.  No  palm  or  Ficus  elasticus 
is  more  effective  in  formal  decoration  than  these  tufted  stems, 
standing  erect  with  all  their  long,  flexible  leaves  bending  out- 
ward like  a  fountain  of  shining  green.  The  enthusiasm  with 
v/hich  the  longleaf  pine  has  been  received  by  florists  and  the 
general  public  has  already  become  a  menace  to  the  life  of  the 
species  in  sections  of  the  South.  Lumbering  is  going  on  at  a  ter- 
rible rate,  taking  the  trees  of  merchantable  size  for  an  infinite 
range  of  uses.  Now  that  the  saplings  2  feet  high  have  a  price  set 
on  their  heads,  wherewithal  shall  the  forests  be  renewed  }  It  is 
a  momentous  problem,  for  a  great  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  South 
is  in  these  hard-pine  tracts. 

The  longleaf  pine  is  second  to  none  in  the  qualities  that  adapt 
lumber  to  building.  Masts  and  spars,  great  timbers  for  trestles 
of  bridges  and  aqueducts  are  made  by  simply  squaring  or  dressing 
the  slender,  tall  trunks.  There  are  few  knots,  for  the  limbs  are 
small  and  clustered  at  the  top.  In  European  dockyards  there  is 
an  ever-increasing  demand  for  these  great  timbers.  Smaller 
"sticks,"  squared  10 x  12  inches  and  36  to  42  feet  long,  free  from 
blemish,  are  used  in  the  building  of  railroad  cars.  Great  quan- 
tities of  small  timber  are  used  every  year  for  railroad  ties  all  over 
the  country.  Their  durability  in  soil  also  commends  these  young 
trees  for  posts.  Building  and  manufacture  consume  billions  of 
board  feet  every  year. 

Quite  independent  of  the  lumber  industry,  the  resinous  prod- 
ucts of  the  longleaf  pine  are  of  momentous   importance  to   the 

37 


The  Pines 

United  States  and  to  foreign  countries.  The  colonists  tapped 
these  trees  for  resin  (crude  turpentine),  and  boiled  it  down  for 
tar  and  pitch.  Out  of  these  beginnings  grew  the  industries  that 
supply  naval  stores  to  the  world.  The  "orcharding"  of  long- 
leaf  pines  is  reducing  to  a  science  the  wasteful  processes  of  earlier 
years.  "Naval  stores"  include  all  the  products  of  the  resin  of 
coniferous  trees.  The  consumption  of  these  is  greatest  in  ship- 
yards and  on  shipboard.  The  products  include  turpentine, 
rosin,  pine  tar  and  pitch.  Turpentine  is  extensively  used  in  the 
arts  and  industries.  The  methods  of  "  orcharding  "  the  longleaf 
pine  and  preparing  its  products  for  market  are  described  in  the 
chapter,  "The  Uses  of  Wood." 

Proper  tapping  does  not  injure  the  lumber  nor  shorten  the  life 
of  the  tree;  but  the  resin-covered  wounds  feed  the  fires  that  so 
easily  and  frequently  break  out  where  careless  workmen  are  deal- 
ing with  inflammable  substances.  The  terrible  destructiveness 
of  these  fires  raises  one  of  the  gravest  problems  of  the  forester.  It 
is  common  to  set  fires  to  rubbish  on  the  beginning  of  work 
among  the  pines  so  as  to  obviate  dangers  of  later  confiagrations. 
Fires  often  get  beyond  control,  and  sweep  on  till  Nature  puts 
them  out.  Settlers,  burning  underbrush  to  start  the  grass  for 
their  cattle,  damage  the  woods  irreparably  in  early  spring. 
Seedlings  and  young  growth  which  escape  fire  are  injured  by 
trampling,  browsing  cattle,  sheep  and  goats.  Squirrels  gnaw 
the  green  cones  and  eat  the  unripe  seeds.  So  between  the  care- 
less wastefulness  of  men  and  the  inconsiderateness  of  lower  ani- 
mals, the  vast  forests  of  longleaf  pine  dwindle. 

The  leaves  of  Pinus  palustris  yield  by  distillation  an  essential 
oil  of  balsamic  odour  that  closely  resembles  oil  of  turpentine. 
The  weaving  of  florists'  baskets  from  the  long,  shining  needles  is 
just  beginning,  and  is  an  industry  that  ought  profitably  to 
employ  women  and  children  in  neighbourhoods.  "  Pine  wool "  is 
made  by  boiling  the  leaves  in  strong  alkali,  and  then  carding  the 
fibres  thus  released.  It  is  woven  into  a  brown  carpet  somewhat 
like  cocoa  matting,  and  into  other  textile  fabrics.  It  is  an  im- 
portant stuffing  for  upholstery,  and  is  a  natural  antiseptic  dress- 
ing for  wounds. 

The  most  conspicuous  character  of  the  longleaf  pines  is  the 
great  length  of  its  flexible  leaves.  Next  to  this  is  the  great  sil- 
very "bud "at  the  tip   of  each  shoot.     This  is  the  cluster  of 

38 


s  S 


c    ^ 


■cr-    j;  o 
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a.  .. 

o  o 


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Ite 

^ 

1 

^p 

N 

^^^ 

m 

m 

^ 

^ 

wBBai 

wT 

>^^ 

wm  i 

Winter  buds  (leaves  cut  away  to  show  huds  j 

THE   TABLE    MOUNTAIN   PINE  {Pinus  pungens) 
The  leaves  are  in  2's,  short,  stout,  tu'isted  and  blue  green.     The  tree  makes  a  scraggly  growth  on  the  barren  slopes  of  the 

Appalachian  mountains 


r 


Winter  luids  ■  leives  cut  away  to  show  buds) 

THE    PITCH    PINE  (Ptnus  r.gida) 

This  picturesque  pine  of  the  swamps  and  arid  coast  plains  of  the  East  has  leaves  in  3's  in  persistent  black  sheaths.     The  bark 

is  in  reddish-brown  plates 


I 


The  Pines 

young  leaves  enclosed  in   their  subtending  scales,  before  these 
crowded  scales  fall. 

Of  late  a  new  and  profitable  industry  has  sprung  up  in  the 
wake  of  lumbering.  Stumps  are  cut  into  small  sticks  for  kindling 
wood,  and  sold  in  small  bundles.  These  sticks  are  rich  in  resin, 
and  bring  good  prices.  Roots,  branches  and  other  waste  pieces 
are  gathered  and  converted  into  tar  or  into  charcoal.  The  profits 
that  come  from  gathering  up  the  fragments  after  the  lumbermen 
and  turpentine  distillers  give  one  an  idea  of  what  enormous 
values  are  being  squandered  by  wantonness  and  ignorance.  The 
South  is  rich  in  natural  resources,  but  its  noblest  patrimony,  the 
pine  forests,  seems  doomed  soon  to  be  spent. 

The  Big-Cone  Pine  {P.  Coulteri,  D.  Don.)  is  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  size  and  weight  of  its  cones,  which  are  the  heaviest 
of  all  the  fruits  of  the  pines.  They  hang  like  old-fashioned 
"sugar  loaves"  on  the  stout  branches,  which  carry  them  with 
apparent  ease,  though  they  reach  15  to  20  inches  long,  and 
weigh  5  to  8  pounds.  The  scales  are  so  thickened  as  to  stand 
out  from  the  central  axis;  the  stout,  curved  beak  and  the  thick 
part  which  it  surmounts  remind  one  strongly  of  the  head  of  an 
eagle. /The  seeds,  which  reach  ^  inch  in  length,  not  counting 
the  thmwing,  are  rich  in  oil  and  sugar.  \  They  are  gathered  for 
food  by  the  Indians  in  southern  Californra. 

The  leaves  of  this  pine  match  the  cones.  They  are  stout 
and  stiff,  with  saw-tooth  edges,  dark  blue-green,  and  6  to  16 
inches  long.  The  sheaths  at  the  bases  of  the  leaves  are  an  inch 
or  more  long,  and  persistent.  They  are  tufted  on  the  twigs  and 
are  not  shed  for  three  or  four  years.  This  fact  gives  the  tree  a 
luxuriant  crown,  and  though  it  does  not  grow  over  medium 
height,  it  is  always  a  striking  and  picturesque  figure  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  California  coast  mountains. 

The  wood  is  indifferent  in  quality,  and  the  tree  is  cut  only 
for  fuel.  It  is  planted  for  its  great  golden-brown  cones.  In 
Europe  it  makes  rapid  growth,  and  fruiting  trees  of  good  size  are 
not  uncommon  in  France  and  Germany. 

Pitch  Pine  {P.  rigida,  Mill.) — A  gnarled,  irregular  tree  50 
to  75  feet  high,  with  short  trunk  and  rigid,  rough  branches. 
Bark  thick,  broken  into  plates  by  deep,  irregular  fissures;  scales 
thin;  bark  red  or  purple.  Wood  light  red,  soft,  durable,  brittle, 
coarse.      Buds  \  \Q  \  inch  long,   reddish,  with  fringed  scales. 

39 


The  Pines 

Leaves  in  threes,  rigid,  stout,  3  to  5  inches  long,  dark  yellow- 
green;  sheaths  becoming  black,  persistent.  Floivers  monoe- 
cious; staminate  short,  densely  clustered  at  base  of  season's 
shoot;  pistillate  lateral,  in  clusters,  rosy  tinged,  oval,  short 
stalked.  Fruits  biennial,  i  to  3^  inches  long,  ovate,  scales 
with  sharp,  recurving  beaks.  Preferred  habitat,  sandy  uplands 
and  cold  swamps.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick  to  Georgia; 
west  to  Ontario  and  Kentucky.  Uses :  Fuel  and  charcoal  mak- 
ing.     Reforesting  worthless   land.      Sparingly  used  as  lumber. 

The  pitch  pine  carries  picturesqueness  to  extremes,  and  be- 
comes in  old  age  grotesque,  even  absolutely  ugly.  It  has  the 
look  of  a  tree  that  has  been  hounded  by  untoward  circum- 
stances. In  youth  the  tree  has  a  rounded,  symmetrical  head, 
formed  of  successive  whorls  of  branches.  In  its  subsequent 
struggles  symmetry  is  lost,  and  the  contorted  limbs,  tufted  with 
scant,  sickly-looking  foliage,  and  studded  with  the  squat,  black, 
prickly  cones  of  many  years,  reach  out  with  an  expression  of 
mute  appeal  that  tempts  one  to  cut  the  tree  down  and  end  its 
sufferings.  If  it  is  cut,  however,  it  sends  up  suckers  from  the 
roots,  a  strange  habit  among  the  pines;  and  its  winged  seeds 
spread  the  species  over  barren  and  shifting  sand  dunes,  and 
otherwise  hopelessly  treeless  areas.  This  work  is  so  well  done 
on  the  island  of  Nantucket  and  the  desert  soil  of  Cape  Cod,  even 
those  areas  which  are  washed  by  the  spring  tides,  that  the  pitch 
pines  have  earned  the  regard  ot  men.  The  inferior  lumber  is 
forgiven. 

Pitch  pines  are  rich  in  resin;  the  knots  especially  accummu- 
late  it,  and  "pine  knots"  and  "  candlewood "  are  useful  and 
familiar  household  words  in  the  regions  where  this  pine  grows. 
Kindling  wood  and  torches  for  midnight  coon  hunts  are  never 
lacking.  The  "  pitchie  kinde  of  substance"  which  makes  hand- 
ling of  these  sticks  unpleasant  business  for  tidy  folks,  gums  the 
saws  and  makes  trouble  in  the  mills.  Sills  and  beams  of  houses 
were  formerly  got  of  pitch-pine  logs,  but  now  other  kinds  are 
preferred,  and  these  trees  go  into  charcoal  and  fuel.  The  turpen- 
tine gatherer,  too,  has  left  these  trees  to  seek  the  richer  pineries 
of  the  South  and  West.  There  is  small  excuse  for  the  pitch  pine  to 
stay  on,  were  it  not  for  the  one  thing  it  does  better  than  any 
other — it  makes  glad  the  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place. 

The  Knob-Cone  Pine  (P.  attenuata,  Lemm.)  is  another 
40 


I 


The  Pines 

tree  of  striking  habit.  Its  cones  are  woody,  armed  with  stout 
beaks,  and  from  3  to  5  inches  long.  There  is  nothing  peculiar 
in  these  cones,  nor  in  the  pale  yellow-green  foliage  in  its  3-leaved 
clusters.  The  tree  is  slim  and  tall,  and  grows  on  the  hot,  dry 
fire-swept  foothills  of  California  mountains.  A  stranger  notes 
how  dense  and  uniform  in  size  is  the  growth  of  these  trees,  and 
how  thickly  studded  are  the  limbs  with  clusters  of  cones.  Close 
examination  shows  them  sealed  up  tight — not  a  scale  sprung  on 
the  oldest  cone,  though  the  branch  that  bears  it  may  have  actu- 
ally swallowed  the  cone  by  the  increase  of  its  diameter. 

A  fire  sweeps  over  the  slope,  and  every  tree  gives  up  its 
cones.  The  scales  are  unsealed  at  last  and  the  seeds,  whose 
vitality  has  been  preserved,  apparently,  in  anticipation  of  this 
day,  germinate  at  once,  and  soon  a  new  forest  takes  the  place  of 
the  old  one.  With  such  an  abundance  of  seed,  is  it  wonderful 
that  the  trees  stand  close  and  even  like  wheat  in  a  field  ? 

Cuban  Pine,  Swamp  Pine  (P.  Caribcea,  Morelet.) — Tree, 
100  to  120  feet,  with  tapering  trunk  and  dense,  round  crown, 
above  large  horizontal  limbs.  Bark  in  broad,  scaly,  irregular 
plates,  reddish  brown,  showing  orange  in  the  shallow  fissures. 
Wood  heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  tough,  durable,  coarse,  dark 
orange,  with  thick,  nearly  white  sap  wood.  Buds,  elongated, 
scaly,  f  to  i^  inches  long,  light  brown;  lateral  buds  smaller. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  twos  and  threes;  stout,  dark  green,  8  to  \2 
inches  long,  persistent  2  years;  sheaths  thin,  brown.  Flowers  in 
January,  before  new  leaves,  subterminal;  staminate  clustered, 
incurving,  purplish,  i  to  i^  inches  long;  pistillate  oval,  2  to  3 
in  cluster,  pinkish,  \  inch  long.  Fruits  elongated,  3  to  7 
inches  long,  narrowing  to  blunt  apex,  pendant,  with  beaked, 
thickened  scales  and  winged  seeds.  Preferred  habitat,  damp, 
sandy  soil  of  swamp  borders,  with  even  moisture  supply.  Dis- 
tribution, coast  region.  South  Carolina  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 
Also  Bahamas,  Cuba  and  other  islands,  and  Central  America. 

No  more  beautiful  pine  grows  in  the  Southern  States  than 
this  stately  tree  that  skirts  the  swampy  coast  land,  forming  great 
forests  and  casting  a  goodly  shadow  under  its  thick,  dark,  lustrous 
foliage  mass.  Beside  it  the  other  pines  seem  to  have  very  ragged 
and  loose  crowns.  Here  in  the  humid  air  that  flows  from  sea  or 
gulf,  the  Cuban  pine  promises  to  replenish  our  depleted  forest 
areas  even  as  the  shortleaf  does  back  from  the  coast.      The  same 

41 


The  Pines 

vigour  characterises  thousands  which  endure  the  shade  and  soon 
spring  to  a  height  that  resists  the  fires  that  menace  them. 

The  wood  of  the  Cuban  pine  is  not  distinguished  in  the 
markets  from  longleaf  pine,  and  it  serves  the  same  uses.  Spars 
of  the  hirgest  dimensions,  straight  and  free  from  blemish,  come 
out  of  these  coast  pineries.  The  wide,  porous  sap  wood  and  the 
coarse  grain  once  counted  against  this  tree,  but  they  are  now  con- 
sidered distinct  advantages,  for  this  kind  of  v^ood  more  readily 
absorbs  creosote  and  other  preservatives  by  infiltration,  and  kiln- 
drying  converts  the  sap  wood  into  good  lumber. 

Turpentine  of  higher  quality  than  that  of  longleaf  pine  is 
derived  from  these  trees,  which  also  abound  in  other  resinous 
matters.  Young  trees  are  ready  for  tapping  at  forty  years;  and 
in  this  time  a  new  forest  has  replaced  the  one  stripped  by  lum- 
bermen. A  large  part  of  the  turpentine  exported  by  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina  to-day  is  from  land  thus  spontaneously  reforested. 
The  future  of  our  na\'al  stores  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the 
perpetuity  of  the  forests  of  Cuban  pine. 

Western  Yellow  Pine  {P.  ponderosa,  Laws.)— Spire-like 
tree  with  stout,  short  horizontal  branches;  loo  to  230  feet  high, 
with  trunk  5  to  8  feet  thick.  Bark  thick,  cinnamon-red,  some- 
times black,  becoming  furrowed  and  broken  into  large  plates. 
Wood  light  red,  strong,  hard,  very  heavy,  not  durable,  fine 
grained.  Z^z/Js  ovate,  brown,  scaly,  terminal  the  largest.  Leaves 
in  threes,  or  in  twos  and  threes,  stout,  rigid,  shiny,  3  to  15 
inches  long,  yellow-green,  tufted  on  ends  of  naked  branches; 
last  till  third  season;  sheath  persistent.  Flowers:  staminate 
yellow,  in  crowded  spikes;  pistillate  dark  red,  oval,  subterminal, 
clustered  or  paired.  Fniiis  green  or  purple  when  full  grown; 
scales  conspicuously  beaked,  with  recurved  point.  Preferred 
habitat,  deep,  well-drained  soil  on  mountain  slopes  or  elevated 
plains.  Distribution,  British  Columbia  and  Black  Frills  south 
through  Rocky  Mountains  and  coast  ranges  to  Texas  and  Mexico. 
Uses:  Principal  lumber  tree  of  Northwestern  and  Southwestern 
states.     Used  in  building,  for  railroad  ties,  fencing  and  fuel. 

The  most  extensive  pine  forests  in  the  world  are  those  of  the 
yellow  pine  in  the  mountainous  West  of  our  own  country.  The 
hardihood  of  this  tree  is  the  wonder  of  foresters  and  botanists, 
and  the  admiration  of  everybody  who  knows  anything  about  it. 
Pines  are  particular  trees,  as  a  rule.     They  like  one  type  of  soil 

42 


The  Pines 

and  climate,  and  out  of  their  chosen  range  aie  unhappy  and 
unhealthy.  But  here  is  a  species  which  seems  to  have  forgotten 
family  traditions,  and  become  a  citizen  of  the  world,  as  far  as  that 
is  possible.  It  grows  to  great  size  in  the  arid  foothills  of  southern 
Oregon,  where  the  soil  is  volcanic  in  origin.  In  the  Black  Hills 
it  roots  itself  solidly  in  sterile  rocky  soil,  and  is  the  dominant  tree 
of  these  mountain  forests.  In  the  arid  Southwest,  on  mountain 
and  mesa,  this  tree  is  the  principal  source  of  lumber.  It  is  the 
only  pine  tree  native  to  Nebraska  that  thrives  in  ,the  droughty 
western  counties.  This  is  the  tree  that  inhabits  the  western 
slopes  of  the  coast  mountains  from  British  Columbia  to  Lower 
California,  as  if  the  moisture-laden  winds  from  the  Pacific  were 
the  very  breath  of  life  to  it.  Finally,  the  same  tree  is  found 
wading  into  swamps  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cascades.  Its  elevation 
ranges  from  2,500  feet  to  the  timber  line. 

A  tree  that  clambers  over  mountains  and  meets  so  much 
variety  of  soil,  elevation  and  climate  must  show  variations  in 
character  to  adapt  it  to  its  life.  In  the  old  lake  basins  on  the 
Sierra  slopes  it  reaches  the  height  of  200  feet  and  more — with  a 
trunk  diameter  up  to  8  feet.  These  are  the  giants  of  the 
species,  van  Jeffreyi.  In  swamps,  and  near  the  timber  line  the 
trees  are  stunted,  and  have  black  bark,  in  distinct  contrast  with 
the  bright-red  rind  of  the  typical  tree.  Several  species  have 
already  been  made  out  of  the  forms  this  tree  assumes  in  various 
situations.  Closer  study  will  doubtless  lead  to  still  finer  distinc- 
tions. The  common  origin  of  these  forms  is  not  doubted;  they 
are  all  P.  ponder osa. 

Knowing  something  of  the  extensive  range  of  this  tree,  we 
are  ready  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  a  single  specimen.  The 
central  shaft  rises  like  a  spire,  rugged  if  old,  and  massive  at  the 
base,  lifting  its  head  far  into  the  blue  and  clothing  itself  with 
short,  leafy  branches  most  of  the  way  down,  if  there  is  room. 
The  young  trees,  under  100  feet  high,  are  pictures  of  tree  vigour, 
still  "  having  the  dew  of  their  youth  and  the  beauty  thereof," 
waving  their  arms,  that  catch  and  reflect  the  light  upon  burnished 
needles.  Against  the  dark-green  mantle  the  ruddy  flowers  and 
purple  cones  glow  in  their  season,  and  new  leaves  lighten  the 
whole  tree  throughout  the  summer. 

The  habit  of  breaking  off  its  cones  and  leaving  the  stem  and 
the  first  few  scales  still  hanging  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of 

43 


The  Pines 

the  various  forms  of  P.  ponderosa.  On  this  the  botanists  leaned 
content,  until,  alack!  somebody  breal<s  the  reed  by  announcing 
an  exception!  The  wood  is  so  heavy  that  the  logs  have  to  dry  for 
a  while  before  they  can  be  floated  down  stream  to  the  mills. 
Hence,  ponderosa. 

The  name  is  not  the  point  of  greatest  interest.  If  there  is  to 
be  a  re-christening  by  the  botanists  we  shall  hear  of  it  in  good 
season.  Let  us  take  a  hand,  though,  in  blotting  out  the  name, 
"  bull  pine,"  absurd  and  meaningless  as  it  is  misleading.  It  has 
been  given  variously  by  ignorant  frontiersmen  to  any  pine  that 
attains  large  dimensions. 

The  yellow  pine  was  first  discovered  by  the  members  of  the 
Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  in  1804,  while  they  were  going  up 
the  Missouri  River.  Twenty-two  later,  David  Douglas  found  the 
trees  growing  near  the  Spokane  River.  He  suggested  then  the 
name  they  now  bear,  because  of  their  ponderous  bulk,  and  sent 
seeds  and  young  plants  to  European  gardeners. 

In  cultivation  the  tree  does  fairly  well  in  the  Eastern  States 
and  in  Europe,  though  slow  of  growth  and  liable  to  disease. 
The  best  form  in  cultivation  is  var.  Jeffreyi. 

The  Indians  of  the  West  long  ago  discovered  that  though 
the  seeds  of  the  yellow  pine  are  inedible,  yet  the  inner  bark  in 
spring  is  sweet  and  nutritious.  So  they  stripped  and  scraped 
the  bark  for  its  mucilaginous  living  layer.  The  branchlets  are 
fragrant,  giving  out  when  crushed  an  odour  as  of  orange  peel. 

Shortleaf  Pine  (P.  echinata,  Mill.) — A  slender  trunk, 
with  loose,  round  or  pyramidal  head,  80  to  120  feet  high.  Bark 
thick,  cleft  into  square  plates,  with  cinnamon-red  scales.  Young 
shoots  violet.  Wood  orange  or  yellow-brown,  hard,  heavy, 
durable,  strong,  coarse  grained,  with  broad  bands  of  small  sum- 
mer cells  in  each  annual  layer.  Buds  plump,  blunt,  scaly. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  twos  or  threes;  dark  blue-green;  acute, 
slender,  soft  and  flexible,  3  to  5  inches  long,  in  silvery  white 
sheath  which  turns  brownish.  Flowers:  staminate  crowded, 
subterminal,  purplish;  pistillate  2  to  4,  stalked,  subterminal  or 
terminal  on  adventitious  spurs;  purplish  or  rose  pink.  Fruit 
biennial,  abundant,  i^  to  2^  inches  long,  ovate,  tapering, 
scales  thickened,  4-angled  at  tip,  with  or  without  short,  recurved 
prickle,  seeds  winged.  Old  cones  persist  several  years.  Pre- 
ferred habitat,  well  drained,  gravelly  soil  with  clay  intermixed; 

44 


I 


S  w 

si 


2  e 


.^H 


THE    RED   OR   NORWAY   PINE  (Pinus  resinosa) 

The  leaves  are  slender  and  long,  dark  green  and  lustrous,  in  2's,  rising  out  ot  long  sheaths.     The  cones  have  thick,  woody  scales, 

destitute  of  prickles.     The  pale-red  wood  is  used  for  masts  and  bridge  timbers 


The  Pines 

uplands  of  scant  fertility.  Disiribution,  Connecticut  to  Florida; 
west  to  Illinois,  Kansas  and  Texas.  Not  continuous.  Uses: 
Lumber  used  as  P.  palustris  is.  Young  trees  yield  turpentine 
and  pitch.  Rarely  planted.  Reforests  adjacent  fields  and  lum- 
bered areas  by  copious  seeds  and  vigorous  suckers. 

The  shortleaf  pine  is  short  leaved  only  in  comparison  with 
the  exceedingly  long  needles  of  P.  palustris.  The  leaves  are 
about  the  length  of  those  of  the  Austrian  pine,  so  familiar  in  cul- 
tivation, and  beside  which  the  Scotch  and  white  pines  are 
short-leaved  species. 

Next  to  the  longleaf  in  rank,  the  shortleaf  pine  is  one  of 
the  most  important  lumber  trees  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern 
states,  just  a  shade  inferior  to  the  former  in  quality,  this  species 
is  likely  by  its  vigour  and  wide  range  to  become  greatest  of  them 
all  in  economic  importance  as  the  exploitation  of  the  timber 
lands  of  the  South  progresses.  Against  the  destructive  agencies 
at  work  the  longleaf  cannot  hold  its  own.  Its  ultimate  extinc- 
tion must  follow  present  methods  of  lumbering  and  orcharding. 
But  the  shortleaf  pine,  less  sensitive  to  injuries,  more  prolific  of 
seeds,  able  to  renew  itself  indefinitely  by  throwing  up  suckers 
from  the  stump,  and  to  survive  shading  of  its  saplings  better 
than  the  longleaf  and  Cuban  pines,  has  a  distinct  advantage  over 
these,  its  compeers  in  the  South  and  East.  The  distribution  of  the 
species  is  over  a  vaster  area,  and  each  grove  is  the  centre  of  a 
growing  and  widening  territory.  It  industriously  colonises  adja- 
cent land  abandoned  by  the  farmer  or  the  lumberman.  In  a  free 
fight  with  hardwood  trees  this  pine  is  the  winner,  and  the 
young  forests  it  is  planting  will  be  marketable  in  80  to  100  years. 

The  forest  centre  of  this  species  is  west  of  the  Mississippi 
and  below  the  Arkansas  River.  This  great  tract  was  practically 
untouched  at  the  time  the  tenth  Census  Report,  issued  in  1880, 
estimated  its  merchantable  timber  then  standing  at  87,000,000,000 
feet,  board  measure.  This  counted  only  the  area  in  Texas, 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  and  left  out  the  forests  in  Missouri  and 
Oklahoma.  There  is  little  of  the  vast  Eastern  territory  once  covered 
by  the  shortleaf  pine  that  has  not  been  worked  to  some  extent 
by  lumbermen,  especially  where  railroads  make  possible  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  lumber.  In  the  past  twenty-five  years  astonishing 
inroads  have  been  made  upon  the  Southwestern  forests. 

While  inferior  to  P.  palustris,  lumber  of  P.  echinata  is  often 
45 


The  Pines 

preferred,  because  it  is  less  resinous  and  softer  and  so  more  easily 
worked.  Doors,  sash  and  blinds  are  made  of  it  and  interior  finish 
of  houses.  It  is  the  common  "yellow  pine"  of  the  Middle 
West,  brought  north  on  the  river.  It  is  the  "North  Carolina 
pine  "  which  the  kiln-drying  process  cured  of  its  "  black  sap  "  and 
made  a  beautiful  finishing  lumber. 

The  Monterey  Pine  {P.  radiata,  D.  Don.),  like  its  com- 
panion, Torrey's  pine,  is  restricted  to  a  very  narrow  range. 
They  occur  together  in  Santa  Rosa  Island,  and  each  has  a  narrow 
strip  of  territory  on  the  mainland  of  southern  California.  On 
Point  Pinos,  south  of  Monterey  Bay,  P.  radiaia  is  most  abundant 
and  grows  to  lOO  feet  in  height,  with  trunks  occasionally  5  or  6 
feet  in  diameter.     Its  wood  is  soft  and  weak. 

The  bright  rich  green  of  the  leaves,  which  never  linger 
more  than  3  years  to  dull  the  freshness  of  the  new  ones,  and 
a  silvery  sheen  the  young  growth  wears,  make  this  tree  one  of 
the  handsome  pines.  Its  quick  growth  also  destines  it  for  pop- 
ularity with  landscape  gardeners  wherever  the  climate  is  mild 
enough  in  winter.  It  is  a  favourite  park  tree  from  Vancouver 
Island  down  the  coast  to  its  natural  range.  It  has  long  been 
planted  in  pleasure  grounds  of  western  and  southern  Europe, 
and  occasionally  in  our  Southeastern  States. 

Red  or  Norway  Pine  {P.  resifiosa,  Ait.) — Large,  broadly 
pyramidal  tree,  75  to  120  feet  high,  branched  to  the  ground, 
with  stout  twigs.  Bark  shallowly  furrowed  into  flat,  scaly 
ridges,  reddish  brown,  rich  in  tannin;  branches  rough,  glabrous. 
Wood  pale  red,  light,  hard,  resinous;  sap  wood  yellow  or  white. 
Buds  conical,  tapering,  with  loose,  red  scales.  Leaves  in  clusters 
of  twos,  from  close,  persistent  sheaths,  ^  inch  long;  needle- 
like, dark  green,  6  inches  long,  sharp  pointed,  flexible  semi- 
circular in  cross  section,  toothed  near  tip,  with  rows  of  pale  dots 
lengthwise.  Flowers:  staminate  red,  abundant,  clustered  at  base 
of  season's  shoot;  pistillate  i  to  3,  terminal,  peduncled,  red- 
dish, oval.  Fruits  ovate,  1  to  3  inches  long,  standing  at  right 
angles  with  stem;  biennial;  scales  thickened,  4-angled  at  apex, 
unarmed;  seeds  winged.  Preferred  habitat,  dry,  sandy  plains 
and  rocky  ridges.  Distribution,  southern  Canada,  Northern 
States  from  Maine  to  Minnesota;  south  to  Pennsylvania.  Uses : 
Most  picturesque  and  desirable  of  pitch  pines  for  ornamental 
planting  in  the  North;  grows  rapidly  from  seed;  free  from  insect 

46 


The  Pines 

and  fungous  injuries.  Lumber  used  in  heavy  construction;  for 
bridges,  piles,  docks,  buildings,  masts  and  spars. 

The  red  pine  is  the  only  American  member  of  a  group  of  Old- 
World  pines  of  which  P.  sylvesiris,  the  Scotch  pine  of  Europe,  is 
a  familiar  example.  The  paired  leaves  and  red  bark  are  signs  of 
kinship.  Both  are  common  in  cultivation  in  America,  and  we 
shall  distinguish  the  native  tree  by  its  longer  leaf  and  the  heavy 
tufting  of  its  twigs;  the  short  leaves  of  P.  sylvesiris  are  thinly 
and  evenly  scattered  along  its  branches. 

An  early  Spanish  explorer  erroneously  described  this  tree  as 
identical  with  the  variety  of  the  Scotch  pine  that  grows  in 
Norway.     In  this  way  it  came  by  its  second  name. 

There  is  a  lustiness  and  symmetry  of  growth  and  an  expres- 
sion of  hardiness  and  health  in  the  red  pine  which  makes  the 
other  pitch  pines  look  ragged  and  discouraged,  and  the  graceful 
white  pines  delicate  and  unequal  to  the  struggle  of  life.  No 
handsomer  pine  than  this  one  is  found  in  the  Northeastern 
States. 

The  wood  of  red  pine  is  not  what  we  might  expect  from 
such  a  tree.  Rich  in  resin  and  fine  grained,  yet  its  durability  is 
not  to  be  depended  upon.  Its  height  gave  masts  and  spars  of 
great  size  and  free  of  blemishes.  It  was  once  shipped  in  quan- 
tities to  England  out  of  the  Canadian  woods  to  be  used  at  the 
dockyards,  and  for  piles  and  bridge  timbers.  Of  late  years 
better  pine  has  been  substituted.  Turpentine  and  tar  are  not 
derived  from  this  tree,  despite  its  name,  resinosa,  "full  of  resin." 
Less  pitchy  than  P.  rigida,  soft  like  P.  Sirobtis,  the  wood  seems 
intermediate  between  the  two. 

The  living  tree  is  more  valuable  than  its  log;  when  the  lum- 
berman scoffs  at  the  red  pine  the  landscape  gardener  takes  it  up. 
It  grows  on  exposed  and  sterile  coasts,  where  it  rapidly  forms 
effective  windbreaks  and  beautiful  groves.  It  adds  a  distinct  type 
of  beauty  to  parks  and  private  grounds.  Its  hardiness  and  ra- 
pidity of  growth  commend  it  to  the  colder  states.  Not  the  least 
of  its  good  points  in  the  home  grounds  is  that  its  two  leaves  in 
their  close,  deep  sheaths  furnish  children  exactly  the  right  ma- 
terial for  chains,  the  making  of  which  is  one  of  the  most  absorb- 
ing pleasures  of  childhood. 

The  Prickle-Cone  Pine  {P.  muricata,  D.  Don.)  is  a 
handsome  round-topped  evergreen,  covered  with  dense  tufts  of 

47 


stiff,  yellow-green  leaves.  It  is  the  dominant  pine  of  the  coast 
of  Mendocino  County,  and  follows  down  in  sight  of  the  ocean 
into  Lower  California.  The  oblique  cones,  whose  thickened 
scales  are  armed  with  sharp,  strong  beaks,  are  conspicuous  by 
their  persistence  for  years  unopened  on  the  branch.  It  is  rare  for 
them  to  fall,  even  after  they  open  and  discharge  the  seed.  They 
usually  remain  throughout  the  lifetime  of  the  tree,  but  strangely 
are  never  swallowed  up  by  the  growth  of  the  branch  that  bears 
them. 

The  Table-Mountain  Pine  {P.  pungefis,  Michx.),  with 
cones  quite  as  formidable  as  those  of  the  preceding' species,  and 
closely  resembling  them  in  appearance,  has  the  same  tardy  habit 
of  opening  and  casting  its  cones  that  marks  P.  miiricata.  But  P. 
pungens  is  Eastern,  growing  on  gravelly  ridges  o<^  \he  Appalachian 
Mountains  from  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  to  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee.  It  has  clustered  blue-green  foliage  of  sombre 
hue,  and  forms  a  flattened,  irregular  head,  its  long,  horizontal 
branches  often  drooping,  but  the  twigs  erect.  The  wood  is 
used  for  fuel  and  for  charcoal  in  some  localities.  Its  dingy  colour, 
barren  habitat  and  scraggly  growth  earn  it  the  name,  "poverty 
pine."  The  thin  bark,  breaking  into  loose,  scaly  plates,  is 
probably  responsible  for  the  name,  "hickory  pine."  There  is  no 
quality  of  the  brittle,  coarse-gained  wood  to  account  for  it. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  Bulletin  lo  of  the  Kansas  Agricul- 
tural College,  which  is  located  at  Manhattan  in  the  western  part 
of  the  state,  that  P.  pungens  is  one  of  the  hardiest  and  best  pines 
for  that  region.  The  leaves  are  a  decided  yellow-green  there,  a 
cheerful  contrast  to  the  sombre  Austrian  pines  so  generally  planted. 
The  waywardness  of  the  tree's  habit  is  made  a  virtue.  The 
terminal  shoot  bends  strongly  out  of  the  vertical,  producing  a 
grotesque  leaning  tree,  which  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  prim 
and  formal  European  species  with  which  it  is  successfully  grouped 
in  grounds  of  considerable  extent.  The  following  Western 
species  and  varieties  were  tried  and  failed  on  the  college  grounds: 
P.  contorta,  edulis,  Jejfreyi  and  ponderosa.  Besides  P.  pungens, 
other  Eastern  pines  that  were  successfully  grown  were  rigida  and 
echinata.  P.  Strobus  grew  often  into  handsome,  shapely  speci- 
mens, but  died  young  in  the  hot  winds. 

The  Scrub  Pine  (P.  contorta,  Lond.)  is  one  of  four  stunted, 
gnarly,  round-shouldered  trees  that  are  prostrated  by  exposure  to 


The  Pines 

the  ocean  winds.  They  are  the  beach  pines.  This  one  grows 
from  northern  California  into  Alaska  in  bogs  and  sand  dunes, 
bearing  its  cones  when  only  a  few  inches  high  in  the  bleakest 
situations.  These  trees  form  a  windbreak  behind  which  many 
sorts  of  tender  plants  thrive  in  quiet  security.  The  bark  is  thin 
and  pale  and  gummy  on  these  dwarfs,  and  once  a  fire  is  started 
it  devours  all  within  reach.  Now  a  very  interesting  habit  of  the 
tree  comes  into  prominence.  The  cones  hang  on  the  trees  for 
years  without  opening,  but  their  seeds  are  safely  sealed  up  and 
retain  their  vitality.  The  burned  trees  drop  their  cones,  which, 
opening,  free  the  seeds.  From  them  young  trees  spring  up  to 
take  the  places  of  those  wiped  out  by  the  fire. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  tall,  slim  lodge  pole,  or 
tamarack  pine  is  but  a  variety — Murray  ana — ^of  P.  contorta,  but 
so  it  is  considered  on  good  authority.  The  mountains  of 
Wyoming,  Colorado  and  the  states  further  west  are  clothed  with  ■ 
dense  forests  of  this  tree.  They  grow  as  thick  as  wheat  in  a 
field,  and  so  are  all  delicately  tall,  but  in  favoured  situations  iso- 
lated trees  reach  the  height  of  loo  feet,  and  a  trunk  diameter 
of  li  feet.  An  average  forest  specimen  is  5  inches  through 
and  40  to  50  feet  high.  The  Indians  cut  poles  for  their  lodges  or 
tepees.  These  pines,  flexible,  slender  and  always  abundant, 
seemed  designed  by  Nature  to  serve  this  need.  The  name  re- 
mains, though  the  lodge  of  the  Indian  is  rapidly  disappearing. 

There  is  great  variation  in  this  species  and  its  variety, 
Murrayana,  as  the  trees  meet  very  different  conditions.  The 
leaves  are  in  twos,  and  1  to  3  inches  long,  dark  green  in  contorta, 
yellow-green  and  quite  wide  in  the  variety.  The  wood  of 
contorta  is  hard,  brownish  red,  and  strong;  oi  Murrayana,  soft, 
pale  yellow,  and  weak.  The  kitter  is  used  for  lumber  to  a 
limited  extent,  and  both  are  cut  for  fuel.  While  it  is  not  a  promi- 
nent commercial  tree,  it  is  the  main  reliance  of  the  pioneer  in 
many  regions.  It  supplies  mines  with  supporting  beams,  fences 
the  settler's  homestead,  and  furnishes  ties  for  the  pioneer  railroads. 

The  Indians  cut  the  trees  down  and  strip  out  the  inner  bark. 
This  is  broken  into  pieces  by  the  patient  squaws,  who  mash  it 
in  water  into  a  pulp  which  they  mould  into  large  cakes.  Then 
a  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  lined  with  stones,  and  a  fire 
kindled.  When  the  stones  are  hot  the  embers  are  removed,  and 
the  cakes  packed  in  with  leaves  of  the  Western  skunk  cabbage 

49 


The  Pines 

between.  A  fire  of  damp  moss  is  built  on  top,  and  the  baking 
takes  an  iiour  or  more.  Then  the  cakes  are  laid  on  slat  frames 
and  smoked  for  a  week  in  a  close  tent.  Now  they  are  ready  to 
put  away  for  future  use,  or  to  carry  in  canoes  or  on  ponies  to 
distant  places. 

This  "hard  bread "  is  prepared  for  use  by  breaking  it  in 
pieces  and  boiling  them  until  soft.  The  pieces  are  skimmed  out 
and  laid  on  the  snow  to  cool.  "U'likou"  fat  is  used  on  this 
strange  Alaskan   bread  as  we  use  butter. 

The  Indians  make  berry  baskets  out  of  the  bark  of  the  lodge- 
pole  pine.  Nuttall,  in  his  extension  of  Michaux's  "Sylva  of 
North  America,"  calls  this  the  twisted-branched  pine.  I  well 
recall  tne  curious  rustic  chairs  and  seats  at  the  Dome  Lake  Club 
House  in  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  in  Wyoming,  made  of  the 
extravagantly  twisted  branches  of  this  tree.  They  called  it 
"screw  pine,"  1  remember.  The  name  conlorta  may  allude  to 
this  characteristic,  too,  although  it  is  not  constant  in  the  species. 
It  may  rather  be  regarded  as  a  freak  of  nature,  the  cause  of  which 
is  not  understood.  However,  the  hard  life  of  the  species  on 
the  bleak,  wind-swept  coast  and  unprotected  sand  dunes  may 
easily  earn  it  the  name  there. 

The  Sand  Pine  {P.  clausa,  Sarg. )  has  a  striking  habit  of 
swallowing  its  persistent  woody  cones  by  the  growth  of  the 
stems  that  bear  them.  Chopping  frequently  reveals  cones  in  the 
solid  wood — a  peculiar  kind  of  modified  knot.  The  tree  is  unim- 
portant to  the  lumber  trade,  being  inferior  in  quality  and  scant  in 
quantity.  It  grows  near  the  coast  on  either  side  of  northern 
Florida  and  west  into  Alabama.  It  is  used  locally  as  masts  for 
small  vessels. 

The  Spruce  Pine  {P.  glabra,  Walt.)  is  a  close  relative  of 
the  shortleaf  P.  echinata.  It  grows  from  South  Carolina  to 
Louisiana,  in  lowlands,  solitary  or  in  considerable  groves.  It 
attains  the  height  of  120  feet,  and  spreads  over  a  considerable 
territory  in  northwestern  Florida.  Little  use  is  made  of  its  light, 
soft  wood  beyond  the  local  fuel  supply.  It  is  known  as  "cedar 
pine"  in  Mississippi.  Its  foliage  is  soft,  and  bright,  dark  green, 
being  shed  when  but  two  years  old. 

The  Jersey  or  Scrub  Pine  {P.  yirginiana,  Mill.)  is  another 
of  those  unfortunate  trees  whose  lot  seems  to  be  to  extort  a 
meagre  and  miserable  living  out  of  worthless  soil.     A  tortuous 

50 


THE    JERSEY   PINE  {Pinus  Virginiana) 

This  also  is  a  ;crub  pine;  it  grows  on  the  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey,  a  pendulous,  discouraged  tree.  Its  grey-green  leaves 
are  in  bundles  of  twos.  It  does  as  well  as  a  tree  can  on  worthless  soil.  In  Indiana  it  becomes  a  pyramidal  tree  forty  feet  hig\». 
The  ccnes  are  dark-red,  curved,  and  armed  with  sharp  prickles 


THE    RED  SPRUCE  {Picea  ruhens) 

Bright  red  downy  twigs,  red  wood  and  reddish  bark  give  this  tree  its  name.     Short,  stiff,  pointed,  4-angled  leaves  set  all  around 
the  twig  prove  this  tree  a  spruce.     The  wood  is  used  for  the  sounding  boards  of  musical  instruments 


li  .nier  uud  (.sume  leaves  cut  away  to  show  bud) 

THE    GREY  PINE  {P,nus  dnancata) 

Its  flat,  grev-green  leaves  are  in  clusters  of  2's  on  the  yellow  twigs.  The  cones  are  strongly  curved  and  taper  to  a  long 
point.  Among  the  pines  this  is  a  straggling  good-for-little  species,  that  clothes  barren  sand  dunes  and  arctic  bogs  with  a 
straggling  tree  growth 


The  Pines 

low  tree,  pendulous  and  discouraged  looking,  with  grey-green 
leaves,  that  are^  yellowish  as  they  first  appear,  stubby,  i  to  3 
inches  long,  in  clusters  of  twos.  This  is  the  tree  of  the  Jersey 
pine  barrens — the  tree  that  clothes  these  waste  places  and  gets 
little  credit  for  it. 

Peter  Kalm  observed  .that  cattle,  in  the  heat  of  the  day, 
choose  the  shade  of  this  tree  rather  than  of  any  other,  though  its 
foliage  be  much  thicker.  He  judges  that  this  strange  choice 
arises  "from  the  gratefulness  of  the  fragrance"  of  this  tree. 
Another  author  comments  on  the  delightful  fragrance  exhaled  by 
the  exuding  balsam  of  the  despised  Jersey  pine.  The  oppor- 
tunity to  point  a  moral  here  is  almost  irresistible.  But  1  stay  my 
pointer.  The  range  of  P.  yirginiana  is  wide;  from  Long  Island  to 
Georgia  and  Alabama,  and  west  to  Indiana,  where  it  rises  to  the 
height  of  100  feet.  Its  average  height  is  one-third  of  this  maxi- 
mum limit,  with  a  trunk  diameter  rarely  over  18  inches, 

The  wood  has  been  locally  used  for  making  tar,  and  for 
pump  logs,  water  pipes,  for  fencing  and  fuel.  It  is  not  an 
economic  tree,  unless  considered  so  in  its  work  of  covering 
quickly  large  areas  of  sterile  soils  in. the  Eastern  States. 

The  Grey  or  Scrub  Pine  {P.  divaricata,  Sudw.)  is  an  out- 
cast, strangely  spurned  and  superstitiously  feared  in  many  places 
where  it  grows.  It  ventures  farther  north  than  any  other  pine. 
From  the  northern  tier  of  states  it  ranges  into  the  cold  of  frigid 
regions,  following  the  Mackenzie  River  even  to  the  Arctic  circle. 
It  grows  only  on  barren  ground — rocky  slopes  and  in  cold, 
boggy  stretches.  In  Michigan  it  dips  down  to  the  southern 
point  of  the  lake,  scattering  over  the  sand  dunes,  and  clothing 
the  barren  stretches  of  the  lower  peninsula,  which  are  known  as 
the  "Jack  Pine  Plains."  The  grey-green  leaves,  scant,  stubby, 
in  twos,  and  the  crouching,  sprawling  habit  of  the  tree,  which 
wears  its  old  cones  for  a  dozen  years  or  more — all  tend  to  preju- 
dice the  casual  observer  against  this  pine.  Only  the  thoughtful 
will  consider  what  the  desert  and  the  cold  North  would  be  with- 
out it.  North  of  Lake  Superior  it  rises  to  the  stature  of  a  tree, 
reaching  70  feet  in  height,  and  spreading  along  the  valley  of  the 
Mackenzie  River,  the  only  pine,  it  forms  forests  of  considerable 
area,  an  immeasurable  boon  to  the  scant  population  of  that 
region.  The  wood  makes  fuel  and  lumber,  frames  for  the 
Indian's  canoe,  posts  and  railroad  ties. 

51 


The  Pines 

From  Michigan  to  Minnesota  the  grey  pine  acts  as  a  nurse 
tree  to  the  seedlings  of  P.  resinosa  on  denuded  lands.  Later  the 
scrub  "cleans"  the  young  trees  of  lower  limbs,  greatly  adding 
to  their  timber  value. 

Strange  notions  prevail  in  certain  sections  concerning  this 
weird-looking  pine  tree.  Women  dare  not  pass  within  ten  feet 
of  a  tree,  and  men  also  give  it  a  wide  berth.  Cattle  browsing 
near  it  are  ftitally  stricken;  the  tree  is  believed  to  poison  the 
ground  it  shadows.  One  who  believes  current  reports  of  this  tree 
will  destroy  every  one  growing  on  his  land;  but  he  dare  not 
chop  them  down.  Each  must  be  burned  like  a  witch,  by  making 
a  funeral  pyre  all  around  it.  Every  misfortune  that  overtakes  a 
fiimily  is  laid  at  the  foot  of  the  grey  pine,  as  long  as  there  is  one 
left  on  the  place. 


EXOTIC  PINES 

We  are  all  European  immigrants,  once  or  twice  removed. 
Our  craving  for  things  imported  is  an  appetite  inherited  from  our 
Colonial  ancestors.  Our  horticulture  owns  its  European  paren- 
tage. The  early  settlers  brought  trees  and  flowers  from  the  old 
country.  They  transplanted  the  old  home,  as  far  as  could  be,  to 
the  New  World.  European  evergreens  came  in  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Even  species  native  to  our  west  coast  were  brought 
into  Eastern  gardens  first  by  way  of  European  nurseries. 

Oriental  pines  are  coming  in,  making  valuable  contributions 
to  the  list  in  cultivation  from  Europe.  Our  native  pines  are  be- 
ing "discovered,"  horticulturally,  and  dissemination  of  species 
is  widening  the  range  of  all.  It  is  a  small  and  unpretentious  park 
indeed  that  does  not  show  pines  from  every  northern  continent. 
The  European  pines  most  widely  planted  in  the  eastern 
United  States  are  the  Scotch  and  Austrian  pines.  They  are  de- 
pendable trees,  hardy,  vigorous,  not  particular  as  to  soil  and  ex- 
posure— good  for  protective  and  ornamental  planting  even  on 
the  prairies  where  hot,  dry  winds  blow  and  for  weeks  no  rain 
may  fall. 

The  Austrian  Pine  is  a  hardy  variety,  Austriaca,  of  the 
Corsican  pine  {P.  Laricio,  Poir.),  of  southern  Europe.  It  is  a 
sombre  tree,  darker  green  than  any  other  evergreen  except  tne 

^2 


The  Pines 

red  cedar.  In  youth  it  is  a  compact  cone  or  globe,  resting  on 
the  ground.  The  leaves,  two  in  a  sheath,  are  6  inches  long,  and 
inclined  to  twist  stiffly.  They  persist  several  years.  Cones 
ripen  in  the  second  autumn,  and  do  not  open  until  another  crop  is 
ripe.  Large  trees  are  transplanted  safely,  even  in  the  -height  of 
the  growing  season. 

The  Scotch  Pine  {P.  sylvestris,  Linn.)  is  one  of  the  most 
important  timber  trees  of  Europe.  In  this  country  it  was  fre- 
quently planted  about  homes,  where  it  has  grown  to  great  size. 
By  no  means  as  handsome  a  tree  as  our  own  white  pine,  it  has 
certain  advantages  over  its  companion,  the  Austrian  variety.  Its 
habit  is  less  compact  and  formal,  and  its  foliage  (also  in  bundles 
of  twos)  is  shorter,  looser  and  more  cheerful  looking  in  spite  of 
its  blue  tinge.  It  grows  more  rapidly,  and  neatly  sheds  its 
cones  as  soon  as  ripe,  while  the  Austrian  pine  shows  its  bare 
limbs  laden  for  years  with  empty  cones. 

The  Swiss  Pines  {P.  Cembra  and^montana)  are  all  pictur- 
esque and  hardy,  as  if  they  crouched  under  Alpine  blasts,  even  in 
the  most  comfortable  situations.  Any  flat-topped,  irregular  ever- 
green growing  wild  is  attractive  to  the  eye  of  the  nurseryman 
who  has  a  landscape-gardening  department  and  facilities  for 
moving  large  trees.  He  is  able  to  get  the  tree  at  a  bargain  from 
the  farmer  in  whose  woodlot  or  pasture  it  stands.  There  is  very 
little  cordwood  in  it.  The  new  owner  cuts  a  big  circle  around 
the  tree  the  depth  of  a  spade,  severing  the  roots  outside  this 
boundary.  A  year  later  a  thick  mat  of  rootlets  has  resulted  from 
this  root  pruning,   and  in  the  winter  the  tree  is  easily  taken  up 

and  planted  in  just  the  right  place  on  Mr. 's  new  country 

place.  He  points  out  to  his  friends  the  striking  "Swiss-pine 
effect  "  of  this  tree  etched  against  the  sky.  It  is  a  good  thing, 
and  worth  the  price,  even  if  he  never  heard  of  a  Swiss  pine 
before  in  his  life. 

The  Mugho  Pine  has  a  shrubby  habit,  spreading  twice  its 
height.  It  is  one  of  several  dwarf  varieties  of  the  Swiss  moun- 
tain pine  {P.  Montana,  Mill.),  and  is  very  effective  as  a  speci- 
men tree  or  grouped  with  others  to  cover  rocky  hillsides. 

The  Stone  Pine  {P.  Pinea)  and  the  Aleppo  Pine  {P.  Hale- 
i^<7Z5/,s")  are  natives  of  southern  Europe  and  so  not  hardy.  The 
Macedonian  Pine  {P.  Pence)  and  the  Cluster  Pine  {p.  Pin- 
aster) have  the  same  climatic  limitations  in  this  country,  though 

53 


The  Pines 

hardy  in  England,  where  the  Aleppo  and  cluster  pines  are  much 
used  for  seaside  planting. 

China  and  Japan  and  Korea  have  furnished  some  excep- 
tionally handsome  pines  that  are  hardy  and  vigorous  in  American 
parks  and  gardens.  The  Korean  Pine  {P.  Koraiensis),  is  a 
handsome,  narrowly  pyramidal  tree  when  young,  becoming  very 
picturesque  when  old.  It  is  a  slow-growing  pine,  well  adapted  to 
small  gardens.  The  foliage  is  thick,  and  dark  green  with  pale 
linings.  From  China  comes  the  Lacebark  Pine  {P.  Bungeafia), 
with  light-green  foliage  and  white,  intricately  netted  bark,  slow  of 
growth  and  hardy  north. 

From  Japan  we  have  three  species.  The  little  P.  parviflora, 
often  dwarfed  by  potting  at  home,  is  charming  in  its  abundance 
of  red  cones  in  the  dense  pyramid  of  bluish-green  leaves.  It  is 
one  of  Japan's  forest  trees,  growing  to  80  feet  in  height.  The 
Red  Pine  {P.  densiflora),  also  a  great  tree  at  home,  attains  a 
goodly  size  in  cultivation,  grows  rapidly,  with  long  branches 
spreading  into  a  broad  head.  The  foliage  is  bluish  green.  Many 
forms  with  variegated  leaves  have  been  derived  from  this  species. 
The  Black  Pine  {P.  Thunbergi),  another  large  tree  from  Japan, 
has  bright  green  foliage,  and  grows  in  a  handsome  broad 
pyramid. 

Himalayan  Pines,  two  in  number,  both  large  trees  at 
home,  are  cultivated  here.  Their  other  points  of  beauty  are  all 
secondary  to  the  charm  of  their  long,  drooping  leaves.  The 
Bhotan  Pine,  P.  excelsa,  has  blue-green  leaves,  6  to  8  inches  long, 
and  cylindrical  stalked  cones  of  about  equal  length.  It  is  hardy 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Boston.  P.  longifolia  is  a  tender  species 
cultivated  in  California,  Its  leaves  are  pale  green,  8  to  12  inches 
long,  slender  and  pendulous.  No  more  beautiful  pine  can  be  im- 
agined than  a  young  and  vigorous  Himalayan  longleaf  v/ith  the 
wind  playing  among  its  drooping  leaf  clusters. 

The  Mexican  White  Pine  {P.  Ayacahuite),  a  near  relative 
of  our  Northern  white  pine,  and  resembling  the  Himalayan  species 
in  the  pendulous  leaf  habit,  is  unknown  to  any  but  a  few  spe- 
cialists. But  it  is  sure  to  be  recognised  and  widely  planted 
where  it  is  hardy.  The  tree  is  graceful  and  symmetrical,  its 
whorls  of  slender  branches  held  well  apart  and  horizontal.  The 
droop  is  in  the  leaves  themselves,  pale  green,  bluish  and  4  to  6 
inches  long.      The  handsome  cones  are  9  to  15  inches    long, 

54 


The  Pines 

tapering,  often  curved,  and  brownish  yellow.  Though  not 
counted  hardy  in  the  North,  this  Mexican  species  grows  behind 
the  protecting  Scotch  pines  on  Mr.  Dana's  place,  Dosoris,  on 
Long  Island. 

The  Umbrella  Pine  {Sciadopiiys  verticillatd)  is  a  Japanese 
conifer,  a  beautiful  conical  evergreen,  whose  glossy  green  leaves  are 
needle-like,  3  to  6  inches  long,  and  set  in  umbrella-like  whorls  of 
15  to  35  leaves  at  the  ends  of  all  the  twigs.  The  tree  is  a  puzzle 
to  botanists  and  a  delight  to  horticulturists.  It  is  hardy  to 
Portland,  Maine,  grows  slowly,  but  is  thrifty  in  many  soils,  and 
is  strikingly  decorative  at  any  age.  A  dwarf  variety  and  one 
with  variegated  foliage  are  offered  by  dealers.  The  normal  type 
of  this  species  grows  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  losing  gradually 
its  compact,  spire-like  form,  its  limbs  becom.ing  pendulous  and 
more  spreading. 

NATIVE  PINES  VALUABLE  AS  ORNAMENTALS 
Hardy 


Vl^hite 

- 

-            _            _ 

P.  Strobus  and  vars 

Mountain 

-            -            -            _ 

'    monticola 

Sugar 

- 

-            _            - 

'    Lambertiana 

Rocky  Mountain  White   -            -            - 

'  flexilis 

Pitch 

- 

-            _            _ 

'    ri^ida 

Shortleaf 

_            _            _ 

"    ecliiiiata 

Norway  or 

Red 

Not  Hardy 

' '    resinosa 

Foxtail      - 

_            -            ..            _ 

P.  Balfouriana 

Digger  - 

- 

-            -            _ 

'    Sabiniaiia 

Big-cone 

-            -            _            _ 

'    Coultcvi 

Jeffrey's 

- 

- 

'  Mnyi 

Yellow      - 

-            _            _ 

'    ponderosa 

Cuban 

- 

-            _            _ 

'    Caribiva 

Monterey 

- 

'    radiata 

Prickle-cone   - 

-            _            _ 

'    miiricata 

EXOTIC  PINES  VALUABLE  AS  ORNAMENTALS 
Hardy — European 


Swiss  Stone 
Austrian 
Scotch     - 
Swiss  Mountain 
Mugho    - 


55 


P.  Cembra 

"  Laricio,V2ir.Atistriaca 

"  sylvestris 

"  mojiiana 

"  "        var.  Mughiis 


The  Pines 

Hardy — Asiatic 

Korean 

Chinese  Lace-bark 
Himalayan  White      - 
Japanese  Black    - 
Red 
"        Small-flowered 

•            - 

P. 

Koraiensis 
Bungeana 
excelsa 
Thiinbergi 
densiflora 
parvijiora 

Not 

Hardy — European 

Cluster 

Stone      -            -            _ 

Aleppo          -i 

Macedonian 

Mexican 

P. 
it 

Pinaster 
Pine  a 
Halepensis 
Pence 

White 

Asiatic 

P 

Ayacahuite 

Himalayan  Longleaf 

- 

P. 

longifolia 

PINES  PICTURESQUE 

WHEN  OLD 

Native 

Red 

Monterey 

White 

Big  Cone 

Pitch 

Nut        - 

Table  Mountain 

- 

; 

P.  resinosa 
"    radiata 
"    Strobus 
"    Conlteri 
"    rigida 
"    quadrifolia 
"    pungens 

Stone     -            -           - 
Swiss  Stone 
Scotch   - 
Corsican 

European 
Asiatic 

- 

-     P.  Pinea 
"    Cembra 
"    sylvestris 
"    Laricio 

Japanese  Red    - 

"        Small-flowered 

~ 

- 

P.  densiflora 
*  *   parviflora 

PINES  VALUABLE  FOR  COVERING 

STERILE  GROUND 

Mugho   -            -            - 

Swiss  Mountain 

Grey       -            -            - 

Pitch 

Scrub     -           -           - 

Foxtail 

' 

P. 

Montana,  var.  Mughus 

divaricata 
rigida 
Virginiana 
aristata 

56 


The  PineJ 


Cluster 
Aleppo 
Pitch 
Monterey 


FOR  SEASIDE  PLANTING 


Pinaster 
Halepensis 
rigida 
radiata 


SLOW-GROWING  HARDY  PINES  ADAPTED 
TO  SMALL  GARDENS 


Exotic 


Korean 
Macedonian 
Lace-bark   - 
Small-tlowered 
Swiss  Stone 


Nut       - 

Foxtail 

Foxtail 

Rocky  Mountain  White 


Native 


Koraiensis 

Pence 

Bitngeana 

parvijlora 

Cembra 


P.  ediilis 
"    Balfotiriana 
"    aristata 
"  Jiexilis 


CHAPTER  VI :   THE  LARCHES 

Family  CoNiFERyt 

Genus  LARIX  Adans. 

Tall  pyramidal  trees,  with  few  liorizontal  branches.  Leaves 
linear,  deciduous  ;  fascicled  except  on  new  shoots.  Flowers 
solitary,  monoecious,  naked.  Fruit  annual,  woody  cones,  soli- 
tary, erect  and  sessile  on  the  twig.    Wood  hard,  heavy,  resinous. 

KEY   TO   SPECIES 

A.  Cones  less  than  i  inch  long,  almost  globular;  smooth; 
leaves,  3-angled  ;  bracts  not  visible  between  scales. 

(L.  Americana)  tamarack 
AA.  Cones  more  than  6  inches  long,  oblong,  with  prominent 
pointed  bracts  between  scales. 
B.   Leaves  3-angled  ;  twigs  downy  at  first. 

(L.  occidentalis)  western  larch 
BB.  Leaves  4-angled,  blue-green  ;  twigs  hairy. 

(L.  Lyallii)  alpine  larch 

The  distinction  of  the  genus  Larix  is  its  deciduous  habit.  One 
other  conifer  sheds  its  leaves  every  autumn.  The  clustering  of 
the  leaves  in  fascicles  on  short  lateral  spurs  is  unique  also.  Only 
the  terminal  shoots  bear  scattered  leaves. 

Beside  the  three  North  American  species  there  are  six  Old- 
World  larches — all  in  the  colder  latitudes  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, except  a  single  Himalayan  species.  The  native  species 
are  inferior  to  exotics  in  cultivation.  The  handsomest  larch  for 
lawns  is  L.  leptolepis,  Murr.  {L.  Ka^mpferi,  Sarg.),  a  Japanese 
species  with  pale  blue-green,  white-lined  leaves.  The  common 
larch  of  Europe,  L.  decidiia,  Mill.,  is  most  frequently  met  with  in 
cultivation  here.  It  is  a  graceful,  pyramidal  tree,  slender  and 
supple  limbed,  with  a  fresh  cover  of  feathery  leaves  every  spring. 
In  autumn  the  foliage  turns  yellow  before  it  is  shed.  The  Hima- 
layan L.  GriJJithi  is  not  hardy  in  the  North.  It  is  cultivated  in 
its  handsome  pendulous  forms. 

5» 


The  Larches 

Larches  are  cultivated  as  timber  trees  in  Europe  and  to  some 
extent  in  America.  Tiie  European  species  is  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose. Larch  wood  is  very  durable,  heavy  and  hard.  Rich  in 
resin,  yet  not  easily  ignited.  It  does  not  splinter,  and  hence  was 
preferred  for  the  building  of  battleships  before  the  day  when 
steel  came  in  to  replace  wood.  Larch  timbers  built  into  the  old- 
est of  French  castles  are  sound  when  the  stones  that  support 
them  are  crumbling.  It  is  believed  that  larch  will  outlast  oak. 
The  wood  of  L.  occidentalis  ranks  higher  than  any  other  coni- 
ferous kind. 

Larches  are  readily  grown  from  seed  and  easily  transplanted, 
even  when  quite  large,  if  the  work  is  done  while  the  trees  are 
dormant.  They  are  admirable  for  windbreaks  and  shelter  belts, 
to  which  uses  they  are  put  in  the  Middle  West  and  along  the 
coast  in  Massachusetts.  They  grow  rapidly  and  profitably  for 
posts,  railroad  ties  and  telegraph  poles,  as  they  are  straight  and 
free  from  large  knots,  being  pruned  by  close  contact  with  neigh- 
bours in  the  plantation  rows. 

In  the  fine  arts  larch  wood  has  had  its  place.  Raphael 
painted  many  of  his  earliest  pictures  on  larch  boards.  Other 
painters  of  his  time  followed  his  example.  Canvas  had  not  then 
been  generally  adopted  as  a  safe  foundation  for  a  painting.  Old, 
dry  larch  wood  from  trees  growing  on  the  high  Alps  and 
Apennines  looked  almost  transparent  when  polished.  It  was 
made  into  tables  and  cabinets  of  rare  workmanship,  and  brought 
extravagant  prices.  From  those  superb  larch  forests  it  was  not 
unusual  to  take  out  a  ship's  mast  120  feet  high! 

Minor  products  of  larches  are  turpentine  and  an  extract  of 
tannin  obtained  from  the  European  species. 

Tamarack  {Larix  Americana,  Michx.) — A  slender,  pyra- 
midal tree,  50  to  60  feet  high,  with  feeble  horizontal  branches, 
becoming  pendulous.  Bark  thin,  broken  into  reddish  scales. 
Wood  heavy,  hard,  light  brown,  strong,  coarse  grained,  resin- 
ous, durable  in  wet  soil.  Buds  small,  globular,  red,  shining. 
Leaves  soft,  deciduous,  fascicled  on  side  spurs,  scattered  on 
terminal  shoots  ;  linear,  triangular,  J  to  i  inch  long  ;  autumn 
color,  yellow.  Flowers:  moncEcious,  sessile,  borne  on  short 
branchlets  ;  pistillate  rosy,  ovate,  with  conspicuous  finger-like 
points  on  bracts  ;  staminate  yellow,  squat.  Fruit  small  cones 
with  concave,  plain  scales,  bearing  winged  seeds  ;  annual.    Pre- 

59 


The  Larches 

ferred  habitat,  cold  swamps  and  northern  slopes  of  mountains. 
Distribution,  Newfoundland  and  Hudson  Bay  west  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  ;  south  into  Minnesota,  Illinois,  Indiana  and 
Pennsylvania.  Uses:  Posts,  telegraph  poles,  railroad  ties  and 
ships'  timbers. 

The  tamarack  loves  the  Northern  mountain  slopes  and  the 
cold  swamps  of  Labrador  and  Canada  and  our  Northern  States. 
It  is  the  bravest  of  all  the  conifers,  standing  erect,  a  pitiful  minia- 
ture of  its  true  self,  on  the  very  edge  of  the  Arctic  tundras,  a 
line  that  no  tree  dares  overstep.  Its  companions,  the  black 
spruce.  Balm  of  Gilead  and  an  Arctic  willow,  are  prostrate  at  its 
feet.  In  American  lawns  trees  60  feet  high  are  often  seen.  But 
compared  with  the  European  tree  this  one  is  not  a  horticultural 
success.  The  mark  of  its  life  struggle  with  adversity  is  on  the 
species.  Even  seedlings  coddled  m  nursery  rows  have  sparse 
crowns  of  unsymmetrical  growth.  In  rich  soil  and  among  lux- 
uriant oaks  and  pines  and  thick-leaved  maples  the  tamarack 
looks  ragged  and  forlorn.  It  is  homesick'  for  the  cold,  wet  soil 
and  the  ble:ik  wind  and  the  valiant  company  of  its  kinsmen.  It 
is  an  artistic  and  an  ethical  mistake  to  set  one  of  these  trees  by 
itself.     Plantations  of  it  are  justifiable. 

Mountain  bogs  too  deep  to  measure  are  covered  with  tama- 
rack. The  fibrous  roots  were  the  Indian's  thread  ;  tough  and 
fine  as  a  shoemaker's  "waxed  end,"  it  sewed  the  canoe  of  birch, 
making  a  seam  that  scarcely  needed  the  wax  of  the  balsam  to 
make  it  water  tight.     Hiawatha  sang  : 

"Give  me  of  your  roots,  O  Tamarack  1 
Of  your  fibrous  roots,  O  Larch  Tree  1 
My  canoe  to  bind  together 
So  to  bind  the  ends  together 
That  the  water  may  not  enter 
That  the  water  may  not  wet  me." 

The  flowers  of  the  tamarack  are  not  conspicuous,  but  they 
repay  the  one  who  looks  for  them.  The  yellow  staminate  clus- 
ters, like  little  powdery  knobs,  soon  fall,  but  the  pistillate  ones, 
conical,  with  green  bracts  alternating  with  rosy  scales,  are  beau- 
tiful along  the  twig  against  the  lettuce  green  of  the  opening 
foliage  clusters.  Erect  and  with  scales  spread,  they  catch  the 
flying  pollen;  then  close  their  scales  and  "hang  their  heads" 
throughout  the  summer.     Under  the  rosy  scales  the  seeds  are 

60 


THE    WTHITE    SPRUCE  {Ptcea  Canadensis) 
Dark  hlue-green  or  pale  blue  foliage,  leaves  crowded  on    smooth   twigs,  cone  slenderly    cylindrical,  2  inches  long,  with  thin, 
flexible,  entire  scales — these  traits  belong  to  this  species.     The  white  wood  is  now  much  in  demand   for    making   paper.     The 
pale  leaves  and  bark  give  the  tree  its  name 

THE    BLACK   SPRUCE  (Picea   Mariana) 
This  tree  has  pubescent  twigs  and  spiny,  blue-green  foilage.      The  little   oval  cones,  which  become    globose  as   their   stiff 
scales  spread,  cling  for  years.     There  seems  to  be  little  justification  for  the  word  "black"  in  its  name,  for  bark  is  greyish-brown, 
and  the  wood  pale  yellow .    Y?t  a  Northern  bog  clothed  with  acres  of  this  growth  is  a  sombre,  monotonous  stretch 


The  Larches 

growing.  In  autumn  they  wake  up,  turn  themselves  about 
(which  seems  quite  '  unnecessary),  and  sitting  quite  erect 
on  the  twigs,  part  their  brown  scales,,  daring  the  wind  to 
capture  and  carry  off  the  winged  seeds.  There  is  plenty 
of  time,  for  the  ripe  cones  remain  where  they  are  until  the 
second  year. 

Western  Larch  (Lartx  occidentalis,  Nutt.) — A  pyramidal 
tree,  with  naked  trunk  and  sparse  foliage  at  the  top,  loo  to  250 
feet  high.  Bark  cinnamon-red,  broken  into  thick  plates,  with 
thin,  scaly  surface.  [Vood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  close  grained, 
red,  durable.  Buds  small,  globose,  brown,  hoary.  Leaves 
stiff,  sharp,  keeled  below,  triangular,  pale  green,  turning  yellow 
in  autumn.  Flowers:  pistillate  sessile,  oblong;  bracts  needle 
pointed  ;  staminate  stalked,  yellow,  globose.  Fruits  large, 
oval  cones  ;  scales  hoary  at  base  ;  bract  needle  pointed, 
shorter  than  scale.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  wet  soil,  at  2,000  to 
3,000  feet  elevation.  Distribution,  southern  British  Columbia  in 
Cascade  Mountains  to  Columbia  River;  in  Blue  Mountains  of 
Washington  and  Oregon;  to  western  Montana.  Uses:  Best 
wood  among  conifers.  Used  for  furniture  and  interior  tinish, 
railroad  ties,  fence  posts. 

The  Western  larch  holds  an  enviable  rank  among  American 
forest  trees.  It  is  counted  superior  to  all  other  conifers  in  the 
value  of  its  wood,  which  seems  to  have  all  good  qualities.  Its 
hardness,  fine  colour  and  brilliant  polish  commend  it  to  the  maker 
of  furniture.  As  fence  posts  and  railroad  ties  it  lasts  indefinitely, 
compared  with  other  timber.  Trees  6  feet  in  diameter  and  200 
feet  high  are  quite  common  in  this  species.  Of  such  mighty 
trunks  a  very  small  outer  layer  is  sap  wood. 

For  the  first  fifty  years  this  larch  is  pyramidal,  but  thinly 
branched.  From  this  age  on  the  lower  limbs  die,  and  the  tree 
at  length  presents  a  bare  trunk  with  a  mere  wisp  of  a  top. 
What  wonder  that  growth  is  slow!  One  log  18  inches  in 
diameter  showed  267  rings.  In  its  fiftieth  year  it  was  but  9 
inches  in  diameter.  The  last  inch  of  wood  was  eighty  years  in 
forming..  No  other  tree  has  so  inconsiderable  a  foliage  mass  to 
maintain  so  large  a  body. 

The  brown  gum  that  exudes  from  wounds  in  the  bark  of 
this  tree  seems  not  to  be  resinous,  though  it  smells  like  turpen- 
tine.     It  is  sweet  and  resembles  dextrine.       As  dextrine  is  a 

61 


The  Larches 

soluble  form  of  starch,  the  Indians  find  this  wax  a  very  nutritious 
article  of  food. 

The  Western  larch  shows  little  merit  as  an  ornamental  tree 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent.  In  Europe  it  does  better, 
and  is  planted  for  timber  as  well  as  for  ornament.  I  cannot 
grieve  that  this  magnificent  wild  tree  scorns  to  adapt  itself,  or 
even  its  seedlings,  to  the  compass  of  a  sunny  suburban  lawn  in 
the  East.  People  who  truly  wish  to  know  it  must  go  to  the 
wild  forest  parks  we  own  in  the  great  Northwest.  There  waits 
for  us  with  infinite  patience  (and  an  indifference  quite  as  large), 
the  grandest  larch  tree  in  the  world! 

The  Alpine  Larch  {Larix  Lyallii ,  Pari.)  is  a  slender  tree  of 
the  high  tablelands  of  the  Northwest,  balancing  itself  on  rocky 
ledges,  and  seeming  to  choose  the  most  exposed  and  forbidding 
situations.  It  climbs  to  the  very  limit  of  tree  growth,  and  pre- 
sents a  more  irregular  form  than  either  of  its  relatives.  The 
tough  limbs  divide  at  intervals,  throwing  out  several  branches 
at  the  same  point.  These  differ  in  strength  and  size.  The  twigs 
are  covered  with  white,  hairy  fuzz  which  is  shed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  winter.  The  bark  of  the  twigs  then  darkens  for  a  period 
of  several  years  and  becomes  almost  black.  On  the  trunk  the 
bark  is  reddish  and  loosely  scaly.  The  leaves  are  stiff  and  sharp, 
blue-green  and  distinctly  4-angled.  The  cones  have  their  scales 
far  surpassed  in  length  by  the  tip  of  the  bract.  The  hairiness  of 
the  cones  is  conspicuous. 

The  Alpine  larch  never  grows  below  an  altitude  of  4,000 
feet.  It  ranges  from  Montana  west  to  the  coast  and  north  into 
the  British  possessions. 


62 


CHAPTER   VII:     THE   SPRUCES 

Family  Conifer/e 

Genus  PICEA,  Link. 

Pyramidal  cone-bearing  evergreens,  with  tall,  tapering 
trunks  and  slender  horizontal  branches  ending  in  stout  twigs. 
Roots  long,  tough,  fibrous.  Leaves  4-angled,  stiff,  pointed, 
solitary,  spirally  arranged,  each  set  on  a  prominent,  woody  pro- 
jection. Flowers  monoecious,  solitary,  in  conical  aments  on 
new  shoots.  Fruits  pendant,  woody,  annual  cones.  Wood 
soft,  straight  grained,  valuable. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  distinctly  4-angled. 
B.  Branchlets  pubescent. 

C.  Leaves  blue-green,  short. 

D.  Cones  ovate,  ^  to  i^-  inches  long,  persistent, 

foliage  spiny.        {Picea  Mariana)  black  spruce 
DD.  Cones   oblong,  i  to  3  inches  long,  deciduous; 
foliage  soft  and  flexible. 

{Picea  Engelmanni)  engelmann  spruce 
CC.  Leaves  yellow-green,  spiny,  cones  i  to  2^  inches 

long,  early  deciduous.      {Picea  riibens)  red  spruce 
BB.   Branchlets    smooth  ;    leaves   spiny,    incurving,  blue- 
green. 
C.  Cones  slender;  scales  entire,  flexible,  blunt;  leaves 
strong  smelling,  ^  to  f  inch  long. 

{Picea  Canadensis)  white  spruce 
CC.  Cones  stout,  scales,   ridged,   pointed;  leaves  \  to 
\\  inches  long. 

{Picea  Parryana)  Colorado  blue  spruce 
AA.  Leaves  more  or  less  flattened;  cones  2  to  5  inches  long. 
B.  Branchlets  pubescent,  pendulous;  leaves  blunt;  cone 
scales  entire,  rounded. 

{Picea  Breweriana)  weeping  spruce 
BB.   Branchlets  smooth,  erect;  leaves  pointed;, cone  scales 

toothed,  pointed.  {Picea  Sitchensis)  sitka  spruce 

63 


The  Spruces 

The  genus  Picea  includes  some  of  the  most  useful  as  well  as 
ornamental  of  the  conifers.  There  are  eighteen  species,  seven 
of  them  American,  distributed  over  the  Northern  Heimsphere. 
The  Norway  spruce  {P.  excelsa.  Link. )  is  the  commonest  spe- 
cies in  cultivation.  It  is  the  familiar  spruce  of  dooryards,  grow- 
ing to  great  size  in  this  country,  and  evidently  more  comfortable 
in  domestication  than  our  native  species.  The  long  cones  hang 
on  the  topmost  branches,  and  the  lower  limbs  droop  to  the 
ground.  It  is  planted  for  windbreaks,  hedges  and  shelter  belts, 
often  with  white  pine.  The  species  is  strongly  recommended 
for  plantations  of  trees  for  timber. 

The  Caucasian  Spruce  {P.  orienialis,  Carr.),  graceful  and 
slow  of  growth,  with  lustrous,  dark-green  foliage,  is  well  adapted 
to  small  gardens.  It  retains  its  lower  limbs  until  quite  old.  Two 
or  three  Japanese  species  have  been  introduced. 

Black  Spruce  {Picea  Mariana,  B.  S.  &  P.) — Pyramidal 
evergreen,  with  short,  drooping  branches,  usually  30  to  40  feet 
high,  occasionally  80  feet  high.  Twigs  downy.  Bark  thin,  scaly, 
brownish  grey.  Wood  light,  weak,  soft,  yellow.  Buds  brownish 
red,  downy,  ovate.  Leaves  blue-green,  with  pale  bloom  above, 
linear,  sharp,  stiff,  J  to  f  inch  long,  set  around  twig.  Flowers 
cone-like,  monoecious,  solitary,  axillary.  Fruit  oval  cones,  \  to 
i^  inches  long,  pendant,  persistent  for  many  years;  scales  thin, 
entire.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  lowlands,  rocky  slopes  and  bogs. 
Distribution,  Labrador  to  Alaska;  south  to  Wisconsin,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  northern  Virginia.  Uses:  Locally  as  lumber  and  fuel. 
Wood  made  into  paper  pulp.  Resin  used  as  chewing  gum.  Sap 
made  into  beer. 

The  least  of  all  spruce  cones  grow  on  the  black  spruce  trees, 
and  the  tree  is  burdened  with  the  empty  husks  of  twenty  or  more 
crops  before  it  lets  the  oldest  ones  drop.  It  is  a  peculiar  habit, 
and  gives  the  tree  an  unkempt,  dingy  appearance  that  the  grey 
bark  intensifies.  The  habit  of  the  tree  is  ragged  and  uneven,  and 
the  foliage  dull  bluish  grey.  Altogether  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  the  black  spruce  is  ignored  by  planters,  The  tree 
has  always  proved  short  lived  in  gardens. 

The  vast  forests  of  this  timber  will  be  converted  into  paper. 
Wherever  spruce  timber  grows  to-day  there  are  fortunes  awaiting 
the  owners.  This  wood  that  lumbermen  reject  exactly  suits  the 
pulp  man's  needs.     Thousands  of  acres  are  consumed  every  year. 

64 


mmmm 


THE    ENGELMANN    SPRUCE  {Puea  Engdmanm) 

This  species   tias  hlue-grecn  foliage,  soft  and  flexible,  but  sharp  at  the  tips.     The  wood  is  pale  and   soft,  a  valuable  lumber  for 

building  in  the  Western  mountains.     The  bark  is  cinnamon  red  and  breaks  into  loose  scales 


The  Spruces 

Black  as  its  name  is,  the  wood  is  almost  white,  and  the  paper 
needs  little  or  no  bleaching. 

The  Engelmann  Spruce  (P.  Engelmanni,  Engelm.)  is 
the  white  spruce  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascade  range 
in  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  crowns  the  lower  and  higher 
peaks,  climbing  to  altitudes  between  one  and  two  miles  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the  rocky  sides  of  glacier-polished  ravines 
these  hardy  trees  find  foothold,  and  set  their  spires  like  serried 
ranks  of  spearsmen  to  cover  the  bare  cliffs.  Snow  loads  them 
down  for  many  months  of  the  year  ;  they  can  survive  that,  but 
their  destruction  comes  when  a  fire  sweeps  over  them,  killing 
all  it  touches,  for  the  cambium  of  these  trees  is  protected  by  a 
very  thin  bark.  The  seeds  and  seedlings  go.  There  is  no  repro- 
duction of  forests  thus  destroyed.  They  give  way  to  the  lodge- 
pole  pine  and  other  more  fortunate  species. 

The  Engelmann  spruce  is  planted  in  the  Eastern  States, 
where  it  thrives.  The  disagreeable  odour  of  the  leaves  counts 
against  it.  But  the  finest  trees  cannot  be  seen  unless  a  journey 
be  taken  by  the  northernmost  route  to  the  Canadian  Rocky 
Mountains,  where  snows  protect  the  forests  from  devastating 
fires,  and  these  spruce  trees  grow  to  150  feet  high,  with  diameters 
of  4  or  5  feet.  In  late  spring  the  blue-green  foliage  is  jewelled 
with  the  flowers,  purple  and  scarlet.  In  autumn  the  showy 
cones,  with  their  shining  brown,  pointed  scales  hang  out  on 
the  highest  twigs  and  fling  down  their  black,  winged  seeds. 
Here  is  a  vastly  different  tree  from  the  tame  little  seedling  that 
began  life  in  a  nursery  row. 

The  lumber  value  of  the  Engelmann  spruce  is  high.  It  is 
used  for  general  building  purposes,  for  fuel  and  charcoal.  The 
bark  is  sometimes  used  in  tanning. 

The  Red  Spruce  {P.  rubens,  Sarg.)  is  the  most  cheerful  of 
our  Eastern  species,  because  its  foliage  is  yellowish  green  and 
shining,  the  others  blue-green.  The  colour  in  this  tree's  name 
is  derived  from  the  wood,  so  the  lumberman  gave  it,  without 
doubt.  The  slender,  downy  twigs  are  also  bright  red  during 
their  first  winter,  and  there  is  a  distinct  tinge  of  red  in  the  tree's 
brown  bark.  The  flowers  are  rich  purple  and  the  cones  glossy 
reddish  brown.   It  wears  its  colour  in  plain  sight  the  year  round. 

This  tree  forms  considerable  forests  from  Newfoundland 
through  New  England,   and  follows   the  Alleghany   Mountains 

65 


The  Spruces 

into  North  Carolina.  It  has  the  spruce  habit,  but  it  rarely  sacri- 
fices its  lower  limbs  even  when  crowded.  In  height  these  trees 
range  from  75  to  100  feet,  with  trunks  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter. 
The  wood  is  used  for  lumber  and  paper  pulp.  It  is  peculiarly 
adapted  for  sounding  boards  of  musical  instruments,  and  makes 
excellent  flooring.  It  is  occasionally  cultivated,  but  other  species 
are  usually  preferred.     Its  twigs  are  boiled  to  make  spruce  beer. 

White  Spruce  {Picea  Canadensis,  B.  S.  &  P.) — Broadly 
pyramidal  tree,  60  to  150  feet  high,  with  stout  branches,  smooth 
twigs  and  bad-smelling  foliage.  Bark  greyish  brown,  break- 
ing into  scaly  plates.  Wood  light,  soft,  yellow,  brittle.  Buds 
ovate,  scaly.  Leaves  spread  on  upper  side  of  twig,  bluish, 
sharp,  hoary  when  young,  ^  to  f  inch  long.  Flowers  both 
kinds  cone -like,  pale  red,  turning  yellow.  Fruit  oblong- 
cylindrical,  stalked  cones,  blunt  ;  scales  blunt  or  notched  at  broad 
apex,  shiny,  thin,  falling  soon  after  seeds  ripen.  Preferred  habi- 
tat, rocky  slopes,  banks  of  rivers  or  lakes.  Distribution,  Labra- 
dor to  Bering  Strait  ;  south  to  Montana,  northern  Dakota, 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  New  York  and  New  England.  Uses: 
Lumber  for  building  and  interior  finishing,  and  for  paper  pulp. 
Tree  planted  for  ornament  and  shade.  Variety  ca^rulea  most 
common  in  cultivation. 

The  pale  bark  and  pea-green  foliage  of  the  white  spruce  en- 
able one  to  account  for  its  name  without  difficulty  and  to  identify 
it  in  the  woods.  The  whitish  wood  is  not  distinctly  paler  than 
that  of  the  black  spruce.  The  ill-smelling  foliage  and  the  smooth 
twigs  better  distinguish  it,  and  the  cones,  which  are  twice  as 
long  as  the  black  spruce's.  They  are  shed  almost  as  soon  as 
they  open,  a  tree  habit  that  keeps  the  branches  clean  and  thrifty 
in  appearance. 

White  spruce  is  the  pulp  manuHicturer's  delight.  He  owns 
thousands  of  acres  of  it.  As  lumber  the  wood  is  used  only  in 
Alaska  and  Canada  in  lieu  of  better  kinds.  The  inferiority  of 
spruce  lumber  has  saved  it  for  the  comparatively  new  enterprise 
of  pulp  manufacture. 

Blue  Spruce  {Picea  Parryana,  Sarg.) — Handsome  tree,  80 
to  125  feet  high,  broadly  pyramidal  ;  branches  rigid,  horizontal, 
in  remote  whorls.  Bark  grey,  thick,  broken  into  rounded, 
.<;caly  ridges  ;  on  young  trees  often  reddish,  in  oblong  plates. 
]Vood  light,  fine  grained,  soft,  weak,  pale.     Buds  stout,  blunt, 

66 


The  Spruces 

large,  with  reflexed  scales.  Leaves  dull  blue-green  to  silvery 
white,  variable  ;  rigid,  stout,  curving,  horny  pointed,  striped  on 
both  sides  with  white,  f  to  i^  inches  long,  shorter  on  fruiting 
twigs.  Flowers:  staminate  reddish  yellow  ;  pistillate  green,  the 
scales  square  at  end,  and  bracts  pointed.  Fruit,  stalked  cones, 
pendant  on  upper  limbs,  2  to  3  inches  long,  oblong,  brown, 
shining  ;  scales  flat,  narrowing  to  finger-like  blunt  point  ;  seeds 
winged. '  Preferred  habitat,  elevation  6,000  to  10,000  feet,  banks 
of  streams.  D/^/nZ^M/Zow,  Colorado,  Utah  and  Wyoming.  Uses: 
Ornamental  tree  planted  in  Europe  and  United  States.  Hardy, 
and  grows  well  in  Middle  West  ;  conspicuous  in  the  East. 

We  have  come  to  feel  well  acquainted  with  the  blue  spruce 
of  Colorado  through  the  beautiful  blue  or  silver-leaved  specimen 
trees  so  common  on  lawns  everywhere  we  go.  It  is  a  cool, 
crisp-looking  tree,  of  perfect  symmetry,  the  whorls  of  branches 
well  apart,  insuring  the  full  development  of  leaves  and  branch- 
lets.  It  is  a  disappointment  to  its  owner  that  the  growing  tree 
loses  at  length  its  lower  limbs  and  the  symmetry  of  its  top.  Yet 
this  is  a  far-off  event,  and  there  are  years  of  satisfaction  ahead 
for  the  buyer  of  a  handsome  little  blue  spruce  for  his  garden. 
Shrubbery  can  be  tucked  in  around  the  tree  when  it  begins  to 
age,  and  other  trees  so  placed  as  to  hide  its  shortcomings. 

Weeping  Spruce  {Picea  Breweriana,  Wats.) — Tree  75  to 
125  feet  high,  with  swollen  base  and  tapering  shaft;  branches 
drooping  and  crowded,  to  the  ground;  twigs  remarkably  long 
and  slender.  Bark  brick  red,  thin,  scaly.  Wood  soft,  close 
grained,  satiny,  pale  brown,  heaviest  of  native  spruces. 
Buds  conical,  small,  scaly,  brown.  Leaves  flattened  on  the 
upper  side  only,  blunt,  pale  above,  dark  green  and  lustrous 
beneath,  |  to  i^  inches  long.  Flowers:  staminate  rich  purple; 
pistillate  oblong;  scales  broad,  rounded,  turning  out  at  edge, 
with  cut-toothed  bract  under  each.  Fruit  slender  cones,  2  to  4 
inches  long,  tapering,  stalked,  purple  turning  to  orange-brown, 
opening  in  autumn,  but  hanging  a  year  empty;  scales  broad, 
entire,  thin,  turning  backward;  seeds  winged.  Preferred  habi- 
tat, dry  ridges  on  mountains  near  timber  line.  Distribution, 
elevation  4,000  to  7,000  feet,  California  and  Oregon.  In  isolated 
groves  in  coast  ranges. 

It  is  somewhat  embarrassing  to  the  hard-working  horticul- 
turist in  the  East  to  be  asked  his  opinion  of  the  weeping  spruce. 

67 


The  Spruces 

He  regards  it  as  one  of  the  most  distinct  of  the  spruces,  admirable 
in  habit  and  beautiful  in  foliage — an  ideal  tree  for  ornamental 
planting — but  he  cannot  make  it  grow!  His  most  careful  efforts 
have  brought  only  failure,  A  tree  that  belongs  to  "dry  mountain 
ridges  and  peaks  near  the  timber  line  "  has  a  good  excuse  for 
languishing  in  gardens  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  continent.  And 
such  a  range  puts  the  species  out  of  reach  of  lumbermen  for  a 
decade  or  two  yet.  The  uses  of  this  tree  must  be  put  down  with- 
out reference  to  man's  ineffectual  yearnings  to  claim  it  for  his 
own.  It  fulfils  Nature's  plan,  lifting  its  graceful  spire  into  the 
clouds  and  hanging  out  its  purple  flowers  where  there  is  no 
human  eye  to  see. 

Tideland  Spruce,  Sitka  Spruce  {Picca  Sitchensis,  Carr.) — 
Tree  with  tapering  trunk  and  enlarged  base,  loo  to  200  feet  high, 
with  broadly  pyramidal  head  of  drooping  branches.  Bark  red- 
dish brown,  thin,  scaly.  Wood  light,  soft,  straight  grained, 
satiny,  light  reddish  brown.  Buds  lustrous,  scaly,  conical,  \ 
to  i  inch  long.  Leaves  silvery  white  above,  green  beneath,  \ 
to  I  inch  long,  flattened,  twisted,  pointed,  horny  tipped,  all 
around  the  twig.  Flowers :  staminate  on  side  twigs,  abundant, 
dark  red,  conical,  J  to  i^  inches  long;  pistillate  on  terminal 
twigs  of  upper  branches,  smaller,  oblong.  Cones  annual,  stalked, 
pendant,  3  to  5  inches  long,  with  elongated  scales  toothed  at 
tips,  fall  in  winter.  Preferred  habitat,  moist,  sandy  soil;  swamps. 
Distribution,  coast  region,  Alaska  to  Cape  Mendocino  in  Cali- 
fornia. Uses:  Important  lumber  for  interior  woodwork  in 
buildings,  boat  building,  woodenwares,  cooperage  and  fencing. 
Ornamental  tree  in  Europe,  and  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
eastern  United  States.  Most  important  lumber  in  Alaska.  Used 
for  fuel,  construction  of  buildings,  boats,  and  fencing,  wooden 
utensils  and  boxing. 

The  swamps  of  the  tidewater  regions  of  the  Northwest,  the 
rocky  slopes  (if  well  watered)  of  the  Alaskan  ranges  of  moun- 
tains facing  the  sea,  are  clothed  with  forests  of  this  remarkable 
tree.  Like  the  bald  cypress  of  the  Southeast  and  the  pump- 
kin ash  of  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas,  this  lover  of  swamps 
is  buttressed  and  much  enlarged  at  its  base.  The  indomitable 
hardihood  of  the  species  is  shown  where  it  climbs  from  sea  level 
to  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet,  and  follows  the  coast  to  the  northern- 
most point  reached  by   any  conifer.     The  tree  dwindles  to  a 

68 


The  Spruces 

Starveling  shrub  when  the  limits  of  its  range  are  reached,  but  in 
the  coast  regions  of  Oregon  and  Washington  it  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  Western  conifers.  The  graceful 
sweep  of  its  wide-spreading  lower  limbs  gives  a  constant  and 
delightful  play  of  light  and  shadow,  owing  to  the  lustrous  sheen 
on  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves. 

In  spite  of  all  efforts  to  grow  it  in  the  East,  it  seems  to 
suffer  from  summer  heat  and  drought  and  winter  cold.  It  grows 
in  Boston  if  protected,  but  needs  a  great  deal  of  coddling  there. 


Genus    PSEUDOTSUGA,  Carr. 

Pyramidal  trees  with  thick  bark  and  hard,  strong,  durable 
wood.  Leaves  linear,  flat,  spreading  at  right  angles  from  the 
twig;  evergreen.  Flowers  solitary,  cone-like,  bright  coloured. 
Fruit  heavy,  drooping  annual  cones,  with  thin  unarmed  scales. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  blunt,  dark  green;  cones  small,  with  long  bracts. 

{P.  mncronata)  Douglas  spruce 
AA.  Leaves  sharp,  blue-grey,  cones  large,  with  shorter  bracts. 

(P.  macrocarpa)  big  cone  spruce 

The  genus  Pseudotsuga  stands  intermediate  between  the 
hemlocks  and  firs,  but  the  common  name,  as  well  as  family  traits, 
link  it  with  the  spruces,  hence  I  have  joined  it  to  Picea  under  the 
common  name  spruce.  The  genus  has  two  representatives  in 
America  and  one  in  Japan.  The  name  is  a  startling  combination 
of  the  Japanese  word   Tsuga  with  a  Greek  prefix. 

Douglas  Spruce,  Red  Fir  {Pseudotsuga  mucronaia,  Sudw.) 
— Pyramidal  or  flat-topped  tree,  150  to  250  feet  high,  with  long, 
bare  trunk  in  forest;  in  the  open,  a  broad-based  pyramid. 
Branches  slender,  crowded,  long,  drooping.  Spray  finely  divided. 
Bark  thick,  deeply  furrowed,  with  rounded  irregular  ridges  coated 
with  red  scales.  Wood  pale  red  or  yellow,  durable  in  water  and 
soil;  variable  in  quality,  usually  tough  and  hard.  Buds  scaly, 
acute.  Leaves  straight,  linear,  blunt  at  apex,  i  to  i^  inches  long, 
yellowish  or  bluish  green,  shed  in  eighth  year.  Flowers  cone- 
like, staminate  orange-red,  pistillate  red.  Fruit  a  long-stemmed 
cone,  2  to  4  inches  long,  drooping,  scales  thin,  with  entire  margins; 

69 


The  Spruces 

bracts  ending  in  recurved,  whip-like  points.  Preferred  habitat, 
moist  soil  of  coast  plain.  Distribution,  Rocky  Mountains  from 
British  America  into  Mexico;  west  to  Pacific  coast,  except  in  the 
Great  Basin  (between  Wasatch  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains). 
Uses:  Valuable  lumber  tree  for  shipbuilding,  piles,  posts  and  rail- 
road ties.     Bark  used  to  some  extent  for  tanning. 

He  who  would  see  for  himself  the  most  magnificent  forests 
this  continent  holds  to-day  must  go  to  the  redwoods  in  California. 
When  these  groves  have  awed  him  with  the  tremendous  bulk  of 
timber  in  board  feet  they  can  yield  in  a  single  acre,  let  him  move 
up  the  coast  to  where  the  moist  Japan  current  breathes  upon  the 
evergreen  forests  of  the  Cascade's  western  slope.  There  are  giant 
cedars  and  firs  and  hemlocks;  and  dominating  all  of  them  is  the 
Douglas  spruce. 

"  It  is  not  only  a  large  tree,  the  tallest  in  America  next  to  the 
redwood,  but  a  very  beautiful  one  with  bright  green,  drooping 
foliage,  handsome  pendant  cones,  and  a  shaft,  exquisitely  straight 
and  round  and  regular." 

The  trees  make  a  very  even  growth  and  stand  together  as 
closely  as  the  stalks  in  a  well-tilled  field  of  grain.  Excluding 
other  kinds,  these  trees  stand  with  their  heads  together,  making 
the  forest  dark  as  night  below.  Far  up  the  Alaskan  coast  the 
Douglas  spruce  extends,  and  eastward  across  mountain  ranges, 
where  it  mingles  with  yellow  pines  in  sunny,  open  forests,  where 
the  trees  have  opportunity  to  show  the  grace  of  their  pendant 
limbs  and  the  beauty  of  their  red  cone  flowers  and  the  ruddy  cones 
adorned  with  pale  green  bracts.  A  small  cone  it  is  for  so  large  a 
tree,  yet  one  to  remember  for  its  beauty. 

The  Douglas  spruce  is  known  as  "Oregon  pine"  in  the  lum- 
ber markets  of  the  coast.  The  Puget  Sound  region  furnishes 
spars  of  it  to  every  great  shipyard  in  the  world.  They  are  used 
as  piles  in  wharves  in  Western  harbours.  Shipbuilders,  bridge- 
builders — everybody  who  needs  heavy  timbers  of  great  durability, 
toughness  and  hardness — desire  this  kind  if  it  can  be  had.  The 
best  grades  of  it  are  stronger  than  the  wood  of  any  other  large 
conifer  in  America.  Its  faults  for  general  lumber  purposes  are 
its  hardness  and  its  tendency  to  warp  in  boards. 

The  Douglas  spruce  as  seen  in  nurseries  is  the  quickest- 
growing  evergreen  of  all.  Immense  quantities  of  seed  are  sent 
to  Europe,  where  the  tree  is  grown  both  for  ornament  and  for  tim- 

70 


The  Spruces 

ber.  The  seed  produces  a  large  percentage  of  vigorous  seedlings, 
and  they  transplant  well.  In  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of 
the  United  States  the  trees  do  well  from  seed  gathered  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Failures  in  seedlings  imported  from  European 
nurseries  are  traceable  to  the  fact  that  seeds  came  from  the 
Pacific  coast  plain,  and  the  seedlings  therefore  are  not  hardy  in 
the  more  rigorous  climate  of  the  East  and  North.  In  the  seeds 
furnished  by  high  mountain  trees  this  difficulty  is  overcome. 
Even  in  the  droughty  regions  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  these  trees 
planted  in  sheltered  situations  and  in  clumps  grow  into  trees  of 
exceeding  beauty.  Exposed  in  windbreaks  the  foliage  is  damaged, 
the  trees  lose  their  "  leaders,"  and  acquire  bad  shapes  thereafter. 
Big- Cone  Spruce  {Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa,  Mayr.) — A 
broadly  pyramidal  tree,  40  to  80  feet  high,  with  stout  trunk,  pen- 
dulous lower  limbs,  and  erect  upper  cones.  Branchlets  slender. 
Bark  scaly,  thick,  reddish  brown,  furrowed,  with  rounded  ridges. 
Wood  brown,  hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  durable.  Buds  ovate, 
small,  scaly.  Leaves  linear,  sharp  pointed,  spreading  or  2-ranked, 
dark  bluish  grey,  f  to  i  ^-  inches  long.  Flowers  cone-like,  staminate 
yellow  in  shining,  scaly  involucre;  pistillate  green  tinged  with 
red.  Frtiit  usually  on  upper  branches,  4  to  7  inches  long,  oblong- 
cylindrical,  scales  often  2  inches  across,  thin,  entire;  bracts 
scarcely  as  long  as  scales.  Preferred  habitat,  mountain  slopes. 
Distribution,  southern  California,  in  San  Bernardino  Mountains, 
at  altitude  of  3,000  to  5,000  feet.  Uses:  Wood  used  for  fuel; 
sparingly  for  lumber. 


71 


CHAPTER   VIII:     THE   HEMLOCKS 

Genus  TSUGA,  Carr. 

Tall,  graceful  trees  of  pyramidal  form,  with  flexible  tip 
shoots  and  pendulous,  much-divided  horizontal  limbs.  Leaves 
evergreen,  petioled,  flat  and  2-ranked  (except  one).  Flowers 
monoecious,  solitary,  in  early  spring.  Fruit  annual  cones,  small 
and  oval  (except  one),  with  thin,  entire  scales.  IVood  soft,  pale, 
cross-grained,  stiff. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  flat,  2-ranked,  pale  beneath;  cones  about   i   inch 
long,  oval. 
B.  Cones  stalked. 

C.  Scales  as  wide  as  long,  not  flaring  at  maturity. 

(7.  Canadensis)  hemlock 
CC.  Scales  longer  than  wide,  flaring  at  maturity. 

(7.  Caroliniana)  Carolina  hemlock 
BB.  Cones  sessile,  scales  constricted  in  middle. 

{T.  heierophylla)  western  hemlock 
AA.  Leaves  3-angled,  whorled,  pale  blue-green;  cones  2  to  3 
inches  long,  oblong-cylindrical. 

{T.  Mertensiana)  mountain  hemlock 

Hemlocks  are  distinctly  graceful  and  symmetrical  trees, 
Japan  has  two  native  species,  the  Himalayas  one,  our  Eastern 
States  one,  the  Western  States  three — seven  in  all — and  Tsuga 
is  the  Japanese  name  for  hemlock.  The  prostrate,  shrubby 
"ground  hemlock,"  familiar  to  many  of  us  who  have  eaten  its 
aromatic  scarlet  berry,  is  not  a  hemlock  but  a  yew.  The  hem- 
lock that  Socrates  drank  was  the  deadly  infusion  of  an  herb, 
Coniuni  maculatum,  related  to  our  wild  carrot. 

The  best  character  by  which  to  recognise  the  hemlocks  is 
the  tiny  petiole  of  the  leaf.  No  other  cone  bearer  has  leaf  stalks. 
Of  our  native  species,  all  have  white  lines  on  the  under  side  of  each 
leaf;    the  mountain  hemlock  has  them  above  and  below.     The 

72 


Pistillate  flower  cone 


THE    HEMLOCK  t^Tsuga   Canadensis) 

This  is  the  only  conifer  whose  leaves  are  provided  with  petioles.  The  flat,  blunt  blades,  have  narrow  lines  of  white 
beneath  The  pistillate  flowers  are  erect  on  the  tips  of  twigs.  The  staminate  flowers  are  many  in  the  axils  of  leaves.  Each  is 
a  yellow  ball  made  up  of  globular  anthers.  The  cones  are  purplish  and  small.  Hemlock  bark  and  wood  are  both  important. 
Hemlock  woods  are  sombre,  but  wonderfully  lightened  when  seen  from  below.     The  leafy  spray  is  light  and  graceful 


The  Hemlocks 

first  three  species  have  leaves  2-ranked  and  flat  and  cones  under 
an  inch  in  length;  the  fourth  has  leaves  3-angled,  whorled  on  the 
twigs,  and  cones  2  to  3  inches  long.  Cones  are  pendant,  and  thin 
scaled  in  all  the  species,  and  are  borne  annually. 

Hemlocks  are  important  ornamental  trees.  They  come 
readily  from  seed,  if  shaded,  and  transplant  safely,  owing  to 
their  dense  fibrous  root  system.  They  submit  to  severe  pruning 
of  roots  or  tops.  They  are  not  particular  in  regard  to  soil,  if  only 
it  be  moist.  The  two  Japanese  species  are  propagated  from  cut- 
tings, or  are  grafted  on  our  Eastern  hemlock.  All  hemlocks  have 
bark  rich  in  tannin.  The  west  American  species  are  all  large 
trees,  except  at  high  altitudes. 

Hemlock  {Tsuga  Canadensis,  Carr.) — A  broadly  pyramidal 
tree,  60  to  100  feet  high,  with  tapering  leading  shoot  and  pen- 
dulous horizontal  limbs.  Bark  cinnamon  red  to  grey,  thin,  fur- 
rowed, scaly,  ^ood  light,  soft,  coarse,  cross-grained,  not  durable. 
Buds  small,  obtuse.  Leaves  flat,  blunt,  pale  beneath,  dark, 
shining  above,  on  short  petioles  jointed  to  projecting  bases, 
2-ranked,  shed  in  third  year.  Flowers  in  May,  monoecious,  soli- 
tary; pistillate  terminal  on  short  shoots.  Fruit  small,  annual 
cones,  falling  in  spring,  oval,  thin  scaled,  red-brown,  turning  to 
grey.  Preferred  habitat,  rocky  uplands  near  streams.  Dis- 
irihuiion.  Nova  Scotia  to  southern  Michigan,  central  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota;  southward  to  Delaware,  and  along  Appalachian 
Mountains  to  Alabama.  ';jL/5^5^  Wood,  in  building  and  for  rail- 
road ties;  bark,  in  dyeing  and  in  tanning  leather.  Cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  tree  and  hedge  plant. 

"  Hemlock  Hill"  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum  is  a  shrine  at  which 
the  true  tree-loving  Bostonian  worships  at  least  once  a  year.  It  is 
a  remnant  of  the  forest  primeval  that  clothes  a  steep  promontory 
just  inside  one  of  the  gates.  In  winter  the  hemlocks  look  black 
in  contrast  with  the  snow  that  hides  the  paths  and  smothers  the 
brook  into  silence.  It  is  awesome — this  solitude  of  winter  on  the 
hill.  But  in  summer  all  is  different.  The  severity  of  its  winter 
aspect  is  gone.  Every  twig  waves  in  welcome  a  yellow-green 
plume,  the  new  growth  of  the  year,  and  up  the  hillside  climb  the 
well-remembered  paths.  The  brook  goes  singing  along  between 
borders  of  laurel  and  rhododendron.  The  gloom  of  the  hemlocks 
is  wonderfully  lightened,  when  one  is  actually  under  them,  by 
the  pale  linings  of  the  individual  leaves.     Just  two  parallel  lines 

73 


The  Hemlocks 

of  white  on  each  narrow  blade,  but  the  aggregate  makes  a  mighty 
difference  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  place. 

Throughout  New  England  one  fmds  generous  appreciation 
of  this  native  hemlock.  The  slender  terminal  shoot,  "  the  leader," 
lifted  into  the  sky  is  a  weather  vane  that  never  gets  out  of  order. 
Where  hemlocks  of  considerable  size  are  scattered  among  pines  or 
other  trees,  they  are  guideposts  to  the  "timber  cruiser"  or  the 
hunter  in  trackless  woods.  Each  treetop  has  its  own  individuality 
— the  scars  of  storms  outridden,  or  other  modifying  influences  at 
work. 

Tjie  specimens  of  hemlock  to  be  seen  in  parks  and  on  private 
grounds  exhibit  the  fitness  of  this  species  for  ornamental  planting. 
The  symmetry  and  grace  of  the  "dark  green  layers  of  shade," 
spreading  into  intricate  sprays  of  remarkable  delicacy,  are  familiar 
in  forest  and  lawn.  The  pale  bloom  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
leaves  is  punctuated  by  the  little  violet  cones,  pendant  from  every 
spray.  There  are  many  horticultural  forms  of  this  species,  but, 
to  my  mind,  none  are  as  handsome  as  the  wild  species. 

In  winter  the  red  squirrel  finds  a  stable  base  of  supplies  in 
every  fruitful  hemlock  tree.  The  litter  of  cone  scales  on  the  snow 
will  convince  any  doubter,  if,  indeed,  the  squirrel  does  not  him- 
self appear  and  scold  the  intruder. 

In  hedges  the  young  trees  are  thrifty,  and  even  the  shears 
cannot  subdue  the  grace  that  renews  every  spring  the  delicate, 
flexible  new  shoots.  They  seem  more  like  wavering  tendrils  of 
a  vine  than  branches  of  a  sturdy  conifer. 

The  seeds  of  hemlock  are  slow  to  germinate  on  burned-over 
ground,  but  in  the  leaf  mould,  overshadowed  by  larger  trees,  they 
start  in  great  numbers.  For  four  or  five  years  they  average 
scarcely  an  inch  a  year,  but  they  produce  a  good  root  system. 
After  this  they  rapidly  mount  upward  to  independence.  They 
supply  a  valuable  protective  cover  for  seedling  white  pines.  The 
two  species  grow  together  often  in  large  forests.  Canada  offers 
the  best  soil  and  climate  for  hemlock.  It  requires  cool  air  with 
rich,  loamy  soil,  moist  but  well  drained.  It  is  found  plentifully 
in  our  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  and  follows  the  mountains 
to  Alabama. 

Hemlock  wood  is  coarse  and  splintery,  likely  to  be  cross- 
grained  and  full  of  knots.  It  warps  in  seasoning,  and  wears  rough; 
moreover,  it  is  brittle  and  weak.     It  has  two  cardinal  virtues  that 

74 


The  Hemlocks 

adapt  it  for  railroad  ties  and  the  large  beams  used  in  the  frames 
of  houses  and  barns.  Hemlock  timbers  are  stiff,  and  the  wood 
has  a  firm  grip  on  nails  and  spikes.  The  wood  never  loosens  its 
hold  upon  the  nail,  nor  does  it  split  in  nailing.  Hemlock  is  used 
for  the  outside  of  cheap  buildings,  but  it  finds  its  greatest  useful- 
ness as  the  unseen  props  of  a  house,  its  faults  covered  up  by  woods 
of  more  uniform  and  attractive  appearance. 

The  bark  of  hemlock  abounds  in  tannin,  which  makes  it  a 
standard  tan  bark.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  young  hemlock 
woods  felled  and  stripped  for  the  bark  alone.  The  waste  of  the 
wood  is  very  bad  forestry,  but  as  hemlock  is  poor  fuel,  and  ugly  to 
saw  and  split,  sometimes  cordwood  costs  more  to  cut  and  haul 
than  it  brings  in  market.  If  the  trees  were  left  to  attain  proper 
age  for  mill  stufl',  the  lumber  would  be  salable,  and  there  would  be 
a  much  larger  crop  of  bark. 

The  logs  are  cut  for  tan  bark  only  in  the  summer.  The  bark 
"slips"  from  May  until  August.  After  that,  peeling  is  impos- 
sible. The  logs  are  girdled  every  four  feet  from  the  butt  well 
up  into  the  tops.     Two  or  three  cuts  are  made  at  equal  distances  r       ^  j 

apart,  lengthwise  of  the  trunk.  This  makes  of  each  four-foot  S  ,-X*- 
cylinder  of  bark  two  or  three  rectangular  sheets,  easily  removed 
with  a  special  bark-peeling  tool.  The  sheets  are  stacked  on  end 
to  dry,  and  are  later  laid  in  solid  four-foot  piles  to  be  measured 
by  the  cord.  The  hemlock  bark  is  usually  mixed  with  some  oak 
bark  at  the  tanneries.  A  side  of  sole  leather  tanned  with  hemlock 
alone  is  a  brighter  red  than  is  desired.  The  oak  darkens  it.  Dye  / 
works  consume  some  hemlock  bark  in  making  certain  shades  of 
brown.  -i  1 

I  Oil  of  hemlock  is  distilled  from  the  leaves.  "Canada  pitch^l^ 
formerly  much  used  as  a  drug,  is  extracted  frord  leaves  and  knots. 
In  the  practice  of  the  Indians,  the  bark  of  young  hemlocks,  boiled 
and  pounded  to  a  paste,  made  a  poultice  for  sores  and  wounds. 
Josselyn  noted  also:  "The  turpentine  thereof  is  singularly  good  to 
heal  wounds  and  to  draw  out  the  malice  of  any  Ach,  rubbing  the 
place  therewith."  The  antiseptic  action  of  the  oil  and  resin  was 
recognised  then  as  now. 

The  Carolina  Hemlock  {Tsuga  Caroliniana,  Engelm.) 
occurs  most  abundantly  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Savannah 
River  in  South  Carolina.  It  grows  on  the  mountains  from  Vir- 
ginia into  Georgia,   and  was  long  confused  with  the  common 

75 


The  Hemlocks 

Northern  hemlock  by  botanists  and  other  observers.  It  has  found 
favour  with  landscape  gardeners,  because  it  is  more  graceful 
though  more  compact  than  T.  Canadensis.  Its  leaves  are  longer, 
darker  green  above,  and  a  more  pronounced  white  underneath. 
It  rarely  grows  over  70  feet  high,  but  has  a  better  head  when 
old  than  its  Northern  relative.  It  is  a  hardy,  handsome  tree  in 
New  England  parks,  and  its  popularity  is  growing. 

Western  Hemlock  {Tsuga  heierophylla,  Sarg.)— Noble 
pyramidal  tree,  100  to  200  feet  high,  6  to  10  feet  in  diameter,  with 
drooping,  horizontal  branches  and  feathery  tip.  Bark  reddish 
brown,  with  broad,  scaly,  interrupted  ridges  and  shallow  fissures. 
fVood  tough,  durable,  hard,  light,  strong,  brown.  Buds  brown, 
ovate,  small.  Leaves  grooved  on  top,  lustrous,  pale  below,  rounded 
at  tip;  petioles  slender.  Flowers:  monoecious,  terminal,  solitary; 
staminate  yellow;  pistillate  purple.  Fruit  oval,  pointed  cones 
I  inch  long;  scales  often  constricted  in  the  middle,  broad,  thin. 
Preferred  habitat,  moist  valleys  and  uplands  from  tidewater  to 
6,000  feet  elevation.  Distribution,- southesistem  Alaska  to  Cape 
Mendocino  in  California;  east  to  Montana  and  Idaho.  Uses: 
Wood  used  chiefly  in  building;  bark  for  tanning.  Indians  eat  a 
cake  made  from  the  inner  bark.  Successfully  used  for  ornamental 
planting  in  Europe.     Not  hardy  in  our  Eastern  States. 

This  greatest  of  all  the  hemlocks  dominates  the  magnificent 
forests  of  the  Pacific  coast  plain,  in  size  as  well  as  in  numbers. 
It  extends  east  into  Idaho  and  Montana,  and  north  into  British 
Columbia.  1  he  tideland  spruce  is  its  companion  in  the  lowlands. 
Superb  trees  are  found  on  the  mountains  at  an  altitude  of  6.000 
feet,  but  only  in  moist  situations.  On  dry,  high  ridges,  the  tree 
is  stunted.  But  in  the  rich  river  valleys,  with  the  breath  of  the 
Japan  current  to  make  the  air  humid,  this  hemlock  is  a  giant — 
handsome,  graceful,  the  delight  of  the  artist  and  the  lumberman; 
the  most  superb  and  the  most  useful  of  the  hemlocks. 

The  root  system  of  this  tree  is  remarkably  copious  and 
aggressive.  Mosses  often  a  foot  in  thickness  and  saturated  with 
moisture  clothe  the  fallen  trunks  and  other  rubbish  in  those 
deep  forests  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vancouver.  The  light 
seeds  of  the  hemlocks  often  germinate  on  some  elevated  arm  of  a 
giant  tree  long  dead.  Such  a  mistake  will  first  be  discovered  by 
the  roots  which  go  down  until  they  anchor  the  tree  in  the  earth. 
The  dead  trunk  rots  away,  and  the  growing  tree  stands  on  stilts 

76 


The  Hemlocks 

of  its  own  Sturdy  roots,  as  confident  and  thrifty  as  any  of  its  neigh- 
bours. 

The  little  cones  of  the  Western  hemlock  have  scales  like 
scallop  shells,  marked  with  radiating  lines.  This  is  before  they 
loosen.  Afterward  each  scale  shows  a  narrow  neck  behind  this 
"shell,"  and  a  long  blade  extending  backward. 

This  tree  has  the  strongest  and  most  durable  wood  of  all  the 
hemlocks.  It  is  a  staple  commercial  lumber  on  the  coast,  lum- 
ber authorities  claiming  that  it  is  harder,  heavier  and  otherwise 
superior  to  the  Eastern  hemlock. 

Mountain  Hemlock  (Tsuga  Mertensiana,  Sarg.) — A  broad, 
open  pyramidal  tree,  75  to  100  feet  high,  with  much-branched, 
often  prostrate  limbs.  Bark  cinnamon  red,  furrowed,  scaly. 
Wood  light,  soft,  brownish  red,  close  grained,  weak.  Buds  brown, 
small,  pointed.  Leaves  not  2-ranked,  rounded  below,  flat,  often 
grooved  above,  petioles  set  on  prominent  bases,  colour,  blue-green. 
Flowers  :  staminate  blue,  pendant  on  stalk;  pistillate  erect,  with 
purplish  or  yellow  bracts.  Fruit  oblong  cones  i  to  3  inches  long, 
borne  on  upper  branches;  scales  broad,  entire,  striate,  yellow  or 
purple,  turning  out  and  back  at  maturity.  Preferred  habitat, 
high,  rocky  ridges  in  exposed  situations.  Distribution,  south- 
eastern Alaska  to  British  Columbia;  south  to  central  California, 
Montana  and  Idaho.  Uses:  Wood  occasionally  used  in  building 
and  bark  in  tanning. 

This  hemlock,  which  has  been  variously  called  a  spruce,  a  fir 
and  a  pine  by  botanical  explorers,  is  not  likely  to  be  exterminated 
by  lumber  companies,  for  it  grows  in  inaccessible  mountain  fast- 
nesses, and  battles  with  storms  to  the  very  timber  line.  "  Between 
5,000  and  7,000  feet  above  the  sea  on  ridges  and  along  the 
margins  of  alpine  meadows  in  groves  of  exquisite  beauty, 
and  pushing  the  advance  guard  of  the  forest  to  the  edge 
of  living  glaciers" — thus  Sargent  describes  the  habitat  of  the 
tree  which  he  considers  "  the  loveliest  cone-bearing  tree  of  the 
American  forest." 

During  the  larger  half  of  each  year  the  mountain  hemlocks 
are  buried  in  snow,  their  tough  limbs  cramped  beneath  their 
burden;  but  with  summer  comes  freedom,  and  these  limbs  are 
flung  out  again  with  singular  grace  to  brave  the  lashing  of  the 
winds.  A  tall  tree  in  the  humid  lowlands,  the  trunk  diminishes 
with  the  ascent  of  the  mountains.     At  an  altitude  of  almost 

77 


The  Hemlocks 

10,000  feet  the  treetop  rests  upon  the  ground,  a  flattened  mass 
of  graceful  limbs,  the  trunk  practically  eliminated  by  natural 
selection. 

John  Muir,  describing  the  forests  of  the  Yosemite  Park,  tells 
how  the  young  trees  of  the  lower  levels  receive  the  light  burden 
of  the  first  snow  in  the  early  autumn,  and  gradually  bending  under 
the  load  left  by  succeeding  storms,  at  length  form  graceful  arches, 
and  are  buried  from  sight  for  five  or  six  months.  He  has  ridden 
for  miles  over  a  smooth  snow  bank  that  covered  in  this  fashion 
trees  40  feet  high.  They  return  to  their  normal  position,  un- 
harmed, when  the  snow  goes  off. 

The  blue-green  foliage,  the  whorled  leaf  arrangement,  the 
triangular  leaf  itself,  pencilled  with  white  on  all  sides,  and  the 
large  cones — all  set  this  hemlock  in  a  class  by  itself.  7  he  spray, 
exceedingly  beautiful,  even  for  a  hemlock,  bears  flowers  that  are 
unusual  in  their  rich  colouring.  The  pistillate  blossoms  are 
royal  purple;  the  staminate,  blue  as  forget-me-nots — "of  so  pure 
a  tone  that  the  best  azure  of  the  high  sky  seems  to  be  condensed 
in  them." — Muir. 

Seeds  of  this  alpine  hemlock  planted  in  England  and  in  our 
Eastern  States  grow  slowly,  and  show  none  of  the  grace  and  vigour 
of  the  wild  sapling  trees.  It  is  the  old  story  of  the  hardy  moun- 
taineer, languishing  in  luxury,  dying  of  homesickness  for  the  life 
of  abstinence  and  struggle  to  which  its  race  is  born. 


78 


CHAPTER  IX:     THE  FIRS 

Genus  ABIES,  Link. 

Trees  of  pyramidal  habit  with  wide-spreading  horizontal 
fimbs  bearing  thick  foHage  masses.  JVood  weak,  coarse  grained. 
Bark  smooth  until  quite  old,  pale,  thin  and  blistered  with  over- 
ilowing  resin  vescicles;  later,  deeply  and  irregularly  furrowed. 
Leaves  usually  flat,  blunt,  2-ranked,  persistent  for  8  to  lo  years, 
leaving  circular  scars.  Flowers  in  axillary,  scaly  cones,  pistillate 
erect  on  upper  branches;  staminate  on  under  side  of  branches 
lower  down  on  the  tree.  Fruit  annual,  erect  cones  whose  scales 
fall  off  at  maturity;  seed  resinous. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  flat  and  grooved  down  the  middle. 

B.  Colour  of  leaves  dark  green,  shining,  with  pale  linings. 
C.  Scales  concealing  the  bracts  of  the  cones. 
D.  Cones  purple. 

E.  Leaves    straight,     2-ranked,     not  crowded; 
bark  smooth,  brown. 

(A.  halsamea)  balsam  fir 
EE.  Leaves    curved,    erect   on    twigs,    crowded; 

bark  rough,  grey.     {A.  amahilis)  white  fir 
DD.  Cones  green;  leaves  about  2  inches  long. 

{A.  grandis)  white  fir 
CC.  Scales  not  concealing  the  pale  green,  reflexed  bracts 

of  the  purple  cones.        {A.  Fraseri)  balsam  fir 
BB.  Colour  of  leaves  pale  blue-green. 

C,  Cones  purple.  {A.  lasiocarpa)  balsam  fir 

CC.  Cones  purple,  green  or  yellow. 

D.  Bracts  of  cone  scales  concealed;  leaves  uniformly 
glaucous.  {A.  concolor)  white  fir 

DD.  Bracts  of  cone  scales  extending  into  long,  whip- 
like projections;  leaves  yellow-green,  pale 
below.  {A.  venusta)  silver  fir 

AA.  Leaves  mostly  4-angled,  thick,  blue-green;  cones  purple. 
B.  Cone  scales  covered  by  pale  green,  reflexed  bracts. 

(A.  nohilis)  red  fir 
BB.  Cone   scales   covering   bracts.       {A.  magnifica)  red  fir 

79 


The  Firs 

Twenty-five  species  of  Abies  are  widely  distributed  over 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  including  the  northern  highlands  of 
Africa.  Nordmann's  fir  (A.  N ordmanniana)  has  come  from  the 
Caucasus  into  extensive  cultivation  in  our  Eastern  and  Northern 
States.  It  is  supplemented  by  four  European  and  two  Japanese 
species  of  recognised  merit  for  ornamental  planting.  The  beauty 
of  our  native  firs  has  been-pointed  out  in  the  names  botanists  gave 
them.  But  they  do  not  thrive,  as  a  rule,  in  cultivation.  For 
the  lawn,  we  wisely  choose  exotic  species. 

Balsam  Fir  (Abies  halsamea,  Mill.) — A  broad,  pyramidal 
tree,  50  to  60  feet  high,  with  slender  pubescent  branchlets.  Bark 
brown,  thin,  broken  into  scaly  plates  with  dried  balsam  in  white 
blisters.  Wood  soft,  weak,  coarse,  brown  with  yellow  streaks, 
not  durable.  Leaves  blunt,  dark  green,  lustrous  above,  with  pale 
linings,  ^  to  i^  inches  long,  spreading  in  2-ranked  order.  Flowers 
axillary,  staminate,  yellow  shaded  to  purplish;  pistillate  purple. 
Fruit  erect,  rich  purple,  oblong-cylindrical,  2  to  4  inches  long, 
blunt  at  ends;  scales  broad,  entire,  closely  overlapping.  Pre- 
ferred habitat,  swamps  or  hilly  slopes.  Distribution,  Labrador 
through  Canada  and  New  England,  to  Minnesota;  south  along 
mountains  to  southwestern  Virginia.  Uses:  Wood  used  for 
box  material;  bark  furnishes  oil  and  Canada  balsam,  used  in 
medicine  and  in  the  arts.     Fresh  leaves  cut  for  balsam  pillows. 

In  the  North  Woods  the  hunter  cuts  the  fragrant  boughs  of 
the  fir  balsam  to  make  his  bed,  and  the  ladies  of  every  camping 
party  industriously  shear  balsam  twigs  in  order  to  fill  sofa  pillows 
later  with  the  leaves.  The  native  finds  it  profitable  to  collect  the 
limpid  balsam  by  draining  the  white  resin  blisters  that  occur  plen- 
tifully on  the  smooth  bark  of  young  trees,  and  on  the  limbs  of  older 
ones.  Wounding  the  tree  produces  increased  flow.  Whole 
families  are  often  employed  in  this  enterprise.  The  resin  thus 
obtained  is  the  "Canada  balsam"  employed  in  every  laboratory 
for  the  mounting  of  microscopic  specimens.  It  is  used  also  in  the 
practise  of  medicine  and  in  other  useful  arts.  "Oil  of  fir"  is  also 
obtained  from  the  bark. 

The  erect  cones  of  this  tree  distinguish  it  from  the  spruces 
with  which  it  grows,  and  the  hemlocks  whose  leaves  are  also  pale 
beneath  and  2-rank^d  in  arrangement.  Balsam  fir  leaves  are 
blunt  and  stemless.  (Hemlock  leaves  have  minute  petiole^ 

The  cultivation  of  balsam  fir  has  been  rather  stupidly  con- 


THE    BALSAM    FIR  {.ibics  hah. 


Blunt,  flat  leaves,  pale  beneath  ami  2-ranked  on  the  twig,  characterise  this  species.  On  the  old  branches  the  leave? 
are  more  sparse  and  scattered.  The  oblong  cones  are  erect  on  the  stem.  The  bark  of  young  trunks  and  branches  are  marked 
\>j  pockets  which  discharge  clear  balsam  when  tapped 


THE    BALSAM    FIR    {.Ihies  bahamca) 
The  leaves  persist  for  eight  years.       Hence  the  twigs  are  covered.      The  blunt  leaves  are  2-ranked  by  the   twisting 
of  their  bases.      The  lower  figure   shows   leaves   all    around    the   twigs.      It  is   so  on  fertile   shoots.      This   picture   also 
shows  young,  leafy  shoots  coming  out  below.     A  pistillate  cone-flower  is  held  erect 


The  Firs 

tinued  in  the  Northeastern  States,  despite  the  fact  that  the  tree 
is  short  Hved  and  early  loses  its  lower  limbs.  There  are  other 
firs  that  may  be  as  easily  obtained  and  grown,  and  these  are 
chosen  by  wise  planters  for  their  greater  beauty  and  longer  life. 

The  White  or  Lovely  Fir  {A.  amabilis,  Forbes),  of  the 
high  mountain  slopes  of  British  Columbia,  Washington  and 
Oregon,  comes  to  its  greatest  estate  in  the  Olympic  range.  Here 
it  dominates  other  fir  trees,  a  giant  150  to  250  feet  high,  with  a 
trunk  4  to  6  feet  through.  The  spiry  pyramid  is  formed  of  limbs 
that  strike  downward  and  outward  in  curves  of  remarkable  grace 
and  symmetry.  In  open  groves  the  trees  are  clothed  to  the  ground. 
In  dense  forests  the  trunks  are  bare  except  for  a  tufted  crown. 
The  bark  is  thick  and  broken  into  irregular  plates  on  very  old 
trees;  on  younger  ones  it  is  silvery  grey  and  smooth.  The  wood 
is  light  brown  or  white,  weak,  hard  and  close  grained.  It  is  occa- 
sionally used  in  interior  finish  of  houses.  In  cultivation  the  tree 
forgets  its  wild  beauty  and  becomes  commonplace.  It  grows  in 
Europe,  but  not  in  our  Atlantic  States.  Only  in  its  natural  range 
is  it  truly  the  "lovely  fir"  of  the  mountains. 

The  White  Fir  (A.  grandis,  Lindl.)  earns  its  name  by  the 
silvery  linings  of  its  leaves.  It  grows  from  Vancouver  Island 
south  to  middle  California,  and  eastward  into  Idaho.  It  climbs 
from  the  sea  to  elevations  of  4,000  to  7,000  feet,  mingled  with  other 
conifers,  but  keeping  along  the  borders  of  streams.  This  white 
fir  is  grand  indeed  in  the  coast  region,  where  it  mounts  upward 
with  slender  trunk  to  the  height  of  200  to  300  feet.  Its  limbs 
sweep  outward  in  curves  of  the  utmost  grace,  and  the  contrast  of 
dark  green  with  silvery  white  in  the  foliage  makes  the  tree  cheerful 
in  the  extreme.  The  flowers  are  yellow  and  the  cones  brilliant 
green,  the  broad,  entire  scales  quite  concealing  the  bracts.    * 

The  wood  of  this  fir  is  pale  brown,  soft,  light  and  coarse,  used 
to  a  limited  extent  in  interior  house  finishing,  cooperage  and 
boxing  and  for  woodenwares.  The  tree  grows  rapidly  in  European 
parks. 

The  Balsam  Fir  (A.  Fraseri,  Poir.)  is  a  tree  40  to  60  feet 
high  which  grows  in  forests  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  to  6,000  feet  on 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  from  southwestern  Virginia  into  Ten- 
nessee and  North  Carolina.  It  forms  an  open  pyramid  of  rather 
stiff  limbs,  ending  in  twigs  crowded  with  dark,  lustrous  foliage. 
The  purple  cones  are  ornamented  by  pale  yellow-green  bracts  with 

81 


The  Firs 

toothed  margins  which  turn  back  over  the  scales.  The  wood  of 
this  tree  is  rarely  used  as  lumber.  It  has  the  faults  of  fir  wood  in 
general,  and  the  trees  are  inaccessible  to  lumbermen.  The  tree 
is  short  lived  and  has  little  ornamental  value. 

The  Balsam  Fir  (A.  lasiocarpa,  Nutt.)  grows  in  the  high, 
mountainous  regions  from  Alaska  south  along  the  Cascades  of 
Washington  and  Oregon,  and  follows  the  Rocky  Mountains  from 
Idaho  to  Arizona.  The  trees  are  tall,  narrow  spires  with  thickly 
crowded  branches,  the  oldest  of  which  droop  slightly.  They  range 
from  80  to  180  feet  high,  with  trunks  2  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  The 
bark  of  the  limbs  changes  from  the  reddish  pubescence  of  the  twigs 
to  pale  grey  or  almost  white.  Aged  trees  have  shallow-fissured 
bark  covered  with  cinnamon-coloured  scales. 

The  blue-green  of  the  leaves  is  intensified  by  the  striking 
indigo  colour  of  both  kinds  of  flowers  in  their  season.  The  cones 
are  rich,  deep  purple,  and  plain,  t'he  broad  scales  quite  concealing 
the  ruddy  bracts. 

White  Fir  {Ahies  concolor,  Lindl.  &  Gord.) — A  narrow 
pyramidal  tree,  125  to  250  feet  high,  with  trunk  3  to  6 feet  through; 
branches  short,  stout  with  long,  stout,  much-divided  side  branches 
extending  forward;  twigs  stout,  smooth.  Bark  3  to  6  inches 
thick,  broken  into  rounded  ridges  by  deep,  irregular  furrows,  and 
the  surface  into  plate-like  scales.  Wood  soft,  light,  pale  brown  to 
white,  coarse  and  weak.  Buds  globular,  \  inch  thick.  Leaves 
2-ranked  by  crowding;  erect,  pale  blue  to  whitish,  becoming  dull 
green  when  old;  on  fruiting  branches  often  thickened  into  a  keel 
above,  curved  and  short;  on  lower  branches  flat,  straight,  2  to  3 
inches  long.  Flowers  :  pistillate  on  upper  branches,  with  striking 
greenish  bracts;  staminate  dark  red,  on  middle  limbs.  Fruit 
erect  Oblong-cylindrical  cones,  5  to  6  inches  long,  green,  purple  or 
yellow;  scales  broad,  rounded  at  apex,  conceahng  bracts;  seeds 
J  to  ^  inch  long  with  shining  red  wings.  Preferred  Jiabiiat,  moun- 
tain slopes.  Distribution,  Colorado  west  to  Oregon  and  California, 
south  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  including  the  Great  Basin. 
Uses:  Wood  for  butter  tubs  and  boxing.  Best  of  Western  firs  for 
planting  in  the  Eastern  States.  A  favourite  ornamental  in 
Europe. 

This  white  fir  is  known  as  a  silver  fir,  from  the  pale  foliage 
and  from  the  grey  bark  of  its  branches.  The  forests  oiA.  magnifica 
coming  down  the  high  slopes  meet  those  of  A.  concolor  coming  up. 

82 


The  Firs 

The  trees  are  gigantic  in  the  Sierras;  scarcely  of  more  than  medium 
height  and  girth  among  the  Rockies.  The  leaves  are  unusually 
long  for  a  fir  tree,  on  lower  limbs  often  2  to  3  inches.  The  flowers 
are  conspicuous,  the  staminate  rich  red,  the  pistillate  ornamented 
with  backward-turning,  fmger-lobed  bracts.  The  cones  are  stout, 
various  in  colours,  with  broad,  short  scales  that  quite  cover  the 
bracts.     The  seed  wings  are  rose  coloured  and  lustrous. 

The  tree  is  often  planted  in  Europe;  it  is  the  most  vigorous 
native  fir  tree  met  in  cultivation  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  this  con- 
tinent. The  best  trees  in  Eastern  nurseries  come  from  seeds  col- 
lected in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Another  Silver  Fir  (A.venusta,  K.  Koch.)  has  leaves  almost 
willow-like  in  form,  so  broad  are  the  flat,  pointed  blades.  They 
are  i  to  2^  inches  long,  yellow-green  with  silvery  linings,  especially 
bright  on  the  newest  shoots.  The  spray  is  flat  by  reason  of  the 
2-ranked  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  which  stand  out  at  right 
angles  to  the  twig.  The  tree  habit  is  peculiar.  A  slender  trunk 
100  to  150  feet  high  bears  a  broad  pyramid  of  pendulous  limbs, 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  narrow  spire  for  the  last  20  feet  of  the 
tree's  height.  The  cones  are  3  to  4  inches  long,  and  striking  in 
ornamentation.  The  long,  stiff  whip  of  a  pale  yellowish  brown 
bract  extends  an  inch  or  two  beyond  each  purple  scale. 

This  fir  is  confined  to  elevated  canon  sides  in  the  mountains 
of  Monterey  County,  California,  and  has  no  commercial  signifi- 
cance. Seeds  sent  to  Europe  produce  handsome  ornamental  trees 
in  North  Italy  and  in  warmer  sections  of  England. 

Red  Fir  (Abies  nobilis,  Lindl.) — A  broad,  round-headed 
tree  i  50  to  250  feet  high,  with  trunk  6  to  8  feet  through;  branches 
stiff;  twigs  red  velvety.  Bark  i  to  2  inches  thick,  irregularly 
furrowed,  red-brown.  Wood  hard,  pale  brown,  streaked  with 
red,  light,  strong,  moderately  close  in  texture;  sap  wood  darker. 
Buds  small,  blunt,  reddish.  Leaves  blue-green,  often  glaucous 
when  young,  flat,  grooved  above,  crowded  to  upper  side  of  twigs, 
and  curved  backward,  i  to  i^  inches  long,  on  fertile  shoots, 
4-angled,  sharp.  Flowers:  staminate  reddish  purple;  pistillate 
scattered  on  upper  limbs,  bracts  ornate  with  recurved  tips.  Fruit 
oblong,  thick,  blunt  at  apex  and  base,  4  to  5  inches  long,  purplish 
or  brown,  pubescent;  scales  covered  with  thin  toothed  bracts 
which  end  in  recurving,  pencil-like  projections.  Preferred  habited, 
mountain  slopes  at  2,500  to  5,000  feet  elevation.     Distribution, 

83 


The  Firs 

mountains  of  western  Washington,  Oregon  and  California.  Uses: 
Lumber  for  interior  finish  of  houses  and  for  boxing.  Rarely 
planted  in  Eastern  States.  Needs  shelter  at  Boston.  Cultivated 
in  Europe. 

The  red  fir,  another  giant  of  the  Northwest,  attains  its  best 
development  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon 
on  elevated  slopes  facing  the  sea.  An  old  tree  is  often  200  to  250 
feet  high,  with  a  trunk  6  to  8  feet  in  diameter,  crowned  with  a 
broad,  round  head,  quite  distinct  from  the  spire  form  usual  among 
firs.  There  are  forests  of  this  tree  which  furnish,  at  present  in 
limited  quantities,  wood  for  boxing  and  house  finishing.  The 
wood  is  brownish  red,  with  sap  wood  of  a  darker  colour.  The 
lumber  dealer  calls  it  "larch."  As  long  as  better  lumber  is  to  be 
had,  these  forests  will  be  allowed  to  wait. 

The  distinctive  features  of  this  tree  are  its  glaucous,  blue- 
green  foliage  and  the  stout  brown  or  purple  cones,  4  to  5  inches 
long,  and  richly  ornamented  by  the  bracts  which  turn  back  like 
little  pale  green  scallop  shells  over  each  scale. 

Red  Fir  (Abies  magnifica,  A.  Murr.) — A  pyramidal  tree 
which  becomes  round-topped  with  age,  150  to  200  feet  high;  trunk 
6  to  8  feet  through;  limbs  pendulous.  Bark  red-brown,  4  to  6 
inches  thick,  scaly  and  broken  into  ridges  and  deep  fissures  that 
cross  and  join;  twigs  reddish,  becoming  silvery  white.  l-Food 
soft,  light,  weak,  durable,  red.  Buds  scaly,  ovate,  red,  lustrous. 
Leaves  4-angled,  pale  at  first,  then  blue-green,  crowded  to  erect 
position  on  the  twig.  Flowers:  conspicuous;  staminate  reddish 
purple;  pistillate  green  with  red  tips  on  scales.  Fruit  oblong- 
cylindrical  cones,  6  to  9  inches  long,  purplish  brown;  scales  plain, 
I  inch  broad  at  apex,  closely  overlapping  and  concealing  the 
bracts.  Preferred  habitat,  mountain  slopes,  at  5,000  to  7,000  feet 
elevation.  Distribution,  Cascade  range  in  southern  Oregon, 
throughout  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 
Uses:  Wood  makes  packing  cases  and  cheap  buildings.  Tree 
planted  as  an  ornamental  in  western  Europe.  Scarcely  hardy  in 
our  Eastern  States. 

"The  magnificent  silver  fir,"  as  John  Muir  calls  it,  is  one  of 
the  noblest  trees  of  the  Northwest,  a  lover  of  the  mountain  slopes, 
which  it  climbs  to  two  miles  above  sea  level  before  it  reaches  its 
limit.  On  moraines,  at  an  elevation  of  7,000  to  8,000  feet,  it 
grows  to  a  height  of  200  to  250  feet  and  a  diameter  of  5  to  7  feet 

84 


THE    BALSAM    FIR  {.Ihics   l.nwairpa) 

The  blue-green  leaves  and  the  pale  or  white  bark  of  tvvips  give  this  tree  a  spectral  expression.     The  leaves  are  long,  blunt  and 
curved  so  as  to  stand  erect.     This  giant  tree  of  the  Northwestern  mountains  is  comparatively  worthless,  except  for  fuel 


Winter  buds  (sf 

THE    BALSAM    FIR    {Abies  Fraseri) 
The  lustrous  dark  leaves  are  pale  beneath.    They  are  blunt,  even  notched,  at  the  Ujis.    This  is  the  fir  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains 


THE   WHITE    FIR   [Ahi 

This  Colorado  tree  is  often  seen  in  Eastern  gardens  as  a  beautiful  pale,  bluish 
evergreen  tree.  In  the  mountains  of  California  it  becomes  a  mighty  tree  over 
200  feet  high.  Its  bark  on  old  trunks  is  very  thick  and  broken  into  broad  ridges. 
The  foliage  is  sometimes  silvery  white 


Bark  and  wood  of  another  Western  white  fii 
{Abies  grandis) 


The  Firs 

With  these  noble  dimensions  there  is  a  richness  and  symmetry 
and  perfection  of  finish  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  tree  in  the 
Sierras.  The  branches  are  whorled,  in  fives  mostly,  and  stand 
out  from  the  straight  red-purple  bole  in  level,  or  on  old  trees,  in 
drooping  collars,  every  branch  regularly  pinnated  like  a  fern 
frond,  and  clad  with  silvery  needles,  making  broad  and  singularly 
rich  and  sumptuous  plumes. 

The  flowers  are  in  their  prime  about  the  middle  of  June;  the 
staminate,  red,  growing  in  crowded  profusion  on  the  under  side 
of  the  branchlets,  giving  a  rich  colour  to  nearly  all  the  tree;  the 
pistillate,  greenish  yellow  tinged  with  pink,  standing  erect  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  topmost  branches;  while  the  tufts  of  young 
leaves,  about  as  brightly  coloured  as  those  of  the  Douglas  spruce, 
push  out  their  fragrant  brown  buds  a  few  weeks  later,  making 
another  grand  show. 

"The  cones  mature  in  a  single  season  from  the  flowers. 
When  full  grown  they  are  about  6  to  8  inches  long,  3  to  4  inches 
in  diameter,  blunt,  massive,  cylindrical,  greenish  grey  in  colour, 
covered  with  a  fine  silvery  down,  and  beaded  with  transparent 
balsam,  very  rich  and  precious  looking,  standing  erect  like  casks 
on  the  topmost  branches.  If  possible,  the  inside  of  the  cones 
is  still  more  beautiful.  The  scales  and  bracts  are  tinged  with 
red  and  the  seed  wings  are  purple  with  bright  iridescence." — 
John  Muir. 

A  variety,  Shastensis,  Lemm.,  of  A.  magnifica,  is  distinguished 
from  the  type  species  only  by  the  yellow  bracts  that  protrude  and 
partially  cover  the  scales  of  the  cones.  This  form  inhabits  high 
elevations  in  the  region  of  Mount  Shasta  and  also  occurs  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range. 


85 


CHAPTER   X:     THE   BIG  TREE  AND   THE 
REDWOOD 

Genus  SEQUOIA,  Endl. 

Trees  of  great  size  and  age,  resinous,  aromatic.  Leaves 
evergreen,  alternate,  of  two  shapes.  Flowers  in  solitary  cones, 
minute,  monoecious,  axillary.  Fruit  a  pendant  woody  cone; 
seeds  5  to  7  under  each  scale. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  minute,  ovate,   usually  compressed,  buds  naked; 
fruit  biennial.  {S.  tV ellingionid)  big  tree 

AA.  Leaves  mostly  linear,  or  lanceolate,  spreading,  2-ranked; 
buds  scaly;  fruit  annual.  (vS.  sempervirens)  redwood 

The  Big  Tree  (Sequoia  Wellingionia,  Seem.) — A  pyramidal 
tree  when  young,  becoming  round-topped;  275  to  325  feet  high; 
diameter  20  to  35  feet;  fluted  trunk.  Bark  reddish  brown, 
fibrous,  fluted;  i  to  2  feet  thick.  Wood  red,  soft,  coarse,  light, 
weak,  durable.  Buds  naked.  Leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  spreading 
at  tips,  ^  inch  long.  Flowers:  monoecious,  terminal,  conical,  scaly, 
profuse  in  late  winter;  staminate  with  broad  scales  and  abundant 
pollen;  pistillate  with  25  to  40  needle-tipped  scales,  with  3  to  7 
ovules  under  each.  Fruit  dark  red-brown  woody  cone,  biennial, 
2  to  3^  inches  long,  with  thickened  tips;  seeds  3  to  7  under  each 
scale,  each  2-winged,  small,  light,  eaten  by  squirrels.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich  woodlands.  Distribution,  narrow  area  on  western 
slope  of  Sierras  in  California.  Uses:  Most  majestic  tree  in  the 
world.  Rare  and  dwarfed  in  cultivation.  Lumber  used  for 
shingles,  fencing  and  in  general  construction. 

Sir  Joseph  Hooker  and  Asa  Gray  sat  with  John  Muir  around 
a  campfire  on  Mount  Shasta,  and  talked  about  the  great  forests 
of  the  Sierras  they  had  just  visited.  Comparing  them  with  Old- 
World  forests,  they  agreed  upon  this  statement:  "In  the  beauty 
and  grandeur  of  individual  trees,  and  in  number  and  variety  of 

86 


The  Big  Tree  and  the  Redwood 

species,  the  Sierra  forests  surpass  all  others."  Conifers  are  supreme 
in  these  forests  and  among  conifers  Sequoia  is  king.  Of  the  two 
species,  the  Big  Tree,  S.  Wellingtonia,  stands  first,  and  the 
redwood  second. 

The  Old  World  has  some  trees  of  surprising  girth  and  indefinite 
age — oaks,  chestnuts,  sycamores,  and  cedars  of  Lebanon — each 
with  its  history,  the  pride  of  the  country  it  grows  in.  But  these 
trees  are  derelicts — throwing  out  a  wisp  of  foliage  here  and  there, 
a  truce  to  death,  with  each  returning  spring.  The  lime  tree  of 
Nurnberg  and  the  chestnut  at  the  foot  of  Mount  /Etna  are  each 
famous;  but  these  trees,  with  their  tops  dead  and  gone  years  before 
they  were  pronounced  dead,  their  trunks  honeycombed  with  decay, 
and  leaning  upon  props  and  pillars,  are  scarcely  to  be  compared 
with  trees,  hale,  lusty-crowned,  whose  fluted  trunks  are  a  unit, 
and  sound  as  a  nut  from  the  heart  out.  Granting  a  greater  girth, 
if  you  please,  to  a  few  of  these  senile  trees,  and  a  greater  height  to 
one  Eucalyptus  that  grows  in  Australia,  we  can  truthfully  declare 
that,  excepting  these,  the  Sequoias  lead  the  world,  past  and 
present,  in  height  and  calibre.  No  other  tree  combines  such 
massiveness  of  trunk  with  such  height.  And  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  in  age  they  can  take  rank  with  the  oldest,  for  competent 
authorities  estimate  the  age  limit  to  be  above  5,000  years.  Muir 
thinks  that  some  living  trees  have  reached  that  age.  Stumps  now 
standing  show  4,000  annual  rings. 

It  would  be  great  good  fortune  to  visit  one  of  the  ten  groves 
of  Big  Trees  once  a  month  and  so  get  the  story  of  the  tree's  life  as 
the  year  roils  around.  In  the  late  winter  the  flowers  appear, 
showering  the  whole  region  with  their  golden  dust,  and  tipping 
the  sprays  with  the  pale  green  fertile  flowers  by  thousands.  The 
cones  that  follow  are  small  for  such  a  tree,  and  each  scale  bears 
from  four  to  eight  seeds  at  its  base.  Millions  of  them  are  scattered 
each  year,  thin,  little  winged  discs,  no  larger  than  a  baby's 
thumbnail,  looking  like  half-grown  elm  seeds.  It  is  incredible 
that  such  a  tree  should  have  come  from  such  a  seed.  Not  only 
have  they  vitality,  but  some  store  of  nutriment,  for  the  squirrels 
journey  up  the  trees  and  cut  ofi"  the  cones  in  order  to  put  away  for 
winter  the  little  seeds  they  contain.  If  fresh  cones  are  falling, 
you  may  be  sure  the  squirrels  are  at  work,  for  the  trees  hold  their 
empty  cones  for  years. 

It  is  strange  that  with  such  profuse  seed  production  young 

87 


The  Big  Tree  and  the  Redwood 

trees  are  so  scarce  in  the  Big  Tree  groves.  Only  in  the  southern 
range  of  this  species  do  seedhng  trees  appear  to  reassure  us  that 
the  race  will  preserve  itself,  if  only  the  three  agencies  of  destruc- 
tion, the  axe,  the  saw  and  the  forest  fire,  can  be  curbed. 

The  tourist,  hurrying  through  the  Sequoia  National  Park,  gets 
very  little  but  an  awed  sense  of  the  magnificence  of  these  trees. 
It  is  worth  while  to  have  had  the  glimpse  his  limited  ticket  per- 
mits. Big  stories  told  by  friends  who  had  been  there  before, 
actual  dimensions  of  noted  trees,  and  all  the  guide-book  extrava- 
gance of  description,  have  not  prepared  him  for  the  things  he 
sees.  He  is  speechless  with  astonishment.  He  walks  across  an 
ample  platform  which  is  the  flat  top  of  a  Sequoia  stump.  He 
sleeps,  perchance,  in  a  house  which  is  a  hollow  log.  He  rides  in  a 
coach  and  four  through  a  tunnel  over  which  a  standing  trunk 
arches,  like  a  mighty  occidental  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  He  lifts  a 
fragment  of  bark,  and  it  is  2  feet  thick.  It  took  three  long  weeks 
of  steady  labour  for  two  men  to  cut  down  one  tree! 

The  living  trees  are  green  topped,  but  bare  of  limbs  for  two- 
thirds  of  their  great  fluted  trunks.  Our  tallest  Eastern  oak,  with 
the  tallest  sycamore  or  walnut  atop  of  it,  would  not  equal  the 
height  of  one  of  these  giants.  Spruces  and  pines  of  majestic  port 
standing  around  look  like  saplings.  They  are  dwarfed  by  the 
company  they  keep.  They  look  up,  but  the  Sequoias  look — not 
down  but  out,  indifferent  to  all  that  is  transpiring  below  them. 
They  see  only  the  limitless  reaches  of  the  eternal  sky;  their  meat 
and  drink,  the  sunshine  and  the  leaf  mould;  their  breath  of  life, 
the  unwearying  winds  of  heaven. 

There  were  great  forests  of  Sequoias  once  in  central  and 
northern  Europe  and  in  mid-continental  North  America.  They 
stretched  away,  even  to  the  Arctic  circle.  This  was  just  before 
the  great  climatic  Reconstruction  Period,  when  magnolias  flour- 
ished in  Greenland  and  all  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  found  congenial  habitation  in  near  proximity  to  the 
North  Pole.  Then  came  the  Age  of  Ice,  and  only  those  species 
survived  which  were  able  to  keep  ahead  of  the  glaciers,  and  estab- 
lish themselves  in  regions  not  overwhelmed  by  the  ice.  The  rocks 
of  the  Tertiary  Period  preserve  the  story  of  these  times,  and  in  the 
pages  opened  by  the  geologist's  hammer,  five  distinct  species  of 
Sequoia  are  recorded.  "Pressed  specimens"  indeed,  these  fossil 
trees  are,  two  of  which  are  identical  with  the  California  trees. 


The  Big  Tree  and  the  Redwood 

The  other  three  species  are  extinct,  and  America  has  the  only  sur- 
vivors of  the  noblest  race  of  plants  the  world  has  ever  produced. 
Trenches  and  ridges  in  the  ground  within  the  Sequoia  belt  contain 
the  prostrate  bodies  of  former  generations  of  Big  Trees,  They 
are  not  found  outside  the  range.  This  fact  leads  John  Muir  to 
believe  that  the  area  covered  by  these  trees  has  not  shrunken  any 
since  the  Glacial  Period — that  Sequoia  has  held  its  own  for  5,000 
to  10,000  years. 

The  devastation  of  the  Big  Tree  groves  by  lumbermen  is  now 
checked  in  a  few  locations  by  Government  purchase  and  reserva- 
tion. The  lumber  is  put  to  such  base  uses  as  shingles  and  clap- 
boards and  fencing  which  lesser  trees  might  better  supply.  It  is 
the  vast  size  and  height  of  these  trees,  not  the  market  value  of 
the  lumber  per  board  foot,  that  make  an  acre  yield  such  enormous 
profit. 

Seedling  Big  Trees  grow  slowly,  and  do  poorly  in  the  Eastern 
States.  In  Europe  they  are  more  successful,  and  are  popular 
everywhere.  Weeping  forms,  which  are  much  grown,  originated 
in  a  French  nursery. 

The  genus  takes  its  name  from  Sequoiah,  a  wise  Cherokee 
Indian,  who  made  an  alphabet  of  his  tribal  language  by  means 
of  which  the  New  Testament  and  a  newspaper  were  published  for 
his  people. 

Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens,  Endl.) — Resinous,  aromatic 
trees,  with  tall,  fluted  trunks  and  short,  horizontal  branches; 
200  to  300  feet  high,  12  to  28  feet  in  diameter.  Head  small,  irreg- 
ular. Barh  thick,  red,  6  to  12  inches  thick,  in  ridges  2  to  4  feet 
wide,  checked  crosswise,  showing  brighter,  close,  inner  layer. 
Wood  light,  soft,  brittle,  close,  red,  easily  split,  durable,  satiny 
lustre.  Buds  oval,  small,  loosely  scaly.  Leaves  of  two  forms: 
lanceolate  and  spreading,  or  awl  shaped  and  shorter;  evergreen, 
\to\  inch  long.  Flowers :  monoecious,  in  late  winter,  cone  shaped, 
scaly;  staminate  on  erect  stems,  scales  3-anthered,  pollen  copious; 
pistillate  with  7  ovules  on  each  scale.  Fruit  oblong,  woody  cone, 
I  to  I  inch  long,  scales  thick  and  grooved  at  tip;  3  to  5-winged 
seeds  on  each.  Preferred  habitat,  moist,  sandy  soil.  Distribution, 
southern  Oregon  on  coast  range  slopes  to  Monterey  County, 
California.  Uses:  Most  valuable  timber  tree  of  Pacific  coast; 
successful  in  European  gardens. 

In  many  characters,  the  redwood  is  not  different  from  the 


The  Big  Tree  and  the  Redwood 

Big  Tree.  Its  spreading  leaves  on  the  terminal  twigs  give  it  a 
more  graceful,  feathery  spray  than  do  the  awl-like  blades  of  the 
other.  The  pistillate  flowers  have  fewer  scales,  and  the  buds  are 
scaly.  The  cones  are  smaller,  and  the  seeds  have  more  vitality. 
The  redwood  is  only  a  trifle  under  the  Big  Tree  in  size,  sometimes 
overtopping  the  highest  of  them,  and  reaching  400  feet.  But  the 
trunks  are  not  so  massive,  and  these  trees  average  smaller  than 
their  cousins.  In  beauty  the  redwood  is  first;  the  lustrous  leaves, 
the  ruddy  bark,  and  the  gracefully  curving  branches  of  trees  still 
in  their  prime  will  halt  the  passing  stranger  and  compel  his  wonder 
and  admiration.  The  forests  throng  with  young  trees  in  every 
stage  of  growth,  showing  that  Nature  left  to  herself  would  mul- 
tiply and  extend  the  range  of  this  species.  But  the  wood  is  beau- 
tiful, and  light  and  easily  worked.  It  is  admirable  in  building, 
and  durable  beyond  most  woods.  It  receives  a  satiny  polish, 
and  it  lasts  indefinitely  in  the  ground. 

Curly  grain  is  common  in  Sequoia  lumber,  and  this,  as  in 
other  species,  is  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  makers  of  fancy  fur- 
niture and  bric-a-brac.  People  want  redwood,  so  the  lumberman 
is  stripping  the  redwood  forests  as  fast  as  possible.  "They'll 
come  on  again!"  And  it  is  true  to  some  extent.  The  trees  send 
up  suckers  from  the  stumps,  which  the  Big  Trees  cannot  do.  But 
lumbering  is  wasteful  and  greedy  in  its  methods,  and  more  is 
wasted  than  saved.  Forest  fires  lick  up  the  kindling  the  lum- 
berman leaves,  and  young  trees  and  old  fall  victims  to  this  dis- 
aster. 

Redwoods  are  more  easily  accessible  than  Big  Trees.  They 
come  down  to  the  coast  and  thus  tempt  the  avarice  of  lumbermen. 
The  extent  of  these  woods  seemed  great,  at  first.  But  on  the  map 
the  region  is  very  small  indeed,  and  immediate  protective  meas- 
ures are  demanded  if  any  groves  of  big  redwoods  are  to  be  saved 
from  the  sawmill. 

In  cultivation  the  redwood  has  followed  the  Big  Tree  into 
European  gardens,  and  at  length  it  has  shown  itself  hardy  and 
fairly  content  in  the  Southeastern  States.  Near  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  it  is  growing  successfully. 


QO 


mi^^esaiwtmsimssi^uumai^ 


I  111.    lUC     I  KKE  (.SV7 

Spruces  and   pines  of  majt-stic   port  are  dwarfed  to  saplings  bv  tlit- 
not  /iown,  but  ott/— indifferent  to  all  that  transpires  helow  tlu-m. 


)/■,;  IVellinototiui) 

jnipany  they  keep.     They  look  up,  but  the  sequoias  look- 
They  regard  only  the  limitless  reaches  of  the  eternal  skv 


CHAPTER   XI:     THE   ARBOR   WTJES 

Genus  THUYA,  Linn. 

Evergreen  resinous  ornamental  trees  of  slender,  pyramidal 
habit,  with  intricately  branched  limbs,  and  flat,  open  spray. 
Leaves  scale-like,  4-ranked,  minute,  closely  appressed  to  twi^. 
Flowers  solitary,  terminal,  small  aments,  monoecious,  scaly. 
Fruits  erect,  loose,  ovoid  cones,  of  few  thin  scales;  seeds  few, 
usually  two.  Uses:  trees  especially  adapted  for  formal  gardens, 
clipped  hedges  and  shelter  belts.     Wood  variously  employed. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Cone  with  4  fertile  scales,  as  a  rule;  bark  orange  red. 

(7.  occidentalis)  arbor  vit/e 
AA.  Cone  with  6  fertile  scales,  as  a  rule;  bark  cinnamon  red. 

(7.  plicata)  giant  arbor  wtm 

Four  distinct  species  of  Thuya  are  recognised.  Two  are 
native  to  Japan  and  China,  The  Chinese  T.  orientalis,  one  of  the 
most  popular  decorative  evergreens,  is  cultivated  especially  in 
Southern  gardens.  It  is  offered  in  several  varieties.  T.Japonica 
is  a  hardy  species  of  lusty  growth  with  white  spots  on  the  dark 
green  of  its  leaf  linings.  A  Japanese  genus,  Thuyopis,  with  one 
species,  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  Oriental  evergreens  introduced 
into  cultivation  here.  It  is  hardy  to  Massachusetts,  but  suffers 
from  drought.  Its  flat,  frond-like  spray  resembles  arbor  vitae, 
from  which  the  genus  is  distinguished  by  having  4  to  5  ovules 
under  each  scale  of  the  cone. 

Arbor  Vitae  {Thuya  occidentalis,  Linn.) — A  conical,  com- 
pact, resinous  evergreen,  25  to  65  feet  high,  with  short,  ascending 
branches  and  flat,  frond-like  spray.  Bark  light  brown,  thin, 
cracking  into  ridges  with  frayed-out,  stringy  edges;  branches 
smooth,  red,  shining.  Wood  soft,  brittle,  coarse,  durable  in  the 
soil,  light  brown,  fragrant.  Buds  naked,  very  small.  Leaves, 
both  keeled  and  flat,  4-ranked,  to  fit  the  flat  twig,  scale-like,  blunt, 

91 


The  Arbor  Vitses 

or  pointed,  glandular,  aromatic.  Flowers,  May,  monoecious  on  tips 
of  side  twigs,  but  separate;  staminate,  a  globose  cluster  of  stamens; 
pistillate,  a  red  cone  of  8  to  12  scales  with  ovules  on  lower  or  central 
ones  only.  Fruit  oval,  pale  brown,  erect  cone,  annual,  with 
6  to  12  oblong  scales.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  swampy  ground 
near  streams.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba;  Min- 
nesota, Michigan  and  northern  Illinois;  south  along  Atlantic 
States  into  New  Jersey,  along  Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina  and 
eastern  Tennessee.  Uses:  Valuable  ornamental  and  hedge  tree. 
Wood  used  for  telegraph  poles,  posts,  railroad  ties  and  shingles. 
Bark  rich  in  tannin. 

The  flat  leaf  spray  of  the  arbor  vitcT  of  the  Northern  States 
sets  it  apart  from  other  evergreens,  and  its  use  in  hedges  makes  it 
familiar  to  most  people.  Children  as  well  as  grown  people  gen- 
erally know  it.  Unfortunately  the  name,  white  cedar,  has  become 
attached  to  this  tree,  confusing  it  with  another  genus,  Chamae- 
cyparis,  in  which  this  name  reappears. 

Through  years  of  cultivation  this  arbor  vit^  has  produced  a 
great  number  of  garden  varieties.  Their  slow  growth  and  com- 
pact habit  adapt  them  to  use  in  formal  gardens.  They  are  hardy, 
they  submit  to  severe  pruning  and  late  transplanting,  and  they 
are  easily  propagated  from  seed — these  traits  of  character  com- 
mend them  to  nurserymen  and  planters.  They  are  planted  with 
profit  for  telegraph  poles  and  posts,  as  the  wood,  though  soft,  is 
very  durable  in  soil.  As  windbreaks  they  do  good  service,  and 
have  unique  ornamen/^al  value  when  massed  on  stream  borders  or 
grouped  on  rocky  >lopes. 

Giant  Arbor  Vitae,  or  Red  Cedar  (Thuya  plicaia,  D. 
Don.) — A  pyramidal  tree,  150  to  200  feet  high,  with  a  stout, 
often  corrugated  and  buttressed  trunk.  Bark  scaly  in  narrow 
strips,  thin.  P/ood  light,  brittle,  reddish  brown,  soft,  coarse, 
durable.  Leaves  minute,  close,  blunt,  scale-like,  with  pale  mark- 
ings, longer  on  leading  shoots.  Flowers  dark  brown,  monoecious, 
very  small.  Fruit  erect  clustered  cones,  with  6  fertile  scales,  each 
bearing  2  to  3  winged  seeds.  Preferred  habitat,  rocky  stream 
banks  and  rich  bottomlands.  Distribution,  coast  regions  from 
Cape  Mendocino  in  California  north  into  Alaska;  mountains  east 
into  Idaho  and  Montana.  Uses:  A  handsome  ornamental  tree, 
grown  in  Europe  and  occasionally  in  the  Middle  and  North  Atlantic 
States.     Wood  used  for  interior  finish  of  houses,  sashes,  doors, 

92 


The  Arbor  Vitses 

furniture  and  cooperage.  Indians  use  it  for  totem  poles,  frame- 
work of  lodges  and  war  canoes.  Inner  bark  furnishes  fibre  for 
blankets,  ropes  and  nets;  sheets  of  it  thatch  their  cabins. 

Beside  this  giant  of  the  Northwest,  our  Eastern  arbor  vitae  is 
a  pygmy.  Solitary,  or  in  small  groves,  it  climbs  the  mountains 
to  a  level  more  than  a  mile  higher  than  the  rich  river  bottoms  at 
sea  level,  where  the  noblest  specimens  and  the  greatest  number  are 
assembled.  The  Indian  cuts  the  biggest  specimen  he  can  find  for 
the  totem  pole  that  he  carves  into  his  family  tree.  The  war  canoes 
are  dugouts  made  of  the  enormous  butts  which  often  measure  1 5 
feet  in  diameter.  Inside  of  the  cabins  the  great  rough-hewn 
rafters  and  joist  of  these  primitive  dwellings  are  of  this  arbor  vitae, 
whose  soft  wood  the  crude  implements  of  the  tribes  can  work  with 
comparative  ease.  The  walls  that  enclose  the  Indian's  house,  the 
blankets  that  keep  him  warm,  and  the, ropes,  indispensable  in 
fishing,  in  the  harnessing  of  his  dog  teams,  and  in  various  other 
enterprises — all  come  from  the  fibrous  inner  bark  of  this  tree. 
Truly  it  is  a  "tree  of  life"  to  the  Alaskan  aborigines. 

In  cultivation,  this  species  far  exceeds  the  other  native  in 
beauty  and  rapidity  of  growth.  It  is  coming  into  popularity  in 
the  United  States. 


95 


CHAPTER   XII;     THE   INCENSE  CEDAR 

Genus  LIBOCEDRUS,  Endl. 

Tall,  aromatic,  resinous  trees.  Leaves  scale-like,  4-ranked, 
in  flat  sprays.  Flowers  moncecious,  solitary,  minute,  terminal. 
Fruit  an  annual  cone,  oblong,  few-scaled. 

(L.  decurrens)  incense  cedar 

This  single  representative  of  its  genus  in  America  has  seven 
sister  species,  chiefly  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Formosa  and 
southwestern  China,  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea,  and  South  Amer- 
ica from  Chili  to  Patagonia — these  have  their  incense  cedars,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  flat,  frond-like  spray  of  bright  green  scale 
leaves.  Our  species  is  grown  in  parks  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  in  protected  situations  about 
Boston.     In  Europe  it  is  often  planted  for  ornament. 

It  is  native  to  the  slopes  of  the  Cascade  and  other  coast  ranges 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  extends  from  Oregon  into  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, and  reaches  its  best  estate  and  greatest  numbers  in  the 
central  part  of  California,  between  5,000  and  7,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  Its  lumber  resembles  that  of  arbor  vitae,  and  is  used  for 
furniture,  fencing,  lath  and  shingles,  for  interior  woodwork,  and 
for  flume  building. 

John  Muir's  description  of  it  is  most  illuminating: 

"The  incense  cedar,  when  full  grown,  is  a  magnificent  tree, 
120  to  nearly  200  feet  high,  5  to  8  and  occasionally  12  feet  in 
diameter,  with  cinnamon-coloured  bark  and  warm,  yellow-green 
foliage,  and  in  general  appearance  like  an  arbor  vita?.  It  is  dis- 
tributed through  the  main  forest  from  an  elevation  of  3,000  to 
6,000  feet,  and  in  sheltered  portions  of  cafions  on  the  warm  sides 
to  7,500  feet.  In  midwinter,  when  most  trees  are  asleep,  it  puts 
forth  its  flowers.  The  pistillate  are  pale  green  and  inconspicuous, 
but  the  staminate  are  yellow,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  are  in  myriads,  tingeing  all  the  branches  with  ^old,  and 
making  the  tree  as  it  stands  in  the  snow  look  like  a  gigantic  golden- 
rod.  Though  scattered  rather  sparsely  amongst  its  companions 
in  the  open  woods,  it  is  seldom  out  of  sight,  and  its  bright  brown 
shaft  and  warm  masses  of  plumv  foliage  make  a  striking  feature 


The  Incense  Cedar 

of  the  landscape.  While  young  and  growing  fast  in  an  open 
situation,  no  other  tree  of  its  size  in  the  park  forms  so  exactly 
tapered  a  pyramid.  The  branches,  outspread  in  flat  plumes  and 
beautifully  fronded,  sweep  gracefully  downward  and  outward, 
except  those  near  the  top,  which  aspire;  the  lowest  droop  to  the 
ground,  overlapping  one  another,  shedding  rain  and  snow,  and 
making  fme  tents  for  storm-bound  mountaineers  and  birds.  I  n  old 
age  it  becomes  irregular  and  picturesque,  mostly  from  accidents — 
running  fires,  heavy  wet  snow  breaking  the  branches,  lightning 
shattering  the  top,  compelling  it  to  try  to  make  new  summits  out 
of  side  branches,  etc.  Still  it  frequently  lives  more  than  a  thousand 
years,  invincibly  beautiful,  and  worthy  its  place  beside  the  Douglas 
spruce  and  the  great  pines." 


95 


CHAPTER   XIII:     THE   CYPRESSES 

Coniferous  trees  having  pyramidal  habit.  Very  popular 
for  ornamental  planting.  Some  species  have  considerable  lumber 
value.  All  have  light,  graceful  leaf  spray  and  small,  globular, 
woody  cones.     Wood  usually  soft. 

KEY  TO  GENERA 

A.  Leaves,  minute,  scaly,  thick,  evergreen. 
B.  Seeds  under  each  cone  scale  many. 

I.  Genus  Cupressus,  Linn. 
BB.  Seeds  under  each  cone  scale  i  to  5. 

2.  Genus  CHAMytCYPARis,  Spach. 
AA.  Leaves  linear,  deciduous.  3.  Genus  Taxodium,  Rich. 

I.  Genus  CUPRESSUS,  Linn. 

Resinous  trees  with  naked  buds,  stout,  ascending  branches, 
which  become  horizontal.  Leaves  minute,  scale-like,  4-ranked. 
Flowers  minute,  monoecious,  yellowish.  Fruit  biennial,  globular, 
woody  cones. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Branchlets  stout. 

B.  Foliage  dark  green.    (C.  macrocarpa)  Monterey  cypress 
BB.  Foliage  pale  green;  twigs  glaucous. 

(C.  Ariionica)  Arizona  cypress 
AA.  Branchlets  slender;  foliage  dark  green. 

B.  Leaves  obscurely  glandular,        (C.  Goveniana)  cypress 
BB.  Leaves  plainly  glandular.         (C.  Macnabiana)  cypress 

Monterey  Cypress  {Cupressus  macrocarpa,  Gord.) — A  broad 
pyramidal  tree  v/hen  young,  40  to  75  feet  high,  becoming  gnarled 
and  flat  topped  when  old.  Trunk  short,  3  to  6  feet  thick.  Bark 
brown  to  pale  grey,  broken  into  irregular  ridges,  covered  with  elon- 
gated, persistent  scales.  If^ood  brown,  hard,  strong,  heavy, 
durable,  fine  grained.  Leaves  ovate,  minute,  closely  appressed 
to  twigs.  Flowers  minute,  monoecious,  separated,  terminal,  yel- 
low.    Fruit  clustered,  erect,  globular  cones,  of  few  v/oody  scales. 


The  Cypresses 

seeds  1 8  to  20  under  each  middle  scale.  Preferred  habitat,  exposea 
coast  bluffs.  Distribution,  around  Bay  of  Monterey,  California. 
Uses:  Planted  for  windbreaks  and  hedges,  and  for  ornament. 

The  Pacific  coast  forests  thrill  the  heart  of  the  Easterner, 
unless  that  heart  be  petrified  by  commercialism.  Even  then,  the 
thrill  is  there,  though  it  be  a  materialistic  vibration,  accompanied 
by  a  mental  estimate  in  terms  of  board  feet.  The  thrill  changes 
from  wonder  to  pity  as  the  tree  lover  looks  upon  that  small  remnant 
of  its  race,  the  Monterey  cypresses,  that  cling  to  the  wind-beaten 
promontories  about  Monterey  Bay.  They  look  like  battle-scarred 
veterans  making  a  stubborn  though  hopeless  stand  in  the  last 
ditch.  And  that,  literally,  is  the  state  of  their  fortunes.  Wide 
as  their  gnarled  roots  range  for  foothold,  the  crumbling  bluffs  are 
gradually  undermined  by  the  waves,  and  one  by  one  those  in  the 
front  rank  go  down.  The  hungry  waves  will  never  give  up  the 
siege,  and  the  last  of  the  trees  in  their  native  soil  will  in  time  be 
swept  out  of  existence. 

Fortunately  the  species  is  hardy  and  happy  in  cultivation 
far  from  its  native  land.  It  is  known  in  several  horticultural 
forms  as  well  as  the  type  species  in  temperate  South  America, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  In  southern  and  western  Europe 
it  is  in  great  favour,  and  at  home  it  is  planted  very  generally  for 
ornament  and  for  hedges  up  and  down  the  Pacific  coast.  Lately 
it  is  coming  into  use  in  the  Southeastern  States.  Hence,  the  tree 
is  saved  to  a  larger  life  by  man's  intervention,  although  Nature 
ruthlessly  lets  extermination  overtake  it  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence. It  is  to  be  hoped  that  age  will  bring  these  cultivated 
cypresses  to  something  like  the  picturesque  habit  that  distin- 
guishes the  trees  that  grow  wild.  No  pine  of  the  Alps  ever  took 
on  such  grotesqueness  as  marks  the  Monterey  cypresses. 

The  Cypresses  of  Monterey 

Staunch  derelicts  adrift  on  Time's  wide  sea, 

Undaunted  exiles  from  an  age  pristine! 
Your  loneliness  in  tortured  limb  we  see; 

Your  courage  in  your  crown  of  living  green; 
Your  strength  unyielding,  in  your  grappling  knee; 

Your  patience  in  the  calmness  of  your  mien. 
Enrapt,  you  stand  in  mighty  reverie. 

While  centuries  come  and  go,  unheard,  unseen. 

— Anna  Botsford  Comstock. 
97 


The  Cypresses 

The  Arizona  Cypress  (C  Ari^onica,  Greene)  extends  as  a 
small  or  medium-sized  tree  of  pyramidal  habit  from  Arizona  into 
California  and  Mexico.  Forests  of  it  are  found  at  5,000  to  6,000 
feet  elevation.  The  trees  are  occasionally  broad  with  flattened 
tops.  The  leaves  are  pale  green,  and  a  glaucous  bloom  covers 
them  after  the  first  year  of  growth.  The  cones  are  also  glaucous, 
and  each  thick  scale  has  a  sharp  beak  at  the  top.  The  tree  is  rare 
in  cultivation,  and  as  yet  has  no  importance  in  the  lumber  trade. 

The  Cypress  (C.  Goveniana,  Gord.),  of  central  and  sou'chern 
California  coast  mountains,  has  dark  green  foliage  on  spreading 
branches  that  form  a  loose,  open  head.  The  tree  is  not  at  all  rare 
within  its  range,  but  varies  from  a  shrub  to  a  tree  50  feet  high. 
Horticultural  forms,  usually  dwarfs,  are  cultivated. 

The  Macnab  Cypress  (C.  Macnabiana,  Murr.),  also  a  Cali- 
fornian  limited  to  the  northern  mountainous  part  of  the  state,  is  a 
small  spreading  tree,  rarely  30  feet  high,  often  with  many  stems. 
Its  leaves  are  dark  green,  sometimes  whitened  by  a  glaucous 
bloom,  always  distinctly  set  with  glands.  In  cultivation  the  tree 
is  the  hardiest  of  the  genus,  although  restricted  to  California  and 
the  Gulf  States  in  this  country  and  to  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe. 

The  classic  Cypress  (C.  sempervirens,  Linn.)  of  the  Old 
World  gives  distinction  to  Italian  gardens  to-day,  and  as  the 
symbol  of  mourning  has  been  planted  in  the  burial  places  of  Europe 
from  the  earliest  recorded  times.  It  is  mentioned  more  fre- 
quently in  classical  literature  than  any  other  conifer.*  Its  som- 
bre foliage  was  the  badge  of  grief.  It  is  one  of  the  trees  noted  for 
longevity;  its  age  limit  is  estimated  at  3,000  years.  Not  hardy 
in  our  Northern  States,  it  is  cultivated  in  the  South  and  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  species  submits  to  severe  pruning,  so  it  is  often 
planted  for  hedges. 

2.  Genus  CHAM^CYPARIS,  Spach. 

Trees  of  tall,  narrow  pyramidal  habit,  with  short,  spreading 
side  branches,  and  flat  branchlets  spray.  IVood  pale,  fragrant, 
durable.  Leaves  scale-like,  sharp,  opposite  in  pairs.  Flowers 
monoecious,  minute,  globular,  lateral.  Fruit  annual,  erect, 
globular  cones  of  few  woody  scales;  seeds  i  to  5  under  each  fertile 
scale. 


*  "  Nor,  when  you  die,  shall  any  of  the  trees  you  have  planted,  save  only  the  mournful  cypresses, 
follow  their  master." — Horace. 


98 


■IHK    MONTERKY    CYPUKSS  {Cuf,ressus   macrocarpa) 

A  small  ri'iniiant  of  their  race  are  the  ageil,  flat-topped  veteran  cvpresses  that  cling  with  gnarled  and  far-reaching  roots 
to  the  crumbling  soil  of  rocky  promontories  alimit  Monterey  Bay  in  California.  The  leaves  are  minute,  but  the  foliage  mass  is 
thick  and  casts  a  sombre  shade.     In  cultivation  the  species  thrives,  and   makes  a  beautiful   hedge  tree  and  ornamental  evergreen 


The  Cypresses 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Bark  of  tree  thin;  ridges  flat;  leaves  blue-green. 
B.  Twigs  slender;  leaves  dull,  glandular. 

(C.  thyoides)  white  cedar 
BB.  Twigs  stout;  leaves  bright,  not  glandular. 

(C  N ooikaiensis)  sitka  cypress 
AA.  Bark  of  tree  thick;  ridges  rounded,  leaves  bright  green, 
glandular.  (C.  Lawsoniana)  lawson  cypress 

This  genus  of  six  species  is  distributed  in  North  America  and 
Japan  and  on  the  Island  of  Formosa. 

^A^hite  Cedar  {Chamcecyparis  thyoides,  Britt.) — A  fast- 
growing,  pyramidal  tree,  40  to  80  feet  high,  with  flat,  graceful  spray 
on  erect,  spreading  branches.  Bark  pale,  reddish  brown,  furrowed, 
stringy,  often  terfninal.  Wood  light  reddish  brown,  soft,  light, 
weak,  aromatic,  close  grained,  easily  worked,  very  durable  in  soil. 
Buds  naked,  very  small.  Leaves  dull  blue-green,  minute,  scale- 
like, opposite,  4-ranked,  lateral  pairs  keeled,  others  roncave,  fitting 
compressed  twigs.  Flowers,  April,  monoecious,  small,  terminal, 
made  of  4  to  6  scales;  staminate  red  or  yellow,  abundant;  pistil- 
late few,  greenish.  Fruit  woody,  spherical  cone,  \  inch  in  diame- 
ter, annual,  glaucous,  blue-green,  becoming  brown;  scales  with 
beak  in  centre;  seeds  winged,  i  to  2  under  each  scale.  Preferred 
habitat,  deep  swamps  near  seacoast.  Distribution,  seaboard  states, 
Maine  to  Mississippi.  Uses:  Important  ornamental  evergreen. 
Wood  used  for  interior  finish  of  houses,  for  boats,  fence  posts,  rail- 
road ties,  buckets,  barrels,  shingles,  and  small  woodenware. 

The  Atlantic  seaboard  from  Massachusetts  Bay  south  has  a 
cypress  whose  common  name,  "white  cedar,"  is  unfortunate. 
There  ought  to  be  distinct  names  enough  to  go  around.  All  the 
species  of  a  genus  ought  to  have  the  same  generic  name  in  English 
as  well  as  in  Latin  or  Greek.  However,  white  cedar  is  the  trade 
name  of  the  lumber,  and  there  is  little  chance  that  the  cedar  mud- 
dle will  be  cleared  by  calling  this  tree  a  cypress. 

The  tree  is  a  lover  of  swamps  and  doesn't  get  far  back  from 
the  coast.  In  cultivation  it  thrives  in  any  sandy  loam,  if  not  too 
dry.  It  is  lumbered  to  some  extent  and  devoted  to  uses  that  test 
its  durability  in  contact  with  water  and  exposure  to  sun  and  wind. 

The  Sitka  Cypress  (C.  Nootkatensis,  Lamb.)  grows  over 
100  feet  tall,  with  a  trunk  over  5  feet  through,  near  the  coast  of 
Alaska.     Its  yellow  branchlets  lighten  the  gloom  of  its  blue-green 

99 


The  Cypresses 

foliage,  and  the  treetop  is  warmed  by  the  ruddy  colour  of  the 
oldest  leaves,  which  remain  for  some  time  on  the  tree  after  they 
are  dead.  The  range  of  the  species  is  from  Alaska  into  Oregon, 
climbing  the  mountains  to  the  altitude  of  3,000  feet,  where  the 
tree  is  reduced  to  a  shrub. 

The  hard  wood  is  very  close  of  texture  and  pale  yellow.  It 
is  durable  and  pleasantly  aromatic.  Carpenters  employ  it  in  the 
interior  fmishing  of  houses.  It  is  made  into  furniture,  and  used 
in  boat  building. 

Horticultural  forms  of  this  species  are  astonishingly  numerous. 
Sudworth  gives  sixty-eight  varieties  in  his  "Check  List." 

Lawson  Cypress  {Chamcecyparis  Lawsoniana,  A.  Murr.) — 
A  spire-like  tree,  1 50  to  200  feet  high,  with  short  horizontal  branches 
ending  in  a  flat  spray.  Bark  very  thick,  with  rounded  scaly 
ridges,  dark  red.  Wood  hard,  light,  strong,  pale  yellow,  close 
grained,  resinous,  fragrant,  easily  worked.  Leaves  minute,  bright 
green,  in  opposite  pairs.  Flowers:  minute,  numerous;  staminate 
bright  red;  pistillate  dark  coloured.  Fruit  clustered  cones,  pea 
sized,  of  few  scales;  seeds  2  to  4  under  each  scale.  Preferred 
habitat,  mountain  slopes.  Distribution,  coast  mountains  of  Oregon 
and  California.  Uses:  A  valuable  ornamental  tree.  Wood  used 
in  house  finishing,  flooring,  and  in  boat  building  and  for  railroad 
ties  and  fence  posts.     Matches  are  made  of  it. 

Somewhat  of  the  beauty  of  those  Western  cypresses  can  be 
appreciated  by  looking  in  gardens  and  nurseries  at  the  multitude 
of  varieties  of  each  of  them  in  cultivation  in  this  country  and 
abroad.  In  their  own  country  the  parents  of  these  precocious 
ornamental  ofi'spring  are  to  be  seen.  No  horticultural  substitute 
for  the  original  will  suflice  the  tree  lover.  To  go  to  Oregon  is  his 
fondly  cherished  plan.  To  see  that  twenty-mile  forest  belt  of 
Lawson  cypresses  that  stretches  from  Point  Gregory  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Coquille  River — only  this  will  satisfy.  There  are  men  who 
name  as  "the  handsomest  of  the  conifers"  trees  outside  of  this 
genus,  but  the  visitor  to  this  splendid  grove  of  Lawson  cypresses 
will  be  inclined  to  deny  it.  It  is  hard  to  keep  to  a  sliding  scale 
and  avoid  superlatives  in  judging  those  Western  trees. 

The  Japanese  Retinosporas,  beautiful  evergreen  of  this  type, 
widely  cultivated  in  many  horticultural  forms,  were  assigned  to  a 
separate  genus  by  Siebold  and  Zuccarini,  but  other  authorities 
consider  them  all  to  be  juvenile  forms  of  the  genus  Chamaecyparis, 


The  Cypresses 

or  Thuya.  These  evergreens  have  in  youth  different  foHage  from 
that  of  the  adult  trees — a  sufficient  reason  for  confusion,  especially 
before  the  trees  bear  cones.  Whatever  botanical  affinities  are 
eventually  established,  the  trade  name  will  probably  remain 
Retinospora,  and  people  will  plant  these  handsome  evergreens  in 
increasing  numbers.  In  his  Manual,  1905,  Professor  Sargent 
includes  two  Japanese  Retinosporas  in  the  genus  Chamsecyparis. 

3.  Genus  TAXODIUM,  Rich. 

The  bald  cypress  has  two  sister  species  in  the  genus  Taxodium. 
One,  a  shrub,  is  native  to  China;  the  other,  a  large  tree,  to  Mexico. 
Forests  of  bald  cypresses  covered  large  areas  of  Europe  and  central 
North  America  during  the  Tertiary  Period,  but  they  perished  in 
the  Glacial  Era.     The  rocks  tell  the  story. 

Bald  cypresses  rank  among  the  oldest  and  largest  trees  in  the 
world.  The  Mexican  species,  T.  mucronaium,  is  estimated  to  live 
4,000  years.  The  far-famed  "Cypress  of  Montezuma,"  in  Che- 
pultepec,  is  nearly  200  feet  high  and  its  trunk  has  a  diameter  of  1 5 
feet.  It  is  believed  to  be  less  than  800  years  old — a  tree  still  in 
the  vigour  of  youth.  The  largest  trunk  known  in  this  species  is 
40  feet  in  diameter  at  base.  Beside  this  giant  our  own  bald 
cypress  seems  small  and  short  lived,  but  among  our  native  trees 
it  ranks  high  in  size  and  age. 

Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  disticlmm,  Rich.) — A  tall  pyra- 
midal tree,  75  to  1 50  feet  high,  with  pendulous  branches,  becoming 
broad  and  round  headed  when  old.  Trunk  Icbed  above,  strongly 
buttressed  and  usually  hollow  at  the  base.  Roots  long,  horizontal, 
with  vertical  anchor  roots.  Bark  pale  reddish  grey,  scaly,  divided 
by  shallow  fissures.  IVood  soft,  light,  brown,  easily  worked, 
durable.  Buds  minute,  globular,  scaly,  silvery.  Leaves  decid- 
uous with  the  branchlets  linear,  \  to  f  inch  long,  2-ranked, 
spreading  or  scale-like,  closely  appressed.  Flowers:  monoecious, 
small;  staminate  in  loose,  drooping  panicles,  4  to  6  inches  long; 
pistillate  globose,  scaly,  scattered  near  ends  of  twigs.  Fruit 
annual,  globular,  woody  cones,  in  pairs  or  solitary,  i  inch  in 
diameter;  seeds  winged,  2  under  each  scale.  Preferred  habitat, 
swamps  of  coast  or  river  bottoms.  Distribution,  Delaware  to 
Florida;  west  into  Texas;  north  along  Mississippi  to  Missouri, 
Indiana  and  Illinois.    Uses:  Lumber  for  buildings,  doors,  shingles, 


The  Cypresses 

cooperage,  fencing  and  railroad  ties.  Planted  as  an  ornamental 
tree  in  Northern  States  and  in  Europe. 

Familiar  to  the  traveller  through  our  Eastern  and  South- 
ern seaboard  regions  are  the  cypress  swamps,  dismal,  but  pic- 
turesque withal,  and  exhibiting  characteristics  that  set  this  tree 
quite  apart  from  others.  A  conifer  is  ordinarily  an  evergreen 
tree.  This  one  establishes  its  family  claims  by  the  brave  array  of 
button-like  cones  it  ripens  every  autumn.  But  it  is  deciduous, 
shedding  not  only  its  yew-like  leaves,  but,  surprisingly,  most  of 
the  little  twigs  also  that  bear  the  leaves.  So  the  winter  finds  the 
trees  bare  and  dead  looking,  the  tall,  corrugated  trunks  of  old  ones 
often  supporting  heads  as  broad  as  the  height,  and  hopelessly 
unsymmetrical.  In  the  soft  muck  of  deep  swamps  the  trees 
spread  out  abruptly  at  the  base  into  flying  buttresses,  each  becom- 
ing hollow  in  course  of  time,  as  the  base  of  the  trunk  is  long  before. 
Out  on  all  sides  stretch  long,  thick  roots  whose  branches  go  down 
and  anchor  the  tree,  while  the  main  ones  seem  designed  to  balance 
it  on  its  uncertain  foundation.  The  "knees"  that  rise  up  at  inter- 
vals from  the  main  roots  and  are  distinguished  from  stumps  by 
their  smooth,  conical  shapes,  are  still  a  physiological  puzzle. 
Many  people  believe  that  they  gather  air  for  the  submerged  root 
system.  Others  declare  that  they  strengthen  it.  The  cypresses 
keep  their  secrets  from  the  prying  investigator,  and  the  solemn 
cormorants  that  build  in  the  treetops  will  never  tell. 

I  shall  not  forget  an  excursion  on  foot  into  one  of  the  large 
bald  cypress  swamps  of  southern  Florida  in  May.  The  dangerous 
part  of  the  jaunt  was  the  passage  forced  through  a  jungle  of  young 
pines,  palmettoes  and  scrubby  live  oaks  interlaced  with  wiry  vines 
and  creepers.  Here  rattlesnakes  hide,  and  show  fight  when  dis- 
turbed. Emerging  at  length  into  comparatively  open  timber, 
we  stood  surrounded  by  young  cypresses  with  pale  grey  trunks, 
smooth,  slender,  and  flaring  widely  at  the  bases.  Among  the 
trunks  were  stumps,  and  also  knees,  the  latter  smooth,  as  if  the 
fibres  went  up  one  side  and  on  down  the  other.  Overhead  was  a 
feathery  canopy  of  pale  sage-green  leaves.  On  rugged  old  trunks 
air  plants  found  ample  roothold.  Orchids  of  sorts  1  had  admired 
afar  off  in  florists'  windows  held  out  great  cataracts  of  bloom  which 
were  ours  for  the  plucking.  Vivid  amaryllis  flowers  were  similarly 
growing  out  of  the  trunks  of  these  trees,  with  delicate  ferns  to 
keep  them  company.     Under  foot,  the  dry,  sandy  soil  bore  a  crop 


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THE   BALD   CYPRESS    {Taxodium  distichum) 

The  base  of  the  trunk  flares  abruptly  into  lobed  buttresses.  Pointed  "knees"  rise  from  the  long  horizontal  roots  of  old 
trees.  They  are  supposed  to  be  means  of  aeration  to  the  inundated  roots.  The  leafy,  lateral  twigs  are  deciduous.  Cypress 
•wamps  are  found  in  the  maritime  regions  of  the  Southeastern  states 


The  Cypresses 

of  unfamiliar  flowers.  The  rainy  season  which  opens  in  May 
inundates  this  land  for  fully  half  of  the  year. 

The  wood  of  bald  cypress  is  very  important  in  the  lumber 
trade,  being  soft,  handsome,  easily  worked  and  durable  in  water 
and  in  the  soil.  Buckets  and  bowls  are  made  by  hollowing  out 
knees  of  suitable  sizes. 

Lover  though  it  be  of  Southern  swamps,  yet  there  is  no  hand- 
somer spire  of  living  green  in  any  Northern  upland  park  than  this 
same  bald  cypress.  In  its  early  years  the  tree  is  perfectly  sym- 
metrical, trim  and  beautiful  in  the  feathery  lightness  of  its  leafy 
spray.  The  roots  keep  out  of  sight  and  there  is  no  hint  of  the  out- 
landish hollow  buttresses  and  bare  knees  that  characterise  the 
tree  at  home.  Among  strangers,  the  bald  cypress  puts  on  its  best 
manners;  there  is  no  more  conventional  and  fastidious  tree  in  the 
park.  The  tree  is  cultivated  also  in  a  number  of  varieties,  some 
dwarfs,  some  weeping  forms,  others  of  stricter  spire  forms  that 
lend  themselves  to  formal  effects  in  gardens.  The  heads  of  cypress 
trees  grow  broad  in  moist  soil,  and  assume  narrower  form  in  soil 
with  scant  moisture  supply. 


103 


CHAPTER   XIV:     THE  JUNIPERS 

Genus  JUNIPERUS,  Linn. 

Evergreen  trees  or  shrubs  with  pungent  sap,  thin,  ragged 
bark,  and  shiort,  much-divided  ascending  branches.  Leaves  usually 
of  two  kinds,  linear,  spiny,  free,  in  whorls  of  3  at  each  joint,  or 
scale-like,  blunt,  in  pairs,  2-ranked,  opposite,  and  closely  appresscd 
to  twigs.  Flowers  in  small,  inconspicuous  aments,  dioecious  or 
farely  monoecious.  Fruit  berry-like,  by  coalescence  of  fleshy 
scales;  seeds  i  to  6,  wingless,  bony.  Wood  soft,  close  grained, 
durable. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  free,  3  in  a  whorl,  awl  shaped,  spiny ;  flowers  axillary; 
berry  bright  blue  with  pale  bloom;  seeds  3. 

(/.  communis)  dwarf  juniper 
AA.  Leaves  appressed  to  twig,  in  threes  or  opposite,  scale-like, 
minute;  flowers  terminal;  berry  brown  or  dark  blue; 
seeds  i  to  12. 
B.  Berry  large,  brownish  red,  with  dry,  sweet  flesh. 
C.  Seeds  few  or  solitary. 

D.  Fruit  oblong,    i   to  2-seeded;  leaves  in  threes; 
twigs  stout.  ( /.  Calijornica)  California  juniper 
DD.  Fruit  round,  i -seeded;  leaves  in  twos  or  threes; 

twigs  slender.         {J.  Uiahensis)  utah  juniper 
CC.  Seeds  4  to  12;  berry  with  tubercles  projecting. 
D.  Bark  shed  in  thin,   red,  papery  scales. 

(j.  flaccida)  drooping  juniper 
DD.  Bark  shed  in  squarish  plates. 

(J.  pachyphlosu)  checker-barked  juniper 
BB.  Berry  small  (except  occidentalis),  dark  blue  or  black, 
resinous,  juicy;  seeds  i  to  4. 
C.  Twigs  slender,  pendulous. 

D.  Seed  solitary,  dark  ashy  grey. 

{J.  monosperma)  one-seeded  juniper 
DD.  Seeds  2;  berry  flattened,  J   inch  in  diameter; 
bark  light  reddish  brown;  twigs  4-arigled. 

(/.  Barbadensis)   southern  red  juniper 
DDD.  Seeds  i  to  4;  berry  round;  bai'k  brownish  red,  of 

loose  scales.     (J.  sabinoides)  moumtain  juniper 
104 


The  Juniper^ 

CC.  Twigs  slender,  stiff,  erect;  berry  bright  blue. 

{J.  scopulorum)  rocky  mountain  juniper 
CCC.  Twigs   stout;    berry    dark   blue   with  pale  bloom; 
seeds  2  to  3. 
D.  Leaves  in  threes,  grey-green;  tree  a  broad,  low 
.    crown  of  large  horizontal  branches. 

(/.  occidentalis)  western  juniper 
DD.  Leaves  in  twos,  blue-green;  tree  a  tall,  narrow 
pyramid. 

{J.  Virginiana)  red  juniper — red  cedar 

The  junipers  are  distinguished  from  most  other  evergreens 
by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  cone  bearers.  The  flowers  are  incon- 
spicuous, and  similar  to  a  true  conifer's,  but  in  course  of  develop- 
ment the  scales  thicken  and  grow  together,  forming  a  sweet, 
berry-like  fruit.  On  many  of  these  berries  the  tips  of  the  cone 
scales  may  be  distinctly  seen  on  the  outer  surface.  Junipers 
usually  show  two  kinds  of  leaves:  (i)  stiff,  spiny,  narrow  ones, 
channelled  and  free;  (2)  minute,  scale-like  ones,  opposite  in 
pairs  and  pressed  close  to  the  twig.  The  sap  is  resinous  and 
aromatic.  The  wood  is  hard,  reddish,  durable  and  light — in 
certain  species  pleasantly  fragrant. 

Thirty-five  species  of  junipers  are  distributed  over  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere,  contributing  to  the  wealth  of  the  world  valuable 
woods  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs.  Our  own  red  juniper 
has  over  thirty  cultivated  varieties.  The  narrow,  tapering  spire, 
the  globe  of  compact  green  and  the  pigmy  forms — all  are  well 
adapted  to  formal  gardening.  The  effects  produced  by  the 
classic  cypress  in  warmer  climates  may  be  reproduced  in  Northern 
gardens  by  the  use  of  junipers. 

The  junipers  are  hardy  over  wide  stretches  of  territory,  and 
will  grow  on  sterile  soil.  They  resist  unfavourable  climates  and 
thrive,  as  a  rule,  when  transplanted.  They  love  the  sun  and  the 
wind.  Better  trees  could  not  be  provided  for  windbreaks  against 
sea  breezes,  on  a  barren,  exposed  coast.  They  are  multiplied  by 
seeds,  cuttings  and  layers,  as  well  as  by  grafting.  Seeds  take 
two  or  three  years  to  germinate. 

Several  Asiatic  and  European  junipers  are  cultivated  in 
America  in  various  horticultural  forms.  Naturally,  a  tribe  so 
submissive  to  the  gardener's  shears  has  long  been  under  his  care. 
Our  native  species  are  often  seen  in  European  gardens,  and  J.  com- 
munis, Linn.,  of  Europe  is  often  planted  here  in  its  narrow,  spiny 

105 


The  Junipers 

form.  A  much-prized  Himalayan  species,  /.  recurva,  D,  Don., 
is  a  dwarf  with  long,  spreading  or  trailing  limbs.  Of  similar  habit 
is  J.  Sabina,  Linn.,  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  parent  of  many 
horticultural  forms. 

Dwarf  Juniper  (Juniperus  communis,  Linn.) — Shrub  of 
sprawling  habit,  or  small  tree  20  to  30  feet,  with  short  trunk  and 
irregular,  open  head  of  erect  branches.  Bark  loosely  scaly,  thin, 
reddish  brown.  IVood  hard,  fine  textured,  light  brown,  durable 
in  soil.  Buds  loosely  scaly,  small,  pointed.  Leaves  in  threes, 
boat  shaped,  lined  with  a  white  bloom  on  the  concave  (upper) 
side,  spiny,  spreading,  dark  green,  shiny  below;  J  to  ^  inch  long; 
in  winter,  bronze  green;  persistent  for  many  years.  Flowers 
monoecious,  axillary,  in  cone-like  aments.  Fruits  ripe  third 
autumn;  berries  bright  blue  with  pale  bloom,  flesh  mealy,  soft; 
seeds  i  to  3.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  limestone  hills;  waste  land. 
Distribution,  Greenland  to  Alaska;  south  to  Pennsylvania  and 
Nebraska,  in  Rocky  Mountains  as  far  south  as  Texas,  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona;  Alaska  to  northern  California.  Uses:  Planted  for 
hedges,  windbreaks  and  as  a  cover  for  waste  land  on  seashore. 
Berries  used  to  flavour  gin. 

This  indefatigable  little  tree  colonist  has  not  only  settled  in 
most  of  the  colder  parts  of  this  country,  but  it  is  found  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere  from  the  broad  stretches  of  the  North  even 
to  the  mountains  of  southern  Europe,  northern  Africa  and  the 
Himalayas.  In  America  it  assumes  a  definite  tree  habit  only  in 
southern  Illinois.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  limestone  of  these 
uplands  gave  the  procumbent,  incapable  sprawler  backbone 
enough  to  stand  up  and  take  its  place  among  trees.  In  another 
particular  this  species  lacks  energy;  it  requires  three  years  to  ripen 
a  crop  of  berries. 

Out  of  J.  communis  has  sprung  a  race  of  low  junipers — impor- 
tant horticultural  varieties,  including  graceful  weeping  forms, 
compact  globose  ones,  some  spire-like  and  some  with  golden  foliage. 
The  Irish  juniper,  one  of  the  most  popular  varieties,  has  a  tapering 
habit,  very  narrow,  like  a  miniature  Lombardy  poplar.  J.  com- 
munis is  the  only  species  whose  leaves  are  spreading  throughout. 
On  the  remaining  ten  native  species  the  leaves  are  minute  and 
closely  appressed  to  the  stem,  except  a  few  whose  new  shoots 
imitate  the  dwarf  juniper.  In  Europe,  much  more  than  in  Amer- 
ica, the  berries  are  gathered  and  consumed  in  the  making  of  gin. 

106 


The  Junipers 

From  time  immemorial  the  flavour  of  the  juniper  berry  has  been 
the  sine  qua  non  to  quality  in  this  beverage. 

California  Juniper  {Juniperus  Calijornica,  Carr.) — Conical 
or  broad  and  open-headed  tree,  20  to  40  feet  high,  with  irregular, 
fluted  trunk  and  twisted  limbs.  Bark  thin,  pale  grey,  hanging 
m  loose  plate-like  scales.  Wood  soft,  fine  grained,  reddish  brown, 
durable  in  soil.  Leaves  in  threes,  on  older  twigs,  thick  keeled, 
set  close  to  twig,  pale  yellow-green;  on  new  shoots,  linear,  pale 
lined,  spiny,  spreading.  Flowers,  January  to  March,  monoecious, 
in  scaly  aments.  Fruits  ripe  second  season,  oblong  or  round,  \  to  \ 
inch  long,  brown,  with  pale  bloom;  seeds  i  to  2,  large.  Preferred 
habitat,  dry  plains  and  slopes  of  mountains.  Disirihuiion,  coast 
mountains  from  the  lower  Sacramento  Valley  to  Lower  California; 
east  into  Sierra  Nevada.  Uses:  Wood  for  posts  and  for  fuel. 
Fruit  eaten  by  Indians.  Locally  planted  to  some  extent  on  semi- 
arid  land. 

The  Utah  Juniper  {Juniper  Utahensis,  Lemm.)  takes  the 
place  of  the  California  species  in  the  arid  regions  between  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  called  the  desert  juniper, 
is  gnarled  like  its  Western  relative,  and  has  much  the  same  habit, 
though  its  round  berry,  with  a  solitary  seed,  and  its  slender  twigs 
distinguish  it.  This  little  tree  serves  the  settler  and  the  Indian 
just  as  the  California  species  does. 

The  Drooping  Juniper  (Juniperus  flaccida,  Schlecht.)  has 
long,  flexible  branchlets  that  give  it  grace  beyond  the  portion 
allotted  to  its  kindred.  The  bark  of  this  little  tree  is  bright  cin- 
namon and  is  shed  in  papery  scales.  It  is  a  pity  that  this  dainty 
juniper,  which  is  met  in  gardens  of  Algiers  and  in  the  south  of 
France,  should  be  unknown  to  horticulture  in  its  own  country. 
It  wastes  its  beauty  on  uninhabited  slopes  of  the  Chisos  Mountains 
in  southwestern  Texas,  and  is  common  at  high  altitudes  across 
the  Mexican  border. 

The  Checker-barked  Juniper  {Juniperus  pachyphlcea,  Torr.) 
also  inhabits  southwestern  Texas,  following  arid  slopes  between 
4,000  and  6,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  invading  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
and  Mexico.  It  is  a  considerable  tree,  40  to  60  feet  high,  with 
short,  stout  trunk  and  broad,  horizontal  spread  of  limb — a  lusty 
tree  to  be  produced  on  arid  soil.  The  peculiar  checkered  bark 
gives  it  distinction  in  the  genus.  It  is  often  3  to  4  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  the  regularity  of  the  deep,  vertical  furrowing  seems 

107 


The  Junipers 

Strikingly  artificial.  The  tree  is  called  "alligator  juniper"  in  Ari- 
zona.    The  thickness  of  the  bark  is  excep'iional  among  junipers. 

The  Indians  gather  the  fruits,  which  are  large  and  copiously 
borne  by  mature  trees,  and  put  them  away  for  winter.  Though 
resinous  in  taste,  the  cake  made  out  of  these  berries  ground  into 
meal  is  by  no  means  unpalatable  to  white  folks.  Baked  in  the 
sun,  it  is  light,  sweet  and  easily  digested.  The  large  and  plentiful 
berries  of  the  other  mountain  junipers  are  used  in  the  same  way. 

The  One-seeded  Juniper  {Juniperus  monosperma,  Sarg.)  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  ashy  grey  bark  in  seasons  where  the 
berry  is  not  there  to  tell  the  tak.  This  thin  bark  is  stripped  into 
its  fibres  and  woven  into  cloth  and  mats  by  Indians.  Girths  of 
their  saddles  are  woven  of  it.     The  berries  also  furnish  food. 

The  tree  grows  to  50  feet  high,  v/ith  a  strongly  buttressed 
trunk  8  or  10  feet  in  girth.  The  limbs  are  short,  with  clustering 
grey-green  foliage  of  the  minute,  scale-like  sort.  This  is  a  tree  of 
the  mountain  slope  or  the  high  plateau,  ranging  from  Colorado 
to  Texas,  and  west  to  Arizona,  forming  forests  in  southern  Colorado 
and  Utah.     Fencing  and  fuel  consume  some  wood  each  year. 

The  Rock  Cedar  {Juniperus  sahhzoides,  Nees.)  is  a  consider- 
able tree  in  the  lowlands  of  the  central  counties  of  Texas,  but 
dwindles  in  size  as  it  ascends  the  mountains  and  arid  regions  to 
the  west  and  south.  This  tree  has  distinctly  quadrangular  twigs 
by  the  paired,  opposite  arrangement  of  its  strongly  keeled  leaves. 
The  foliage  mass  is  loose  and  irregular,  with  a  dark  blue-green  cast. 
Young  shoots  bear  linear,  free,  spiny  leaves  ^  inch  long.  The 
bark  is  reticulated  by  an  intricate  network  of  furrows  leaving  flat 
plates  between.  This  juniper  furnishes  much  fuel  as  well  as  a 
considerable  supply  of  fence  posts,  railroad  ties  and  telegraph  poles 
in  a  region  where  wood  is  not  plenty. 

Red  Juniper,  Red  Cedar  {Juniperus  Virginiana,  Linn.) — 
Conical  tree,  compact  when  young,  becoming  loose  and  cylindrical 
or  irregular  when  old;  from  a  shrub  to  a  tree  100  feet  high  and  5 
fee|  trunk  diameter;  branches  short,  slender,  ascending,  becoming 
horizontal.  Bark  red,  stringy,  persistent;  branches  smooth. 
Wood  soft,  weak,  close  grained,  red,  fragrant.  Duds  minute, 
green.  Leaves  opposite,  on  old  stems,  4-ranked;  scale-like,  blue- 
green,  closely  appressed  to  twigs,  which  seem  4-angled;  on  new 
shoots,  scattered,  spiny,  loose,  awl  shaped,  ^^  to  f  inch  long,  pale 
yellow-green.     Flowers  in  April,  May;    terminal  on  side  twigs, 

108 


The  Junipers 

dioecious,  rarely  monoecious;  staminate  of  4  to  6  scales,  each  bear- 
ing several  pollen  sacs;  pistillate  of  minute,  paired,  bluish,  fleshy 
scales,  bearing  two  ovules.  Fruit  a  blue,  glaucous  berry,  the  size 
of  a  pea,  ripening  the  first  or  second  season  and  containing  i  to  4 
seeds;  flesh  sweet,  resinous.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  soil  or  peaty 
swamps.  Distribution,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Uses: 
Wood  used  largely  for  pails,  pencils,  chests  and  closets,  sills  and 
interior  finishing,  railroad  ties  and  fence  posts. 

It  is  unfortunate  that,  whereas  the  true  cedars  are  all  in  the 
Old-World  genus  Cedrus,  the  American  genera.  Thuya,  Libocedrus, 
Chamaecyparis  and  Juniperus,  each  have  one  or  more  species  to 
which  the  name  is  loosely  applied.  It  would  take  a  long  while 
to  uiiiearn  the  name  "red  cedar"  for  this  familiar  tree — to  write 
with  a  juniper  pencil;  to  put  furs  and  woollens  away  in  moth- 
discouraging  juniper  chests.  So  hard  it  is  to  break  a  habit.  The 
logical  tning  is  to  call  this  tree  a  juniper,  as  well  as  the  other 
species  of  Juniperus,  and  so  far  reduce  the  confusion  involved  now 
every  time  the  word  cedar  is  mentioned. 

This  vagabond  tree,  familiar  in  abandoned  farms  and  ragged 
fence  rows  of  New  England,  is  the  same  that  grows  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Georgia,  and  west  to  where  the  hills  lift  and  the  arid  ridges 
become  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A  stunted  tree 
covering  the  limestone  plateaus  of  Tennessee,  it  is  a  towering 
pyramid  of  luxuriant  green  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley.  Sea- 
shores of  the  East  and  South,  and  sterile  soil  on  foothills  of 
Eastern  mountains,  all  show  these  scattered  trees,  small  and 
bushy,  or  tall  and  compact.  The  berries  are  borne  in  profusion 
and  are  distributed  by  birds. 

The  leaves  are  2-ranked,  spiny,  channelled,  lined  with  white 
on  new  shoots  and  on  young  trees.  The  older  parts  of  twigs 
show  closely  appressed  scale-like  leaves.  Both  types  are  found 
on  every  tree.  In  winter  a  rusty  brown  comes  over  the  dark  blue- 
green  of  the  foliage  mass,  but  spring  revivifies  it. 

The  trunks  are  columnar  and  corrugated;  they  bare  them- 
selves by  shedding  the  stringy  brown  bark  in  longitudinal  strips. 
In  lower  Pennsylvania  this  is  a  shade  tree  of  considerable  popular- 
ity. It  forms  windbreaks  in  exposed  situations,  on  the  coast  or 
inland,  where  most  trees  fail.  The  tree  is  planted  profitably  for 
posts  and  railroad  ties  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  States.  Where 
trees  can  be  had  large  enough  for  telegraph  or  telephone  poles 

IC9 


The  Junipers 

they  command  the  highest  prices,  for  the  wood  is  one  of  the  most 
durable.  The  Fabers  have  for  generations  maintained  their  own 
forests  of  this  species  in  Germany  to  supply  their  pencil  factories. 

An  interesting  "fruit"  of  the  red  juniper,  much  larger  and 
more  luscious  looking  than  the  diminutive  berries,  is  familiar  to 
boys  and  girls  under  the  name  "cedar  apple."  A  remarkable 
thing  about  these  pulpy,  jelly-like  masses,  with  their  yellow  spurs, 
is  that  they  come  out  on  the  twigs  as  suddenly  as  mushrooms. 
Still  more  astonishing  is  the  fact  that  this  parasitic  fungus  that 
makes  itself  at  home  on  the  red  cedar  utterly  ignores  all  red  cedars 
when  its  spores  are  germinating  to  produce  the  next  generation. 
Only  those  that  fall  on  apple  trees  live.  They  do  not  produce 
"apples"  of  any  sort,  but  patches  of  yellow  "apple  rust"  on  leaves 
and  fruit.  Spores  wafted  away  from  these  blotches  germinate 
only  when  they  fall  on  twigs  of  red  cedar.  They  grow  inside,  and 
at  fruiting  time  throw  out  the  gelatinous  cedar-apple  mass  whose 
spurs  contain  the  spores. 

This  capricious  "alternation  of  generations"  is  interestingly 
seen  in  wheat  rust,  whose  alternate  host  is  the  common  barberry. 
A  third  rust  goes  from  birches  to  poplars  and  back  again  to  birches 
each  alternate  year. 

The  Red  Juniper  of  the  South  (Juniperus  Barhadensis, 
Linn.)  has  long  been  considered  by  good  authorities  a  variety  of  the 
preceding  species.  It  furnishes  the  highest  grade  of  "red  cedar" 
for  pencils.  Western  Florida  has  many  swampy  forests  of  these 
trees.  The  Fabers,  of  pencil  fame,  own  vast  tracts  here.  The 
West  Indies  and  the  Gulf  States  all  contribute  a  considerable 
quantity  to  commerce  each  year.  Growing  naturally  in  swamps 
like  the  bald  cypress,  yet  it  thrives  when  planted  in  parks  and 
cemeteries.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  junipers  in  cultivation. 
Its  slender,  spreading  branches  clothed  with  pendulous  twigs, 
give  unusual  grace  to  the  tree  habit.  The  berries  are  silvery  white 
and  abundant.  Its  susceptibility  to  frost  confines  this  tree's  range 
to  the  Southern  States. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper  {Juniperus  scopulorum,  Sarg.) 
has  stout  twigs  and  limbs,  usually  a  short  trunk  with  several 
main  limbs  carrying  the  top.  Its  foliage  is  often  pale  grey-green 
— a  fashionable  colour  on  the  Western  plains  and  foothills.  It 
climbs  to  elevations  of  over  5,000  feet,  and  few  soils  are  too  poor 
and  too  arid  to  support  it.     It  follows  the  Rocky  Mountains  from 


The  Junipers 

Alberta  to  Texas  on  the  eastern  slopes;  on  the  western  slopes  it 
enters  Washington,  Oregon  and  California. 

The  larger  fruit,  requiring  two  years  to  ripen,  the  broader 
head,  the  stouter  branches  and  twigs,  the  paler  foliage,  and  the 
shreddy  bark  distinguish  this  species  from  the  true  red  juniper 
which  meets  it  on  the  hither  boundaries  of  the  Rockies,  and  from 
which  it  was  but  recently  separated  by  botanists. 

Western  Juniper  (Juniperus  occidentalis,  Hook.) — Low, 
broad-headed  tree,  20  to  65  feet  high,  with  unusually  thick  trunk 
and  stout,  horizontal  branches.  Bark  \  inch  thick,  bright  crimson- 
red,  in  broad,  scaly  ridges,  with  shallow  irregular  interlacing  fur- 
rows. Wood  soft,  light,  pale  reddish  brown,  fme  grained,  very 
durable  in  the  soil.  Leaves  in  threes,  minute,  closely  appressed 
to  twigs,  grey-green,  tapering,  sharp  pointed.  Flowers  cone-like, 
monoecious,  inconspicuous.  Fruit  a  blue-black  berry  with  pale 
bloom,  J  to  J  inch  long;  seeds  2  to  3.  Preferred  habitat,  mountain 
sides  and  elevated  plains,  6,000  to  10,000  feet.  Distribution, 
western  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon  and  California,  following  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  to  the  San  Bernardino  range.  Uses: 
Wood  for  fencing  and  fuel.  Bark  woven  into  mats  and  cloth  by 
Indians.  Fruit  an  important  article  of  food  among  California 
tribes. 

Here  is  one  of  the  patriarchal  trees  of  America — one  whose 
age  ranks  it  with  the  Sequoias,  dating  the  birth  of  the  oldest  back, 
assuredly,  more  than  2,000  years.  It  is  impossible  to  find  a  giant 
with  trunk  sound  to  the  core  and  telling  the  whole  story  in  its 
annual  rings.  John  Muir  is  probably  the  only  man  who  has  made 
serious  inquiry  into  this  matter.  On  the  bleak  ridges  of  the 
Sierras,  with  no  soil  but  crumbs  of  disintegrating  granite,  these 
trees  make  scarcely  any  gain  from  year  to  year.  Two  of  Muir's 
measurements  are  given  below,  the  years  being  determined  by  the 
number  of  annual  rings. 

Diameter  of  Trunk  Age 

2  feet    II    inches 1,140  years 

I  foot  7^  inches 834  years 

Being  a  poet  as  well  as  a  scientist,  John  Muir  was  deterred  from 
the  killing  of  one  of  the  elders,  merely  to  appease  his  curiosity. 
Beside,  dry  rot  and  scars  of  ancient  hurts  confuse  the  reader  of 
tree  rings,  and  throw  him  upon  estimates,  after  all.    The  ditficulties 

III 


The  Junipers 

of  chopping  down  a  tree  lo  feet  in  diameter  would  discourage  the 
most  ardent  searcher  after  treasures  of  fact  hid  in  a  tree  trunk.  A 
chip  a  foot  deep  chopped  out  of  a  medium-sized  tree — 6  feet  in 
diameter — showed  an  average  of  fifty-seven  years  of  growth 
required  to  make  an  inch  of  wood.  On  soil  deposited  in  the  high 
valleys  by  glacial  rivers  these  junipers  grow  about  as  fast  as  oaks. 
They  are  the  well-fed,  commonplace  members  of  the  family, 
growing  tall  and  straight  under  favouring  skies. 

I  cannot  forbear  a  quotation  from  John  Muir's  "Forests  of 
the  Yosemite  Park,"  for  he  knows  these  mountain  trees  person- 
ally, and  has  interpreted  them  to  the  world  as  no  other  man 
has  done: 

"The  sturdy  storm-enduring  red  cedar  {Junipenis  occi- 
dentalis)  delights  to  dwell  on  the  tops  of  granite  domes  and  ridges 
and  glacier  pavements  of  the  upper  pine  belt,  at  an  elevation  of 
7,000  to  10,000  feet,  where  it  can  get  plenty  of  sunshine  and 
snow  and  elbow  room,  without  encountering  quick-growing, 
overshadowing  rivals.  They  never  make  anything  like  a  forest, 
seldom  come  together  even  in  groves,  but  stand  out  separate 
and  independent  in  the  wind,  clinging  by  slight  joints  to  the 
rock,  living  chiefly  on  snow  and  thin  air,  and  maintaining  tough 
health  on  this  diet  for  2,000  years  or  more,  every  feature  and 
gesture  expressing  steadfast,  dogged  endurance.  .  .  .  Many 
are  mere  stumps  as  broad  as  high,  broken  by  avalanches  and 
lightning,  picturesquely  tufted  with  dense  grey  scale-like  foliage, 
and  giving  no  hint  of  dying.  .  .  .  Barring  accidents,  for  all  I 
can  see,  they  would  live  forever.  When  killed,  they  waste  out  of 
existence  about  as  slowly  as  granite.  Even  when  overthrown 
by  avalanches,  after  standing  so  long,  they  refuse  to  lie  at  rest, 
leaning  stubbornly  on  their  big  elbows  as  if  anxious  to  rise,  and 
while  a  single  root  holds  to  the  rocks,  putting  forth  fresh  leaves 
with  a  grim  never-say-die  and  never-lie-down  expression." 


112 


CHAPTER   XV:     THE   TORREYAS 

Family  Taxacc^ 

Genus  TUMION,  Raf. 

Ornamental  evergreens,  with  spreading,  usually  whorled 
branches  and  ill-smelling  sap.  Leaves  2-ranked,  linear,  with  paler 
linings.  Flowers  dioecious  (rarely  moncecious),  scaly  at  base. 
Fruit  like  a  plum;  seed  large,  solitary.  Wood  hard,  durable, 
strong,  close  grained. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  linear;  branches  spreading,  pendulous. 

B.  Length  of  leaves  f  to  i^  inches,  bark  brown,  tinged 
with  orange;  fruit  dark  purple,  obovate,  i  to  i^ 
inches  long.  {T.  taxijolium)  Florida  torreya 

BB.  Length  of   leaves  J  to  ^  inch,   bark  brownish  grey; 
fruit  pale  green,  streaked  with  purple,  oval,  i  to  i^ 
inches  long.         {T.  Calijornica)  California  torreya 
AA.  Leaves    lanceolate,   spiny  pointed;    branches    spreading, 
compact;  bark  bright  red;  fruit  ovoid,  less  than  i  inch 
long.     (Exotic.)  (7.  nucijera)  Japanese  torreya 

The  Torreyas,  close  relatives  of  the  yews,  are  yet  little  known 
outside  their  native  ranges,  though  they  are  coming  into  cultiva- 
tion in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country.  They  are  objectionable 
only  on  account  of  the  bad  odour  of  their  leaves  when  bruised. 
The  tree  habit  is  symmetrically  pyramidal,  the  whorled  limbs 
pendulous,  and  the  foliage  handsom.e.  The  trees  furnish  some 
fence  posts.  The  wood  is  very  durable  in  wet  soil,  which  is  their 
chosen  habitat. 

Torreyas  are  propagated  from  seeds  and  by  cuttings.  The 
latter  grow  slowly,  producing  plants  that  remain  low  and  bushy 
for  years.  The  Florida  species  has  proved  hardy  in  sheltered 
situations  as  far  north  as  Boston,  but  the  Californian  cannot  sur- 
vive the  cold  of  this  high  latitude. 

113 


The  Torreyas 

The  Japanese  Torreya  promises  more  hardiness  than  cur 
native  species,  and  more  beauty  in  cultivation.  In  habit  it  is 
compact  with  erect  Hmbs,  quite  different  from  the  pendulous- 
limbed  natives.  The  bright  red  bark  adds  to  its  beauty,  as  also 
does  the  breadth  and  fine  shape  of  the  lanceolate  leaves.  In  Japan 
this  tree  is  highly  prized  for  its  wood,  which  is  used  in  cabinet 
work  and  building.  A  Chinese  species,  T.  grandis,  resembling  the 
Japanese,  is  said  to  lack  the  disagreeable  odour  of  the  other 
species. 

The  Florida  Torreya  (7.  taxi  folium,  Greene)  is  very  local  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  that  state,  growing  on  bluffs  along  the 
Appalachicola  River.  It  is  rarely  40  feet  high,  and  is  called  the 
"stinking  cedar." 

The  California  Nutmeg  (7.  Californicum,  Greene)  is  a 
larger  tree,  handsome  in  its  youthful  vigour,  in  age  losing  its 
pyramidal  form  and  becoming  round-topped.  It  is  a  striking 
evergreen  at  any  age,  with  its  pale  grey  bark  and  its  fruits  hanging 
like  half-ripe  plums  among  the  sprays  of  prickly,  sickle-shaped, 
linear  leaves.  The  pit  of  the  fruit  resembles  a  nutmeg.  A  fine 
grove  of  these  trees  is  within  the  borders  of  the  Yosemite  Park. 
Nowhere  common,  they  occur  on  slopes  of  the  Sierras  and  Santa 
Cruz  Mountains  between  3,000  and  5,000  feet  above  sea  level. 


114 


CHAPTER  XVI:     THE   YEWS 

Family  Taxace^b 

Genus  TAXUS,  Linn. 

Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  with  spreading,  horizontal 
branches,  and  purple,  scaly  bark.  Leaves  linear,  spiny,  2-ranked, 
pale  beneath.  Flowers  minute,  dioecious,  in  axillary  heads. 
Fruit  berry-like,  fleshy,  sweet,  scarlet. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Foliage  yellow-green,  short.  {T.  brevi folia)  pacific  yew 

AA.  Foliage  dark  green,  long.  (T.  Floridana)  Florida  yew 

There  are  six  known  species  of  yew,  all  confined  to  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere.  The  fruit  is  farther  away  from  the  coniferous 
type  than  that  of  any  true  member  of  the  Family  Coniferae.  Yet 
careful  analysis  of  flowers  and  fruit  show  that  the  parts  are 
there — the  scales  and  the  naked  ovules — though  development 
obliterates  the  signs  of  relationship  to  the  pines  and  hemlocks. 

The  Old-World  Yew  {T.  baccata,  Linn.)  is  native  to  Europe, 
Asia  and  Africa.  Its  history  is  interwoven  with  the  growth  of 
civilisation.  In  the  folk  lore  of  the  English  cottagers  the  yew 
was  saddest  of  all  trees  except  the  cypress.  Branches  of  yew  were 
gathered  to  deck  the  house  where  a  body  lay  awaiting  burial. 
The  heads  of  mourners  were  bound  with  chaplets  of  yew.  The 
sombre  yew  tree  drooping  over  a  grave  was  a  favourite  symbol  in 
our  great-grandmother's  samplers,  even  so  late  as  a  century  ago. 

"Pluck,  pluck  cypress,  O  pale  maidens. 
Dusk,  O  dusk  the  hall  with  yew! 
Weep,  and  wring 
Every  hand;  and  every  head 
Bind  with  cypress  and  sad  yew 
For  him  that  was  of  men  most  true." 

n5 


The  Yews 

Yews  were  planted  in  churchyards,  especially  in  the  south 
of  England.  Could  any  dirge  be  sadder  than  the  lines  above 
quoted,  or  any  tree  a  better  symbol  of  inarticulate  grief?  There 
was  another  idea  that  probably  was  considered  to  lighten  the 
gloom  of  funereal  thoughts.  The  yew  is  one  of  the  long-lived 
trees.  It  was  regarded  in  some  quarters  as  the  emblem  of  immor- 
tality. The  name,  yew,  is  believed  to  come  from  the  same  root  as 
ewig,  the  German  word  meaning  "everlasting." 

In  the  early  wars  the  yeoman  drew  a  long  bow  made  of  the 
tough  wood  of  his  native  yew.  Spenser  called  the  tree  "the 
shooter  eugh."  The  English  soldier  bent  his  bow;  the  Frenchman 
drew  his.  The  former  was  too  heavy  to  lift.  Bishop  Latimer 
describes  its  use  by  the  soldier  on  the  battlefield: 

"  Keeping  his  right  hand  at  rest  upon  the  nerve,  he  pressed 
the  whole  weight  of  his  body  into  the  horns  of  his  bow." 

Beside  its  toughness  and  elasticity,  the  wood  has  other 
admirable  qualities.  It  lasts  indefinitely  in  soil  and  exposed  to 
the  weather.  Its  grain  is  often  as  handsome  as  mahogany.  The 
roots  often  show  wavy  areas,  which  when  polished  and  made  into 
tables  vied  in  beauty  with  the  ancient  and  precious  citron  wood. 
Burs  of  yew  were  a  favourite  veneer  for  tea  caddies. 

The  best  soil  for  yew  trees  is  chalk,  hence  the  tree  grows  its 
best  in  the  Channel  counties  of  England.  Yet  even  in  Scotland 
famous  trees  of  remarkable  age  are  recorded.  The  Fotheringal 
(Fortingall)  Yew,  57  feet  in  circumference,  proved  by  the  rings  of 
its  stump  that  it  had  lived  almost  3,000  years — "a  world-old  yew 
tree."  "Addison's  Walk,"  at  Glasnevin,  Ireland,  lies  between  two 
rows  of  ancient  yews.  A  close-bodied,  compact  tree,  and  tonsile 
beyond  any  other,  the  yew  has  always  been  a  tree  to  cut  into  gro- 
tesque and  geometrical  forms  for  the  adornment  of  gardens  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent.  In  the  United  States  it  is  similarly 
employed  where  formal  effects  are  desired.  The  tree  is  also  grown 
and  allowed  to  take  its  normal  shape  and  reach  what  size  it  will. 
It  is  offered  by  nurserymen  in  many  varieties. 

The  Pacific  Yew  (Taxtis  brevifolia,  Nutt.) — A  tree  with 
broad  head,  of  long,  horizontal,  pendulous  limbs,  and  trunk  irreg- 
ularly lobed  and  flattened.  Bark  thin,  covered  with  purplish 
scales.  IVood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  red.  Leaves  short,  linear, 
2-ranked,  pale  beneath,  yellowish.  Flowers  dioecious,  minute, 
in    leaf    axils.     Fruit    a    translucent,    scarlet    berry.     Preferred 

116 


hahitai,  ravines  and  stream  banks.  Disirihuiion,  mountains  of 
coast,  from  Alaska  to  southern  California,  east  to  Montana. 
Uses:   Wood  for  posts,  paddles  and  bows. 

1  he  cheerful  green  of  its  foliage  relieves  this  yew  of  any 
funereal  suggestion.  It  is  a  beautiful,  if  rarely  a  symmetrical 
evergreen  tree,  surprising  tourists  and  delighting  the  birds  with  its 
brilliant  berries  in  autumn.  The  Indian  of  Alaska  cuts  spear 
shafts,  bows,  paddles  and  other  articles  out  of  its  wood.  The 
settler  uses  it  for  fencing. 

The  Florida  Yew  (7.  Floridana,  Chapm.)  is  a  small  tree  of 
bushy  habit,  often  of  many  stems  not  20  feet  high.  It  has  the 
dark  green  of  its  European  relative,  and  the  same  mournful 
expression.  It  is  found  only  along  the  east  bank  of  the  Appa- 
lachicola  River  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  state. 

Our  Eastern  yew  (Taxus  minor,  Britt.),  commonly,  but  incor- 
rectly, called  ground  hemlock,  never  assumes  tree  form,  but  is  a 
sprawling  shrub,  its  dense  foliage  forming  in  autumn  a  rich  back- 
ground for  the  bright  scarlet  berries.  In  cultivation  this  species 
becomes  less  straggling  in  growth.  It  is  oftenest  planted  where 
an  undercover  is  desired  on  irregular  wooded  ground.  Its  foliage 
takes  on  a  warm  tinge  of  red  in  winter.  The  berries  are  the  delight 
of  birds  and  boys.     This  is  the  hardiest  yew. 


M7 


CHAPTER   XVII:     THE   PALMS  AND  THE 
PALMETTOS 

Family  Palm.^ 

The  Palm  family  is  a  large  group  of  tropical  flowering  plants, 
related  to  lilies  on  one  side  and  grasses  on  the  other.  Like  both 
of  these,  palms  have  but  one  cotyledon  (seed  leaf)  in  the  embryo, 
and  the  stem  is  composed  of  a  hardened  outer  layer  within  which 
is  a  mass  of  felt-like  tissue  in  which  longitudinal  bundles  of  tough 
wood  cells  are  irregularly  distributed.  Growth  is  internal,  about 
these  bundles  as  centres — not  external,  from  a  cambium.  The 
parts  of  the  flowers  are  regularly  in  threes,  as  in  the  lilies.  The 
leaves  are  parallel  veined,  and  they  sheathe  the  stem,  as  in  the 
grasses.     They  are  fan  shaped  or  feather  shaped. 

Palms  are  allied  closely  to  the  Arums,  of  which  our  jack-in- 
the-pulpit  is  a  familiar  representative.  Both  families  have 
monoecious  flowers  borne  separately  on  different  parts  of 
a  central  spadix,  surrounded  by  a  conspicuous  spathe,  or 
sheath.  Both  families  have  berry-like  fruit,  sometimes  hard- 
ened outside. 

Of  palms  there  are  now  recognised  over  one  hundred  genera 
and  about  one  thousand  species.  Botanically,  the  family  is  an 
old  one,  and  on  the  decline.  Fossils  of  Tertiary  rocks  show  what 
it  was  in  its  prime.  Three  hundred  and  sixty  distinct  and  impor- 
tant uses  are  credited  to  palms  by  Evelyn,  No  human  need  but 
they  supply  in  the  primitive  life  of  tropical  people.  In  the  com- 
merce of  the  world  they  play  no  mean  part.  In  the  tropics,  houses 
are  built  and  furnished  throughout  from  the  native  palms.  Their 
leaves  thatch  the  walls  and  roofs.  They  supply  thread  for  weaving 
cloth,  ropes,  fish  nets  and  lines,  mats,  fans,  shields  and  hats. 
Spines  furnish  needles  and  barbed  fishhooks.  Sap  gives  wine, 
sugar  and  wax.  Stems  give  fresh  salads  and  sago  for  food,  and 
wands  for  basketwork  and  furniture.  Fruits  of  palms  include 
cocoanuts,  dates,  and  some  of  these  yield  chocolate  and  valuable 
oils. 

Ii8 


The  Palms  and  the   Palmettos 

KEY  TO  GENERA 

A.  Leaves  long,  feather  shaped. 
B.  Fruit  blue,  below  leaf  cluster. 

I.  Genus  Roystonea,  Cook 
BB.  Fruit  orange-scarlet,  among  leaves, 

2.  Genus  Pseudophcenix,  H.  Wendl. 
AA.  Leaves  round,  fan  shaped. 

B.  Leaf  stalks  spiny. 

C.  Leaves  5  to  6  feet  long;  petioles  4  to  6  feet  long. 

3.  Genus  Washingtonia,  H.  Wendl. 
CC.  Leaves  2  feet  long;  petioles  i;^  to  2  feet  long. 

4.  Genus  Serenoa,  Hook. 
BB.  Leaf  stalks  not  spiny. 
C.  Fruit  white. 

5.  Genus  Thrinax,  Sw. 
CC.  Fruit  black. 

D.  Calyx  and  corolla  united  into  a  cup. 

6.  Genus  Coccothrinax,  Sarg. 
DD.  Calyx  and  corolla  separate. 

7.  Genus  Sabal,  Adans. 


I.  Genus  ROYSTONEA,  Cook 

The  Royal  Palm  {Roystonea  regia,  Cook)  is  one  of  the 
noblest  of  tropical  trees,  bearing  its  abundant  crown  of  foliage, 
each  leaf  10  to  12  feet  long,  and  bending  gradually  outward  and 
downward,  with  a  grace  peculiarly  its  own.  The  tall  trunks, 
80  to  100  feet  in  height,  rise  from  abruptly  flaring  bases,  and  are 
enlarged  in  the  middle.  The  rind  is  pale  grey  tinged  with  orange, 
except  for  the  upper  10  feet  or  more,  which  is  always  green. 
The  flowers  of  this  tree  are  borne  in  branched  spikes,  about  2 
feet  long,  and  clustered  at  the  base  of  the  leafy  crown.  They 
bloom  in  January  and  February,  and  are  succeeded  by  oblong 
berries,  violet  in  colour  and  ^  inch  long. 

The  trees  grow  from  Bay  Biscayne  around  the  southern 
point  of  Florida  and  on  Long's  Key,  the  vanguard  of  a  host  that 
inhabits  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  They  are  also 
found  on  hummock  lands  up  the  Rogers  River,  east  of  Collier's 
Bay.  A  famous  avenue  tree  in  tropical  cities,  the  trunks  are 
used  for  piles  of  wharves,  and  walking  sticks  are  made  from  the 
dense  outer  rind. 

119 


The  Palms  and  the  Palmettos 

2.  Genus  PSEUDOPHCENIX,  H.  Wendl. 

The  Sargent  Palm  {P seudophoenix  Sargenti,  H.  Wendl.) 
is  found  only  on  Key  Largo  and  Elliott  Key.  A  slender  tree 
with  white  rind  tapering  from  the  middle  to  the  leafy  top  and 
the  flaring  base,  it  is  distinguished  from  the  royal  palm  by  the 
shorter  leaves  which  stand  erect,  and  the  orange-coloured  fruits 
that  hang  ripe  among  the  leaves  in  May  and  June.  The  tree 
is  found  in  a  considerable  grove  on  Key  Largo.  The  flowers 
have  not  been  described.  Young  trees  are  sometimes  met  with 
now  in  Florida  gardens. 

3.  Genus  WASHINGTONIA,  H.  Wendl. 

The  Desert  Palm  of  California  {W ashtngtonia  filamentosa, 
O.  Kuntze)  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  Colorado  desert  and  of 
cafion  sides  in  the  neighbouring  mountains.  It  is  found  in  groves 
or  in  isolated  clumps  in  wet  alkali  soil,  where  it  rises  to  the  height 
of  50  to  75  feet,  a  crown  of  spreading,  fan-like  leaves  above  a 
stout  trunk  clothed  almost  to  the  ground  with  a  dense  thatch 
of  the  dead  leaves,  which,  bending  back  upon  each  other  in 
succession,  form  a  broad  basal  cone.  The  black  berries  are  pro- 
fusely borne  on  the  branching  spikes  in  September.  They  are 
dry  and  thin  fleshed,  but  Indians  use  them  for  food.  The  Wash- 
ington palm  has  come  into  extensive  cultivation  in  California 
and  southern  Europe. 

4.  Genus  SERENOA,   Hook. 

Serenoa  arhorescens,  Sarg.,  grows  on  hummocks  in  swampy 
lands  along  the  southwestern  coast  of  Florida.  It  is  a  slender  tree 
30  to  40  feet  high,  often  with  more  than  one  arching  or  prostrate 
stem.  The  fan-like  leaves  are  pale  yellow-green  above,  blue- 
green  below,  and  about  2  feet  across.  The  flower  stems  are 
branched  and  about  a  yard  long,  thickly  set  with  minute  yellowish 
flowers,  which  are  followed  by  resinous  black  drupes. 

5.  Genus  THRINAX,  Sw. 

The  Thatch,  or  Silk-top  Palmetto  (Thrinax  Floridana, 
Sarg.)  has  a  silver  lining  in  its  glossy  green  fan  leaves,  making 

120 


THE    DESERT    PALM  {IVashingtonm  famctiuj.a) 

Seventy-five  feet  above  the  ground  is  the  fountain  of  fan-shaped  leaves.  Dead  leaves  turn  hack  and  hang  in  an  over- 
lapping thatch  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk.  This  clothes  short  trees  to  the  ground.  Indians  use  as  food  the  dry,  black  ber- 
ries that  ripen  in  September.  Native  to  the  Colorado  desert;  this  palm  has  come  into  extensive  cultivation  in  California  and 
southern  Europe 


THE  CABBAGE    PALMETTO  {Suhal  Palmetto) 
A  globular  crown  of  fan-like  leaves  sui  mounts  a  columnar  stem,  which   is  bare  and   smooth  only  when  old.     The   average 
tree  fifteen  feet  high  has  its  trunk  covered  with  a  basket  work,  which  is  the  natural  interlacing  of  leaf  bases  whose  fans  have  fallen 
away.      The   "cabbage"   is   the  crown  bud  which   is   chopped   out   of  the   end   of   the  stem.     The   trunks   are  used   as   piles 
for  wharves 


The  Palms  and  the  Palmettos 

it  a  beautiful  and  showy  tree.  It  mounts  its  leaf  crown  20  or 
30  feet  high  on  a  slender  white  stem  which  is  clothed  half  way 
down  in  the  sheaths  of  dead  leaf  stalks.  The  branched  flower 
stems  are  pendant  from  among  the  leaves;  the  fruit  is  a  white 
berry  with  bitter  juice.  The  tree  inhabits  coral  reefs  and  the 
mainland  coast  between  Cape  Romano  and  Cape  Sable. 

Another  silver-leaved  Thatch  (T.  Keyensis,  Sarg.)  rises  on  a 
supporting  framework  of  its  own  roots  2  or  3  feet  above  the 
beach  sand  of  the  Marquesas  Keys,  Crab  Key  and  the  Bahamas. 

The  Silver-top  Palmetto  {T.  microcarpa,  Sarg.)  has  its 
leaves  coated  when  they  unfold  with  dense  white  down.  Flowers 
and  fruit  are  abundant  but  minute.  The  tree  rarely  exceeds 
25  feet  in  height.  It  inhabits  No  Name  and  Bahia  Hondo  Keys, 
south  of  Florida.  The  leaves  of  the  three  species  are  used  for 
weaving  hats,  baskets  and  ropes.  The  trunks  are  used  as  piles 
for  wharves. 

6.  Genus  COCCOTHRINAX,  Sarg. 

The  Brittle  Thatch  (Coccothrinax  jucunda,  Sarg.)  is  a 
s.ender  tree,  20  to  30  feet  high,  with  a  gradually  tapering  blue 
trunk.  It  inhabits  the  shores  of  Bay  Biscayne,  and  follows  the 
Keys  to  the  Marquesas  group.  The  round  leaves  furnish  fibre 
for  baskets  and  hats.  The  stems  are  used  in  construction,  chiefly 
for  wharves. 

7.  Genus  SABAL,  Adans. 

The  Cabbage  Palmetto  {Sabal  Palmetto,  R.  &  S.)  is  one 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  southeastern  coast.  It 
attains  its  largest  size  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida.  Its  western 
limit  on  the  Gulf  is  the  mouth  of  the  Appalachicola  River.  It 
extends  north  to  the  Cape  Fear  River  in  North  Carolina. 

A  crown  of  spreading,  fan-like  leaves  surmounts  a  stout 
stem  which  is  covered  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  top 
with  the  broad  concave  petioles  of  the  leaves.  These  are  finally 
split  by  the  enlargement  of  the  growing  stem,  giving  the  trunk 
the  appearance  of  being  encased  in  a  kind  of  regular  basketwork. 
Trees  20  feet  high  are  common  along  sandy  shores.  Less  frequently 
North,  but  often  in  Florida,  one  sees  these  trees  30  to  40  feet  tall. 


the  Palms  and  the   Palmettos 

with  bare,  slender  stems  crowned  with  round,  leafy  heads,  looking 
almost  like  the  royal  palms.  The  great  clusters  of  small  yellow 
flowers  followed  by  black  berries  hang  from  among  the  leaves, 
ripe  in  autumn  but  persisting  into  the  following  summer. 

The  cabbage  palmetto  grows,  as  do  all  palms,  from  a  central 
terminal  bud.  This  bud  is  the  "cabbage"  in  this  genus,  a  tender, 
succulent  vegetable  which  is  cut  out  of  the  middle  of  the  stem, 
cooked  and  eaten.  It  is  said  to  be  "the  very  quintescence  of 
cabbage."  It  is,  of  course,  the  death  of  the  tree  to  lose  this 
growing  point. 

The  fibrous  roots  are  matted  in  an  intricate  fashion  under 
these  trees,  and  long,  tough  rootlets  go  out  on  all  sides  for  twenty 
feet  or  more.  The  wood  is  soft  and  spongy,  with  many  hard 
fibro-vascular  bundles  running  lengthwise  of  the  stem.  The  outer 
rind  is  thick  and  much  lighter  than  the  centre.  The  trunks  are 
used  as  piles  and  manufactured  into  canes  and  other  small 
articles.  The  fibrous  bark  in  cross  section  is  made  into  cheap 
scrubbing  brushes,  and  fibres  of  leaf  sheaths  make  the  bristles 
of  more  permanent  ones.  Houses  are  thatched  with  the  adult 
leaves.  Baskets,  hats  and  mats  are  made  from  strips  of  the 
white,  immature  leaves.  In  Southeastern  cities  palmettos  are 
used  as  a  street  and  ornamental  tree  to  a  considerable  extent. 
"Palmetto  scrub"  is  the  bane  of  hunters,  surveyors  and  others 
who  are  obliged  to  go  on  foot  through  regions  covered  with  the 
tough  young  growth  of  these  trees. 

The  Mexican  Palmetto  (Sabal  Mexicana,  Mart.)  grows  in 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas  and  down  the  coast  to 
Mexico.  Its  height  somewhat  exceeds  that  of  the  cabbage 
palmetto,  which  it  strongly  resembles.  The  trunks  are  used 
for  wharf  piles,  and  leaves  for  the  thatching  of  houses.  It  is  a 
favourite  street  tree  in  many  Texas  towns. 


122 


CHAPTER   XVIII:     THE   YUCCAS 

Family  LiLiACEyE 

The  traveller  who  is  a  close  observer  of  trees  will  be  astonished 
to  find  the  lily  family  well  represented  in  our  Southern  silva. 
Now,  a  lily  is  formed  by  the  rule  of  three,  as  shown  in  the  flower 
and  in  the  seed  pod.  It  has  parallel-veined  leaves  and  a  stem 
with  bundles  of  fibres  distributed  through  its  softer  substance, 
much  like  the  stems  of  corn  or  bamboo. 

The  yuccas  are  our  arborescent  lilies.  There  are  nine  species 
that  attain  the  form  and  stature  of  trees.  They  are  beautiful 
flowering  trees,  especially  prized  in  countries  of  scant  rainfall. 
They  are  planted  for  hedges.  The  fibrous  leaves  furnish  material 
for  ropes,  mattings  and  baskets.  The  fleshy  roots  are  used  as  a 
substitute  for  soap. 

The  Spanish  Bayonet  {Yucca  aloijolia,  Linn.)  grows 
along  the  coast  from  North  Carolina  to  Louisiana,  preferring  the 
borders  of  swamps  or  sand  dunes,  and  moving  inland  on  sandy 
soil.  It  is  a  low  tree,  rarely  25  feet  high,  with  three  or  four  main 
branches  above  the  short,  thick  trunk.  The  leaves  clothe  the 
trunk  until  it  is  quite  well  grown,  when  they  are  found  only  on  the 
branches,  the  newest  ones  clustered  in  rosettes  at  the  ends. 
These  bayonet-shaped  leaves  are  smooth,  dark  green,  about 
2  feet  long,  stiff  pointed,  and  saw  toothed  on  each  edge. 
The  base  of  each  widens  into  a  crescent.  Large  panicles 
of  flowers,  leathery,  white,  purple  tinged,  are  followed 
in  autumn  by  green,  soft,  cucumber-like  fruits,  3  to  4 
inches  long,  which  turn  black  and  dry  up  on  the  stem. 
They  are  eaten  by  birds  and  occasionally  by  people.  This 
yucca  is  very  common  in  gardens.  It  is  a  fairly  hardy 
species. 

The  Spanish  Bayonet,  or  Spanish  Dagger  {Yucca  Trecu- 
leana,  Carr.),  of  Texas,  has  blue-green  leaves,  which  are  lanceolate 
and  rough  on  the  under  side.  The  flowers  of  this  species  are 
brightly   flushed   with   purple.     It   grows   wild   in   considerable 


The  Yuccas 

areas,  a  striking  feature  of  the  landscape,  and  is  common  in 
Texas  gardens. 

By  these  two  species  the  characters  of  the  genus  are  exem- 
plified, and  the  remaining  seven  species  will  readily  be  referred 
to  the  genus.  There  are  no  other  trees  likely  to  be  confused 
with  yuccas. 

THE  CACTI 

Allied  to  the  mangroves  and  the  myrtles,  but  like  the  yuccas 
in  some  particulars,  and  in  choosing  desert  regions  to  live  in,  are 
the  cacti,  two  genera  of  which  have  tree-like  species  in  the  United 
States.  The  soft  stems  of  these  trees  are  storehouses  of  moisture, 
as  are  also  the  fleshy  branches.  All  green  surfaces  perform  the 
functions  of  leaves.  The  spiny  processes  are  the  character  by 
which  most  people  recognise  a  cactus.  The  flowers  are  large  and 
showy,  formed  into  a  tube  by  many  overlapping  sepals  and  petals. 
The  fruit  is  a  fleshy,  many-seeded  berry.  The  tree  cacti  are 
found  in  desert  regions  near  the  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico. 


124 


1905,  by  Doubleday,  Pa^e  &  Cum^any 

DOGWOOD   TREE    IN    FULL    BLOOM      {  Comus  florida) 


CHAPTER   XIX:     THE   WALNUTS   AND 
THE  HICKORIES 

Family  Juglandace^ 

Genera,  JUGLANS  and  HICORIA 

Resinous,  aromatic  trees  with  hard  wood.  Leaves  deciduous, 
alternate,  pinnately  compound.  Flowers  monoecious:  staminate 
lateral,  in  catkins;  pistillate  terminal,  in  spikes,  or  solitary. 
Fruit,  a  bony  nut  enclosed  in  a  spongy  husk. 

KEY   TO  GENERA  AND   SPECIES 

A.  Pith  of  twigs  chambered;  husk  not  opening  at  maturity; 
nuts  not  smooth. 

I.  Genus  JUGLANS,  Linn. 
B,  Fruit  elongated,  clammy,  in  racemes;  heart  wood  light 
brown.  {J.  cinerea)   butternut 

BB.  Fruit  globular,  not  clammy;  solitary  or  paired;  heart 
wood  dark  brown. 
C.  Nuts  deeply  and  irregularly  ridged,  large. 

(/.  nigra)  black  walnut 
CC  Nuts  deeply  furrowed,  small,  thick  shelled. 

(/.  rupestris)  Mexican  walnut 
CCC  Nuts  faintly  furrowed,  small,  thin  shelled. 

(/.  Californica)  California  walnut 
AA.  Pitii  of  twigs  solid;  husk  opening  by  4  valves;  nuts  smooth. 
2.  Genus  HICORiA,   Raf. 
B.  Bud  scales  many,  overlapping,  leaflets  3  to  9. 
C.  Buds  small,  I  to  -\  inch  long;  husk  of  nut  thin. 

D.  Twigs  and  leaf  stalks  smooth.     (H.  glabra)  pignut 
DD.  Twigs  and  leaf  stalks  silvery  pubescent. 

(H.    Villo'sa)    PALE-LEAF    HICKORY 

CC.  Buds  large,  ^  to  i  inch  long,  husk  of  nut  thick. 
D.  Bark  shaggy;  twigs  smooth. 

E.  Branchlets    stout,    orange    red;  nuts  large, 
thick  shelled.     {H.  laciniosa)  big  shellbark 
EE.  Branchlets   stout,  grey;  nuts  small,  usually 

thick  shelled.     {H.  ovata)  little  shellbark 
125 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

EEE.  Branchlets   slender,  reddish;  nuts  4-angled, 
thin  shelled. 
{H.  Carolinae-septenirionalis)  shagbark  hickory 
DD.  Bark  not  shaggy;  twigs  downy. 

{H.  alba)  mockernut 
BB.  Bud  scales  few,  not  overlapping;  leaflets  7  to  13. 
C.  Nuts  elongated. 
D.  Kernel   sweet. 

E.  Leaves   silvery   and   lustrous  beneath;  nuts 
solitary,  or  few  in  a  cluster;  leaflets  7  to  1 1. 
(//.  myristiccejormis)  nutmeg  hickory 
EE.  Leaves  not  silvery  beneath;  nuts  3  to  10  in 
cluster;  leaflets  13  to  15.     (//.  Pecan)  pecan 
DD.  Kernel  bitter;  leaflets  7  to  11,  twigs  and  husks 
hairy.  {H.  Texana)   bitter  pecan 

CC.  Nuts  not  elongated;  bitter. 

D.  Buds  yellow;  nuts  smooth;  leaflets  7  to  9. 

{H.  mimina)  bitternut 
DD.  Buds  red;  nut  angled;  leaflets  9  to  13. 

(//.  aquatica)  water  hickory 


THE  WALNUTS 

The  walnuts  (genus  Juglans)  form  a  noble  family  of  ten 
species,  in  which  there  are  no  "black  sheep" — and  this  is  remark- 
able in  any  family.  Each  species  yields  valuable  wood,  and 
sweet,  edible  nuts.  Each  one  deserves  planting  as  an  ornamental 
and  shade  tree. 

Our  American  forests  show  four  species — two  spread  over  the 
eastern  half  of  the  continent,  one  grows  in  the  Southwest,  and 
one  in  California.  To  these  have  been  added  valuable  exotic 
species.  The  English  or  Persian  walnut  {Juglans  regia)  is  grown 
in  the  Southern  States  and  in  California;  and  two  Japanese 
species,  /.  Sieholdiana  and  /.  cordijormis,  both  of  the  butternut 
type  but  vastly  superior  to  it,  thrive  in  the  regions  where  the 
English  walnut  is  not  hardy.  There  is  also  a  Manchurian  species 
in  cultivation  here.  One  or  more  walnuts  belong  in  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America. 

Butternut,  Oil  Nut,  White  Walnut  (/.  cinerea,  Linn.) — 
A  short-trunked,  spreading  tree,  50  to  75  feet  high,  with  broad, 
rounded  dome.  Bark  grey,  rough,  with  broad  furrows  and 
narrow  ridges,  showing  paler  under  bark.  Shoots  covered  with 
clammy  down.     IVood  light  brown,  light,  soft,  coarse  grained,  with 

126 


The  Walnuts  and  the   Hickories 

satiny  lustre.  Buds  often  one  above  another  in  axils,  hairy, 
flattened,  terminal  largest;  inner  scales  later  becoming  leaf-like; 
flower  buds  naked.  Leaves  alternate,  compound,  of  1 1  to  19 
leaflets,  hairy,  taper  pointed,  serrate,  sessile,  except  terminal 
leaflet,  15  to  30  inches  long,  yellow-green,  turning  yellow  in 
autumn;  leaflets  3  to  5  inches  long;  petioles  and  veins  pubescent 
and  clammy.  Flowers,  May,  with  leaves,  staminate  in  catkins, 
3  to  5  inches  long,  yellow-green  with  copious  pollen;  pistillate  in 
6  to  8-flowered  racemes,  covered  with  glandular  hairs;  stigmas 
2,  bright  red,  spreading;  ovule  solitary  at  base  of  pistil.  Fruit, 
October,  an  oblong  nut  in  spongy,  clammy,  sticky,  indehiscent 
husk,  with  pungent  odour;  shell  thick,  deeply  sculptured;  nut 
oily,  sweet,  edible.  Preferred  habitat,  deep,  rich  loam  of  river 
valleys,  or  well-drained  hillsides.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick 
to  Delaware,  and  along  mountains  to  Georgia  and  Alabama; 
westward  through  Ontario  to  Dakota,  south  to  Arkansas.  Uses: 
Planted  for  shade  and  for  nuts.  Wood  used  for  interior  finish 
of  houses  and  for  cabinet  work.  Inner  bark  and  husks  yield 
yellow  dye  and  medicinal  substances.  Sap  sweet,  sometimes 
added  to  maple  sap  in  making  sugar.  Nuts  pickled  when  green; 
locally  sold  when  ripe. 

The  butternut  is  a  short-trunked,  low-headed  tree,  with  far- 
reaching  arms  that  make  a  crown  wider  than  it  is  high.  There 
is  a  tendency  to  develop  the  under  buds  on  each  twig.  This 
gives  a  horizontal  rather  than  an  upward  trend  to  the  limbs. 
The  foliage,  trunk  and  wood  are  lighter  in  colour  than  those  of  the 
black  walnut.  It  is  a  cheerful  tree,  but  unfortunately  short  lived, 
and  it  is  rare  to  see  a  tree  of  considerable  size  that  is  not  diseased 
by  fungi  and  blemished  by  insects.  The  wind  breaks  the  long 
limbs,  whereupon  enemies  enter  and  take  possession.  The 
winter  buds  of  the  butternut  are  full  of  character.  The  leaf  scars 
are  prominent,  and  two  or  three  buds  stand  in  a  vertical  row 
above  each  one.  The  first  bud,  just  above  the  hairy  "beetling 
brow"  of  the  leaf  scar,  is  to  produce  the  leafy  shoot  next  spring. 
Those  higher  up  at  the  same  joint  are  bare  little  green  pineapples — 
the  staminate  catkins  in  an  immature  state.  The  grey-green 
downy  twigs  are  clammy  to  the  touch,  and  inside  is  the  wonderful 
chambered  pith  that  distinguishes  all  the  walnuts. 

One  need  only  crush  a  twig  or  leaf  of  a  walnut  tree  to  have 
revived    the   memory   of   long-forgotten    experiences   in    brown 

127 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

October's  woods.  O  the  smell  of  those  juicy  brown  husks  as  we 
cracked  the  green  nuts  on  a  convenient  stone,  and  wiped  our 
damp  fingers  ineffectually  on  the  grass!  The  stains  wore  off  at 
length,  but  the  memories  are  indelible.  The  Shakers  of  Lebanon, 
Massachusetts,  got  a  rich  purple  dye  by  adding  something  to 
the  brown  extract  of  those  husks. 

The  wood  of  butternut  is  not  so  hard  nor  so  strong  as  black 
walnut,  but  for  the  interior  finish  of  houses  it  has  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage. Black  walnut  is  sombre  compared  with  the  cheerful 
browns  and  fawn  colours  which  this  wood  shows.  The  "natural 
wood  finish"  brings  out  these  quiet  tones  and  imparts  a  soft 
lustre  to  the  grain.  It  is  a  pity  that  this  wood  is  not  more  comm.on 
and  more  widely  employed  for  this  particular  purpose.  It  is 
made  into  wooden  bowls,  and  used  for  veneering  bureaus,  for 
carriage  panels,  and  for  coffins,  posts,  rails  and  fuel. 

The  frugal  housewife  in  the  country  looks  with  interest  upon 
the  butternut  when  it  is  half  grown — when  the  pale  green,  clammy, 
fuzzy  fruit  hangs  in  clusters,  surrounded  by  its  umbrella  of  leaves. 
If  a  knitting  needle  goes  through  husk  and  nut  without  hindrance, 
it  is  not  too  late  to  make  "pickled  oil  nuts,"  which  are  a  delectable 
relish  with  meats  in  winter.  The  husk  and  all  are  put  down 
in  vinegar,  sugar  and  spices.  The  unpleasant  part  of  this  process 
is  the  rubbing  off  of  the  "fur,"  after  scalding  the  nuts.  This 
task  usually  falls  to  the  children. 

Butternut  husks  and  bark  have  long  been  used  in  home 
remedies,  and  in  dyeing  woollen  cloth.  The  backwoods  regiments 
in  the  Civil  War  were  clad  in  "butternut"  jeans,  a  home-made, 
home-dyed  uniform  that  worthily  stood  the  hardest  service. 

Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigra,  Linn.) — A  majestic,  spread- 
ing tree,  80  to  150  feet  high,  with  tall  trunk,  4  to  6  feet  through. 
Bark  dark  brown,  furrowed,  scaly.  fVood  dark  purplish  brown, 
with  silvery  lustre;  hard,  fine  grained,  heavy,  strong,  durable 
in  contact  with  soil.  Buds:  terminal,  flattened,  silky,  tomentose; 
axillary,  small,  globose,  silky;  flower  buds  naked.  Leaves  alter- 
nate, 12  to  24  inches  long,  odd  pinnate  of  13  to  25  leaflets,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  serrate,  pubescent  beneath,  3  to  3^  inches  long,  sessile 
on  leaf  stem;  yellow-green,  becoming  yellow  in  autumn;  petioles 
downy.  Flowers,  May,  with  leaves,  greenish,  monoecious,  stam- 
inate  in  catkins  3  to  6  inches  long  on  wood  of  preceding  year; 
pistillate  on   new  shoots,  in   axillary  few-flowered  clusters,  or 

128 


A  clammy  down  covers  new  shoots  and  leaf  stalks.  Aromatic  sap  and  chambered  pith  characterise  all  walnuts.  The 
winter  huds  and  leaf  scars  are  peculiar.  The  flowers  appear  in  Mav  with  the  leaves.  The  staminate  are  in  pendulous  catkins  • 
the  pistillate  in  terminal  racemes.     The  wood  is  brown  with  a  satiny  lustre 


H 
Z 

< 

o 
<: 


The  Walnuts  and  the   Hickories 

solitary;  stigmas  red,  prominent.  Fruit  i  to  2  in  almost  sessile 
clusters,  globose  i^  to  2  inches  in  diameter;  husk  yellow-green, 
pitted,  strongly  aromatic,  spongy,  indehiscent;  shell  hard,  deeply 
sculptured,  kernel  convoluted,  oily,  sweet,  edible.  Frejerred 
habitat,  rich  woods.  Distribution,  southern  Ontario  to  Florida, 
west  to  Nebraska  and  Texas.  Uses:  Fine  shade  and  park  tree; 
lumber  valuable  for  veneering  furniture,  interior  finish  of  houses, 
gun  stocks  and  coffins,  and  for  boat  and  shipbuilding.  Nuts 
locally  commercial.  Husks  occasionally  used  for  dyeing  and 
tanning. 

The  early  settlers  did  not  realise  the  folly  they  committed  by 
chopping  down  black  walnut  trees,  rolling  them  together  and 
burning  them.  They  were  clearing  the  land  to  make  farms,  and 
trees  were  weeds  they  had  to  conquer.  They  did  not  discriminate 
between  species  in  the  general  holocaust.  They  knew  that 
black  walnut  was  durable,  so  made  fence  posts  and  rails  of  it. 
Besides,  this  wood  split  easily. 

The  peculiar  fitness  of  black  walnut  wood  for  gun  stocks  and 
for  furniture  was  realised  later.  Trees  were  sacrificed  by  thousands 
to  supply  the  home  and  foreign  markets,  and  only  Nature  planted 
for  the  generations  to  come.  The  result  is  the  present  shortage 
of  walnut  lumber,  and  its  excessive  price.  Enterprising  individ- 
uals go  into  cleared  ground  and  pull  the  stumps  of  trees  long 
dead.  They  are  still  sound,  and  there  is  valuable  veneering 
stuff  in  the  most  of  them.  Old  and  worn  furniture  of  solid  black 
walnut  is  bought  and  sawed  thin  for  the  same  purpose.  Do  we 
realise  yet  the  usefulness  and  the  beauty  of  black  walnut  wood? 
The  silvery  grain,  the  rich,  violet-purple  tones  in  the  brown  heart 
wood,  the  exquisite  shading  of  its  curly  veinings,  and  the  lasting 
qualities  of  the  wood?     If  we  did,  we  would  plant  groves  of  it. 

As  a  fruit  tree  the  black  walnut  has  limitations.  The  oil 
in  the  kernel  soon  becomes  rancid,  so  that  there  can  be  but  a 
local  market  for  the  nuts,  though  they  are  very  good  for  a  time, 
when  carefully  dried. 

The  black  walnut  is  majestic  as  a  shade  tree — a  noble  orna- 
ment to  parks  and  pleasure  grounds.  It  needs  room  and  distance 
to  show  its  luxuriant  crown  and  stately  trunk  to  advantage. 
Then  no  tree  excels  it.  "  It  unites  almost  all  the  qualities  desirable 
in  a  tree:  beauty,  gracefulness  and  richness  of  foliage  in  every 
period  of  its  growth."     The  bark  and  husks  may  be  employed  in 

129 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

the  important  arts  of  dyeing  and  tanning.  The  fruit  is  a  food,  and 
yields  a  valuable  oil.  The  wood  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and 
most  elegant. 

The  growth  of  the  black  walnut  is  rapid  and  sure  from  the 
seed.  Nuts  gathered  in  the  autumn  should  be  stratified  in  gravel 
over  winter,  and  planted  next  spring.  The  way  to  restore  what 
we  have  lost  is  to  plant  walnuts  wherever  there  is  a  place  suitable 
for  such  a  tree. 

The  "Walnut  (/.  rupestris,  Engelm.)  of  the  far  Southwest 
grows  on  canon  sides  and  stream  borders,  climbing  the  mountains 
to  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet — a  shrub  in  the  high  semi-arid 
regions,  a  spreading  tree  where  its  thirsty  roots  can  find  water  in 
unfailing  supply.  The  limbs  are  covered  with  white  bark,  and 
the  twigs  are  cottony.  This  makes  the  leafless  tree  a  striking 
and  beautiful  feature  of  winter  landscapes,  especially  where  there 
is  a  dark  background. 

The  little  nuts  have  deeply  grooved  and  very  thick  shells,  but 
the  Indians  and  Mexicans  are  glad  to  take  trouble  to  get  at  the 
sweet  kernels  within.  The  hard  shell  is,  however,  a  commercial 
impediment.  The  wood  is  rich  dark  brown  in  colour  and  takes  a 
satiny  polish;  but  it  is  weak  and  coarse  grained,  and  is  not  im- 
portant in  the  lumber  trade. 

The  California  Walnut  (/.  Calijornica,  Wats.)  has  small, 
sweet,  thin-shelled  nuts,  faintly  creased  and  somewhat  flattened 
at  each  end.  The  tree  is  graceful  and  symmetrical,  with  luxuriant 
foliage,  of  cheerful  light  green.  It  grows  to  medium  height  on  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  coast  region  from  the  lower  course  of  the 
Sacramento  River  to  the  foothills  of  the  San  Bernardino  Moun- 
tains, where  it  climbs  to  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  and  becomes 
a  stunted  shrub. 

The  chief  value  of  this  tree  is  that  it  serves  as  a  hardy  stock 
for  the  cultivated  /.  regia,  and  as  such  has  extended  nut  culture 
north  to  central  California.  Seedlings  of  the  native  tree  are  root 
grafted  with  cions  of  French  varieties,  and  old  trees  are  success- 
fully top  grafted.  Independent  of  this  signal  service  to  horti- 
culture, the  California  walnut  is  a  fine  ornamental  and  nut  tree. 

The  English  or  Persian  Walnut  (Juglans  regia,  Linn.) — a 
royal  tree  and  nut  indeed! — is  the  walnut  of  classical  literature, 
beloved  of  gods  and  men.  From  the  hillsides  of  Persia  and  the 
regions  far  East  this  species  was  carried  into  southern  Europe, 

130 


The  Walnuts  and  the   Hickories 

whence  it  spread  to  England  and  finally  to  America.  The  tree 
is  grown  for  lumber,  for  ornament,  and  for  its  fruit  in  the  countries 
that  feel  the  warm  breath  of  the  Japan  Current  and  the  Gulf 
Stream.  The  best  nuts  come  from  France  and  Italy.  In  England 
the  nuts  are  generally  pickled  green,  as  the  season  is  too  short  to 
insure  their  ripening.  The  English  walnut,  like  the  English  elm, 
came  to  us  via  England,  and  got  its  name  en  route.  Neither 
species  is  a  native  of  that  island.  Importations  of  the  nuts  came 
to  us  also  through  England  until  recent  years. 

The  wealth  of  Europe  has  been  increased  by  the  enforced 
planting  of  walnut  trees.  In  the  seventeenth  century  in  certain 
countries  there  was  a  law  requiring  a  young  man  to  produce  a 
certificate  of  his  having  planted  a  certain  number  of  walnut  trees 
before  he  could  obtain  permission  to  marry!  The  names  of  this 
tree  are  full  of  tradition  and  poetry.  The  English  had  the  nuts 
before  they  introduced  the  trees.  " IValnut"  means  "a  nut 
brought  from  a  foreign  country."  "Juglans"  is  a  contraction  of 
Jovis  glans,  "the  acorn  of  Jove" — for  so  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
esteemed  it.  To  extend  its  culture  through  allied  countries  was  a 
work  that  rulers  busied  themselves  about.  Nux  regia  was  the 
growers'  name  for  the  new  tree,  "because  these  nuts  were  brought 
to  them  by  kings." 

Through  centuries  of  cultivation,  many  improved  varieties 
of  these  Persian  walnuts  have  arisen.  Parkinson  describes  in 
1640  a  kind  of  "French  wallnuts,  which  are  the  greatest  of  any, 
within  whose  shell  are  often  put  a  paire  of  fine  gloves  neatly 
foulded  up  together."  Another  variety  he  knew  "whose  shell 
is  so  tender  that  it  may  easily  be  broken  between  one's  fingers, 
and  the  nut  itself  is  very  sweete." 

The  culture  of  /.  regia  in  southern  California  is  highly  special- 
ised and  very  profitable.  Irrigation  and  tillage  are  practised  in 
these  orchards.  Frost  and  walnut  blight  are  the  nut-growers' 
chief  enemies — unless  the  brokers  who  control  prices  may  be 
listed  as  a  third.  The  nut  crop  of  1901  in  four  counties  was  about 
6,000  tons,  worth  more  than  a  million  dollars.  The  tree  grows 
in  the  Southern  States,  and  has  proved  hardy  even  in  Massachu- 
setts, but  it  is  not  cultivated  commercially  outside  of  California. 

Walnut  lumber  (of  /.  regia)  has  had  a  variable  and  interesting 
history  in  Europe.  The  brown  heart  wood,  always  beautiful, 
often  waved  and  watered  in  lovely  patterns  and  shadings,  yet 

131 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

suffered  long  in  comparison  with  oak,  as  it  had  not  the  strength 
and  durability  of  the  latter,  and  its  greyish  sap  wood  was  com- 
monly "subject  to  the  worm" — liable  to  become  worm  eaten. 
The  best  lumber  came  from  Italy,  the  next  best  from  the  Black 
Sea  regions,  next  from  France,  and  the  poorest  grew  in  England. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  craving  for 
walnut  furniture  struck  the  fashionable  world.  Oak  became 
second  in  popularity.  Then  came  a  cold  winter  which  killed 
the  walnut  trees.  The  Dutch  Government  bought  the  dead 
trees  and  cornered  the  market  for  a  time.  France  prohibited  the 
exportation  of  walnut;  then  mahogany  began  to  be  imported 
from  tropical  America  and  became  the  popular  wood  for  fine 
furniture. 

In  the  turmoil  of  international  wars,  each  country  wanted 
walnut  for  gun  stocks.  In  1806  France  used  12,000  trees.  The 
English  Government  is  said  to  have  paid  before  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  ^600  for  a  single  walnut  tree!  In  the  height  of  the 
walnut  vogue,  cabinetmakers  paid  as  high  as  £60  per  ton  for 
roots  and  burs,  which  were  sawed  very  thin  and  used  for  veneering 
pianos  and  other  elegant  furniture.  No  wood  excels  this  curly 
walnut  in  beauty. 

In  later  years  the  importation  of  black  walnut  from  America 
relieved  the  stress  in  the  lumber  trade.  This  tree  grows  well  in 
Europe,  and  is  an  important  species  in  the  government  forests 
of  various  countries.  It  has  doubled  in  price  in  the  past  fifty 
years,  and  American  walnut  is  now  in  greater  demand  abroad 
than  the  native  species. 


THE   HICKORIES 

Hickories  are  North  American  trees — none  now  inhabit  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  There  are  twelve  known  species,  one  of 
which  is  Mexican;  the  remaining  eleven  are  restricted  to  the  states 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Arkansas  assembles  the  whole 
group  within  her  borders  and  offers  a  great  opportunity  to  the 
student  of  the  genus  Hicoria. 

Once  Europe  had  numerous  species  of  this  genus,  and  there 
were  others  in  Greenland  and  in  the  west  of  North  America. 
The  ice  cap  wiped  them  all  ofT  the  face  of  the  earth;  the  only 

B2 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

record  of  them  is  in  the  Tertiary  rocks.  After  a  century  of 
effort,  only  a  few  good  specimen  trees  are  to  be  found  growing 
in  Europe.  The  species  thrive  only  in  their  natural  range. 
There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  these  trees  will  grow  well  in 
Japan  and  eastern  China. 

No  group  of  trees  has  higher  qualities  than  the  hickories. 
The  wood  of  most  species  is  tough,  strong  and  flexible — especially 
valuable  for  farm  implements,  tool  handles  and  the  like.  There 
is  no  other  fuel  that  excels  dry  hickory  for  heat  and  brilliancy  of 
flame.  No  other  of  our  trees  bear  such  valuable  nuts.  No  finer 
tribe  of  shade  and  ornamental  trees  is  to  be  found.  With  all  their 
positive  good  qualities,  the  hickories  have  scarcely  a  bad  one. 
The  worst  thing  you  can  say  of  any  hickory  is  that  it  is  not  quite 
up  to  the  family  standard. 

The  Indians  knew  the  value  of  these  trees  before  the  white 
man  came.  "Hickory"  is  an  Indian  name.  The  Creeks  and 
Algonquins  gathered  the  nuts  into  their  storehouses  in  the  autumn. 
The  squaws  pounded  shells  and  all  in  water,  until  the  latter  became 
a  milky  emulsion.  This  became  the  Indian  drink,"  powcohickora," 
after  it  had  fermented.  Added  fresh  to  venison  broth  it  made  a 
rich  food,  very  agreeable  to  European  palates.  (Of  course  the 
shells  went  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.)  The  "hickory  milk," 
strained  of  its  shell  fragments  and  thickened  with  meal,  made 
corncakesfitfor  aking!  It  was  used  also  in  cooking  hominy.  An 
oil  pressed  from  these  nuts  was  staple  in  early  cookery  in  the 
colonies.  The  Virginians  learned  its  use  from  their  Indian 
neighbours.  It  was  considered  equal  to  olive  oil  in  flavour, 
though  no  attempt  was  made  to  refine  it. 

Many  insects  prey  on  hickory  trees.  None  of  these  unfit 
them  for  dooryard  planting,  if  one  keeps  close  watch  to  poke  out 
early  the  nests  of  fall  web-worm  and  kindred  pests.  Many  of  its 
enemies  are  borers  which  work  in  the  wood.  The  twig  pruners  are 
an  interesting  tribe;  and  some  of  our  most  beautiful  silk  spinners 
and  underwing  moths  live  their  youthful  days  out  on  the  foliage 
of  hickory. 

What  can  that  sound  be  that  comes  out  of  the  backlog,  like 
the  creaking  of  the  old  rocking  chair  in  the  chimney  corner? 
It  has  been  heard  every  night  when  the  family  gather  around  the 
fire,  and  it  has  a  weird,  ghostly  sound.  A  plump  young  hickory 
borer,  deep  in  the  wood,  is  whetting  his  teeth  on  the  walls  of  his 

>33 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

burrow.  He  is  safe,  for  hickory  burns  very  slowy,  and  the  back- 
log is  good  for  many  a  day  yet.  Probably  before  the  stronghold 
of  the  youngster  is  reached  he  will  have  ceased  his  gnawing,  and 
fallen  asleep  in  a  chrysalis.  Then  of  a  sudden,  some  March  night 
in  the  midst  of  a  thrilling  tale  told  by  the  firelight,  a  strange 
visitant  will  appear,  startling  the  whole  company,  and  interrupt 
the  story.  It  is  an  elegant  grey  beetle,  with  horns  of  surprising 
length,  made  of  jointed  rods.  After  a  long  and  arduous  youth 
spent  in  the  dark  channel  of  his  own  making,  he  has  come  forth 
into  the  light  equipped  with  wings,  and  ready  to  mingle  with  his 
kind  in  a  life  of  which  he  has  probably  not  dreamed  before.  Who 
would  be  so  inconsiderate,  so  inhuman,  as  to  cast  this  handsome 
creature  into  the  fire!  Certainly  nobody  who  knows  anything 
about  the  old  life  he  has  left  behind  him,  and  the  new  life  that 
lies  before.  Take  him,  rather,  to  the  window,  and  as  he  flies 
forth  into  the  night  take  up  the  story  where  it  was  broken  off. 

Pignut,  White  Hickory  (Hicoria  glabra,  Britt.) — A  stately, 
round-headed  tree,  50  to  100  feet  high,  with  narrow  head  of  pen- 
dulous contorted  branches.  Bark  grey,  coarse,  rough,  not  scaling 
off  in  plates.  IVood  brown,  tough,  elastic,  hard,  heavy.  Buds 
terminal  ones,  globular,  blunt,  shedding  outer  scales  early  in  win- 
ter; inner  scales  expand,  and  recurve  as  leaves  unfold;  lateral 
buds  small,  pointed.  Leaves  alternate,  8  to  12  inches  long,  odd- 
pinnate,  of  5  to  7  leaflets,  oblong  or  obovate-lanceolate,  smooth, 
dark  yellow-green;  lighter  and  sometimes  tufted  with  hairs  in 
axils  of  veins  beneath;  upper  leaflets  much  larger  than  lower  ones. 
Flowers:  staminate  catkins,  axillary,  4  to  7  inches  long,  in  threes; 
pistillate  spikes,  3  to  5-flowered,  terminal,  greenish.  Fruit  pear 
shaped,  or  globose;  variable,  thick  or  thin  shelled,  reddish  brown, 
somewhat  hairy,  cleft  into  4  valves,  partially  or  wholly  opening; 
nut  obscurely  4-angled,  smooth;  kernel  sweet  or  slightly  bitter, 
small.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  ridges  and  hillsides.  Distribution, 
Maine  to  Florida;  west  through  Ontario  and  Michigan  to  Nebraska, 
south  to  eastern  Texas.  Uses:  Wood  used  as  that  of  shagbark  is. 
A  valuable  ornamental  and  shade  tree. 

The  pignut  is  unfortunate  in  its  common  name.  A  fine  park 
and  shade  tree  is  under  a  severe  handicap.  For  who  would  wish  a 
"pignut"  planted  in  his  front  yard?  A  "smooth  hickory"  will 
rather  be  chosen,  every  time — though  it  is  the  very  same  tree, 
H.  glabra.     In  the  early  days  pigs  turned  into  the  autumn  woods 

134 


A.  sterile  flowers  li.   l-"ertilc  iI.im  r 

THE    PIGNUT  {Hicoru,  :-L,h-.,) 
The  tree  is   draped  with  green  fringe— the  staminate  catkins— in   Mav.      The  first  li 
Later  ones  have  seven,  rarely  nine.     They  are  smooth  and  turn  yellow  in  autumn.     The  Inid 
:he  outer  scales  arc  shed  ^jrly  in  winter.     The  hark  is  furrowed   and   grav.     This  twi^  has  i 


vcs  usuallv  have  hut  five  K-artets. 
arc  plump,  and  small  for  a  hickory; 
)  pistillate  flowers 


THE    PIGNUT  {Hicoria  glabra) 

The  nuts  are  variable  in  form  and  size.     They  are  often  obovate  or  pear-shaped — the  thin  husk  opens  but  part  way  down.     The 
nut  is  smooth  and  round  or  angled.     The  yellowish  kernel  is  insipid.     The  leaves  and  shoots  are  smooth  from  the  first 


THE    BITTERNUT   HICKORY  {H 


icorta  minima) 


The  bright,  yellow,  angled  buds  are  the  best  identification  sign.       The  bark  is  greyish  brown.     The  leaves  are  thin  and  have 
an  aoole-like  fragrance  when  crushed.     The  leaflets  are  often  narrow  and  small 


The  Walnuts  and  the   Hickories 

crunched  these  hickory  nuts  which  nutters,  looking  for  shellbarks, 
scornfully  left  under  the  trees.  The  insipid  meats  were  distasteful 
to  human  palates — fit  only  for  pigs. 

Yet  here  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  hickories.  Its  bark  is  close 
textured  like  that  of  a  white  ash.  Its  leaves  and  shoots  soon  lose 
their  down  and  become  smooth  and  lustrous.  The  small  winter 
buds  are  ovate,  and  during  autumn  their  outer  scales  drop.  The 
nuts  are  roundish  and  smooth  shelled.  The  thin  husks  split  but 
half  way  down,  and  are  there  grown  fast  to  the  shell.  These 
characters  mark  the  typical  Eastern  pignut.  West  of  the  Allegha- 
nies  is  a  form  that  sheds  its  husks,  and  has  angled,  ovoid  nuts. 
The  bark  of  this  variety — odoraia — is  rough,  like  an  American 
elm,  but  not  shaggy. 

Variety  microcarpa  is  a  pignut  with  bark  of  the  H.  ovata  type, 
stripping  into  narrow,  thin,  springy  sheets.  The  roundish  nut  is 
white  or  grey,  and  thin  shelled.  The  kernel  is  sweet.  There  are 
reasons  for  believing  this  to  be  a  natural  hybrid  between  H.  ovata 
and  H.  glabra.  Its  branches  are  likely  to  be  pendulous,  and  the 
head  more  oblong  than  the  ordinary  pignut.  It  is  commonly 
called  "false  shagbark." 

The  extreme  variability  of  the  species  glabra,  and  the  good 
quality  of  fruit  in  var.  microcarpa  make  horticulturists  believe 
that  the  pignut  is  worthy  of  cultivation.  Experiments  are  now 
in  progress  looking  toward  the  improvement  of  the  fruit  for  com- 
mercial purposes.     The  signs  are  hopeful. 

With  wood  equal  to  the  best  in  its  genus,  exceptional  merits 
as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree,  and  promise  of  developing  orch'ard 
varieties  that  will  rival  the  shagbarks  as  nut  trees,  the  pignuts 
seem  to  be  one  of  the  "coming  trees"  in  the  Eastern  States.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  popular  name  will  be  abandoned  and  the 
more  suitable  one,  "smooth  hickory,"  substituted.  This  is  a 
literal  translation  of  its  scientific  name. 

The  Pale-leaf  Hickory  (H.  villosa,  Ashe)  has  tomentose 
slender  twigs,  with  silvery  scales,  and  very  pale  leaf  linings.  The 
nuts  are  thick  shelled  and  faintly  angled  like  the  mockernut,  and 
the  bark  is  very  deeply  furrowed  and  rough,  but  not  shaggy.  It 
grows,  a  small,  narrow-headed  tree,  in  barren  soil  from  New 
Jersey  to  Florida,  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas. 

Big  Shellbark  {H.  laciniosa,  Sarg.)— A  tall  tree  loo  to  120 
feet  high,  with  narrow,  oblong  head.     Branches  small,  spreading. 

135 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

Bark  thick,  grey,  shedding  in  long  thick  plates  that  hang  on  foi 
years.  Twigs  orange  yellow.  IVood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough, 
very  flexible,  dark  brown,  close  grained.  Buds  terminal,  very 
large,  ovate,  obtuse;  scales  silky,  outer  ones,  brown,  keeled  and 
pointed;  inner  ones  grow  to  3  inches  long  and  i  inch  wide  and 
recurve  as  leaves  appear,  turning  rosy  or  yellow  on  inner,  lustrous 
face;  lateral  buds  small.  Leaves  15  to  22  inches  long,  of  5  to  9 
obovate  or  oblong-lanceolate  leaflets,  dark  green  and  lustrous 
above,  pale  yellow-green  or  bronzy  pubescent  below;  petioles 
stout,  enlarged  at  base,  recurved  and  persistent  during  winter. 
Flowers:  staminate  in  catkins  5  to  8  inches  long,  smooth,  or  rufous 
pubescent  ;  pistillate  in  spikes,  terminal,  2  to  5-flowered,  pale 
tomentose,  angled,  green.  Fruit  solitary  or  paired,  in  woody, 
4-valved  husk,  sutures  opening  half  way  at  maturity,  downy, 
orange  brown,  if  to  2 J  inches  long;  nut  compressed,  with  4  to  6 
ridges,  ij  to  2J  inches  long;  hard,  bony,  thick,  enclosing  sweet, 
fme-flavoured  kernel.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  deep  bottom  lands. 
Distribution,  Iowa,  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  eastern  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma;  Illinois  and  Indiana  to  Tennessee,  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  Uses:  Nuts  commercially  valuable.  Wood  not 
distinguished  from  that  of  H.  ovaia.     A  worthy  ornamental  tree. 

In  the  markets  we  often  see  nuts  of  large  size — more  flattened 
than  English  walnuts  and  fully  as  large — which  the  dealer  calls 
"shellbarks."  They  look  like  a  larger  form  of  the  little  shellbarks; 
but  we  hesitate.  They  are  strangers,  and  their  flavour  is  an 
unknown  quantity.  These  are  the  ^'king  nuts" — not  equal  to 
the  little  shellbarks  in  quality,  yet  sweet,  edible  nuts,  though  in 
thick  shells.  They  are  distributed  from  the  cities  along  the 
Mississippi,  and  are  appearing  in  increasing  quantities  in  Eastern 
markets. 

In  winter  the  tree  may  be  recognised  by  its  dead  petioles, 
curving  back  on  the  twigs  which  bore  leaves  the  past  summer. 
The  very  large  terminal  buds  are  another  winter  trait.  At  any 
season  the  orange-coloured  twigs  are  the  best  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  species.  This  tree  has  shaggy  bark,  though  this  character 
is  less  pronounced  than  in  H.  ovata.  It  is  hardy  in  the  Arnold 
Arboretum,  near  Boston,  and  seems  to  grow  more  rapidly  than 
other  hickories  in  cultivation.  In  the  wild  it  grows  in  bottom 
lands,  but  does  well  on  dryer,  sloping  ground. 

A  hybrid  between  the  pecan  and  laciniosa  is  reported  by  Dr. 
136 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickoriei 

Trelease,  and  named  for  its  discoverer  the  "Nussbaumer  Hybrid." 
It  is  not  especially  promising. 

Shagbark  Hickory,  Little  Shellbark  Hickory  (Hicoria 
ovata,  Britt.) — A  ruggedly  picturesque,  stately  tree,  75  to  120 
feet  high,  with  long  tap  root,  straight  trunk  and  angular,  short 
branches,  forming  an  irregular,  oblong  head.  Bark  light  grey, 
shedding  in  thin,  vertical  strips,  or  plates.  Branches  smooth, 
twigs  shining,  grey.  fVood  brown,  close  grained,  tough,  hard, 
elastic,  heavy.  Buds  terminal  ones,  large,  broadly  ovate,  with 
dark,  narrow-pointed  pair  of  outer  scales  persisting  through  the 
winter;  inner  scales  silky,  elongating  to  5  to  6  inches  and  curving 
back  in  spring;  lateral  buds  small,  globular.  Leaves  alternate, 
deciduous,  12  to  20  inches  long,  compound,  of  5  (rarely  7)  leaflets, 
all  sessile  but  terminal  one,  smooth,  leathery;  smallest  leaflets 
at  base;  all  serrate,  broadly  obovate,  abruptly  acuminate,  dark 
yellow-green  above,  paler  beneath,  becoming  brownish  yellow  in 
autumn;  petioles  stout,  smooth,  swollen  at  base,  and  grooved. 
Flowers,  May,  with  leaves;  monoecious,  greenish;  staminate  in 
slender,  hairy,  flexible  catkins  4  to  6  inches  long,  in  threes  from 
common  stem,  at  base  of  new  shoots;  pistillate  single  or  few  in 
terminal  cluster,  hairy,  greenish  with  spreading,  divided  stigmas. 
Fruits  solitary  or  paired;  husk  smooth,  leathery,  dividing  to  base 
into  4  valves,  ^  inch  thick,  and  separating  from  nut  at  maturity; 
shell  hard,  4-angled,  flattened,  pale,  smooth;  kernel  large,  sweet, 
edible.  Preferred  habitat,  deep,  rich,  moist  soil.  Distribution, 
Maine  and  Quebec  to  Delaware  and  along  mountains  to  Florida, 
northern  Alabama  and  Mississippi;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Ne- 
braska; south  to  Texas.  Uses:  Lumber  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  vehicles,  agricultural  implements,  wheels,  sled 
runners,  axe  handles,  baskets,  chairs  and  for  fuel.  Nuts  valuable 
in  commerce.     Tree  planted  for  ornament  and  shade. 

The  vertical  sheets  of  shaggy  bark  give  this  tree  its  name. 
The  springiness  and  toughness  of  the  wood  is  prophesied  in  these 
thin,  narrow  flakes,  so  obstinately  clinging  to  the  trunks  for  years. 
From  the  close-knit  covering  of  the  utmost  ,twig  down  to  the 
ground  the  gradual  evolution  of  this  bark  is  a  fascinating  study. 
The  character  of  the  shagbark  is  also  expressed  in  the  angular 
twigs  and  the  lithe  arms  of  the  tree,  etched  with  perfect  distinct- 
ness against  the  sky  of  winter.  Strength,  symmetry  and  grace 
are  there,  but  never  a  look  of  heaviness. 

»37 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

As  a  fruit  tree  the  shagbark  deserves  our  best  attention,  No 
other  hardy  nut  tree  compares  with  it  in  commercial  importance. 
The  value  of  its  lumber  has  led  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  large  trees 
in  the  woods.  The  nuts  are  diminishing  as  a  wild  crop,  but  the 
demand  is  ever  increasing.  Hickory-nut  orchards  are  being 
planted.  Nurserymen  are  studying  how  best  to  propagate  the 
trees,  and  to  improve  the  varieties.  "Hales'  paper-shell  hickory 
nut"  was  discovered  on  a  single  tree  in  New  Jersey.  The  nuts 
are  unusually  large  and  plump,  with  thin  shells.  The  kernels 
have  superior  delicacy  and  richness  of  flavour,  and  remarkable 
keeping  qualities.  A  shrewd  man  began  to  propagate  this  excep- 
tional strain.  Grafted  trees  of  this  variety  are  beginning  to  be 
sold  by  nurserymen.  Several  other  choice  kinds  from  selected 
seed  are  offered.  As  transplanting  is  attended  by  con- 
siderable loss,  it  is  best  to  plant  the  nuts  where  the  orchard  is 
to  stand. 

Hickory  flowers  are  not  conspicuous  in  colour  or  size,  but 
the  tree  is  a  wonderful  spectacle  throughout  the  spring.  First, 
the  buds  drop  their  two  black  outer  scales,  and  the  silky  inner 
ones  glisten  like  lighted  tapers  on  every  upturned  twig.  They 
grow  in  breadth  and  length  as  they  loosen,  and  a  cluster  of  leaves, 
small  but  perfect,  and  clothed  in  the  softest  velvet  stand  revealed. 
Then  the  great  scales  turn  back  like  sepals  of  an  iris,  displaying 
rich  yellows  and  orange  tones,  softened  and  blended  by  their  silky 
coverings.  The  opening  leaves,  delicate  in  texture  and  colouring, 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  parts  of  a  great  flower. 

But  the  leaves  soon  declare  themselves,  and  the  scales  fall. 
The  tree  is  then  draped  in  long  chenille  fringes  of  green.  The  wind 
shakes  the  pollen  out  of  these  staminate  catkins,  and  the  incon- 
spicuous green  nut  flowers,  clustered  in  the  tips  of  leafy  shoots, 
spread  their  stigmas  wide  to  catch  the  vitalising  golden  dust. 
The  fringes  now  strew  the  grass  under  the  tree;  the  bloom  is  past. 
Summer  matures  the  crop  of  nuts. 

The  first  frost  hastens  the  opening  of  the  thick  husks.  The 
nuts  fall,  and  schoolboys,  who  have  marked  the  tree  for  their  own 
weeks  before,  are  on  hand  to  bag  the  crop  to  the  last  sweet  nut,  if 
squirrels  do  not  thwart  them.  In  the  open  space  in  the  barn  loft 
alongside  of  the  bin  where  pears  are  spread  out  to  mellow,  the  nuts 
dry  and  sweeten.  In  the  dead  cold  of  winter  evenings  the  story 
of  "Snow  Bound,"  in  modern  settings,  perhaps,  but  still  the  same 

138 


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3  Fru 


THE    SHAGBARK    HICKORY  (Hicoria  ovata) 

The  bark  springs  away   from  the  trunk   in  thin,  narrow  strips.     The  thick   husk  parts   and   falls   awav  from  the  angled  nut 
October.      In  June  the  nuts  and  next  spring's  buds  may  be  seen.    This  hickory  leaf  has  five  leaflets,  the  basal  pair  small 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

in  spirit,  will  be  re-enacted  in  farm  homes  in  widely  distant  parts 
of  the  country.     Nuts  and  apples  and  cider  in  the  firelight! 

We  have  been  setting  fuel  down  as  the  last  of  a  tree's  uses. 
Naturally,  burning  is  the  end  of  things,  and  it  is  often  an  ignoble 
end.  But  fire  is  one  of  the  great  elemental  forces  in  nature.  A 
great  conflagration  is  magnificent;  a  smouldering  rubbish  heap  is 
not.  Some  kinds  of  wood  sputter  peevishly  in  burning.  The 
most  splendid  wood  fire  is  made  of  seasoned  hickory.  Wake  up 
the  old  backlog,  charred  by  half  a  hundred  fires.  Lay  in  the 
kindling  and  feed  the  growing  flames  at  last  with  shagbark  cord- 
wood.  There  is  no  flame  so  brilliant  as  this;  no  wood  burns  with 
a  more  fervent  heat.  No  wonder  "the  great  throat  of  the  chimney 
laughs."  The  passing  of  hickory  wood  in  flames  back  to  its  primal 
elements  is  the  fitting  end  of  a  noble  tree. 

The  North  Carolina  Shagbark  (//.  CarolincE-septcnirionalis, 
Ashe)  differs  from  the  preceding  species  in  its  smaller  size  and  slen- 
derer habit  throughout.  The  twigs  are  dark  red  and  slender  and 
the  leaflets  are  small,  lanceolate,  with  long,  tapering  points.  The 
buds  are  scarcely  J  inch  long,  thin  inner  scales  lengthening  to  i  to  2 
inches  and  becoming  bright  yellow  as  they  unfold.  The  little  nuts 
have  thin  shells  and  the  kernels  are  sweet.  The  bark  of  this  tree 
is  much  like  its  more  burly  cousins.  The  strips  are  equally  tough 
and  persistent,  but  not  quite  so  large. 

The  range  of  this  shagbark  covers  the  limestone  uplands  of 
eastern  Tennessee  and  western  North  Carolina,  and  extends  south 
along  river  bottom.s  into  Georgia  and  central  Alabama. 

Mockernutj  Big  Bud  Hickory  {Hicoria  alba,  Britt.) — A 
slender,  tall,  pyramidal  tree,  50  to  80  feet  high.  Dark  grey,  thick, 
hard,  close,  rough,  scaly;  twigs  pubescent,  resinous,  dotted. 
IVood  dark  brown  (sap  wood  white),  heavy,  hard,  strong,  elastic, 
close.  Buds:  terminal  ones  large,  ovate;  outer  scales  ovate, 
acute,  often  keeled,  falling  in  autumn;  lateral  buds  small,  yellow- 
ish brown.  Leaves  alternate,  1 5  to  20  inches  long,  of  7  to  9  leaflets, 
sessile,  except  end  one,  serrate,  oblong-lanceolate,  downy,  yellow- 
green,  russet  or  yellow  in  fall;  petiole  downy,  swollen,  large. 
Flowers:  staminate  in  catkins  4  to  8  inches  long,  hairy;  pistillate 
2  to  3  on  terminal  spike.  May.  Fruit,  October,  i  to  3  nuts,  globose 
or  oblong,  often  long-pqinted;  i^  to  2  inches  long,  red-brown, 
strong  scented;  sutures  opening  to  middle  or  nearly  to  base;  nut 
globular,  4-ridged  near  top,  thick  shelled;    kernel  binall,  sweet, 

139 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

edible;  often  replaced  by  spongy  mass.  Preferred  habitat,  rich 
soil,  on  hillsides,  North;  near  bogs  and  swamps  South.  Dis- 
irihidion,  Ontario  to  Florida;  west  to  Kansas  and  Texas.  Uses: 
Lumber  confused  with  shellbark  hickory;  nuts  edible,  but  small, 
and  very  thick  shelled.     Tree  planted  for  ornament  and  shade. 

The  mockernut  has  downy  buds  in  winter — this  alone  will 
distinguish  it  from  the  two  smooth-budded  shellbarks,  which  have 
buds  even  larger  than  this  species.  The  outer  scales  are  almost 
black  on  the  buds  of  H.  ovaia  and  H.  laciniosa;  on  H.  alba  they 
are  yellowish,  for  the  darker  outer  scales  fall  early  in  autumn. 
The  bark  of  the  mockernut  looks  more  like  that  of  an  ash  than  a 
hickory.  It  is  broken  by  shallow  fissures  into  intersecting  ridges, 
and  is  coated  with  silvery  scales.  The  branches  are  stout  and 
curved,  giving  the  tree  in  winter  an  expression  of  strength  and 
grace. 

The  heart  wood  is  dark  brown,  but  the  white  sap  wood  largely 
predominates,  to  the  advantage  of  the  lumber.  The  elasticity  of 
hickory  wood  is  somewhat  lost  in  the  mature  heart  wood,  so  sap 
wood  is  best.  For  this  reason  second-growth  hickory,  which  is 
almost  all  sap  wood,  is  especially  valuable.  The  names  alba  and 
white  heart  both  refer  to  the  colour  of  the  sap  wood. 

The  nut  is  truly  a  mockery  to  anyone  who  considers  his 
thumbs.  The  husk  is  thick  and  stubbornly  adherent  at  the  base. 
The  shell  is  almost  invulnerable.  When  at  last  it  is  shattered  by 
a  blow,  the  kernel,  though  sweet,  is  small,  and  poorly  repays  the 
trouble.     Oftentimes  there  is  no  kernel  at  all. 

The  mockernut  is  the  commonest  hickory  tree  in  the  South. 
It  is  believed  to  hybridise  with  the  pecan,  possibly  with  H.  ovata 
and  some  varieties  of  H.  glabra.  The  parentage  of  trees  inter- 
mediate between  one  species  and  another  can  only  be  surmised; 
never  proved.  If  artificial  crossing  produces  duplicates  of  the 
questionable  trees,  then  surmises  may  be  considered  well  founded. 

Nutmeg  Hickory  {H.  myristiccEJormis,  Britt.) — A  tall, 
straight  tree,  with  narrow,  open  head,  80  to  100  feet  high;  branches 
stout,  spreading.  Bark  reddish  brown,  broken  into  small,  scaly 
plates;  branchlets  with  golden  scales.  Wood  heavy,  hard,  tough, 
light  brown.  Buds  brownish,  silky,  hairy,  small.  Leaves  7  to  1 1 
inches  long,  odd  pinnate,  of  5  to  11  leaflets,  ovate-lanceolate  to 
oblong-obovate,  thin,  firm,  dark  green,  lustrous,  silvery  white 
beneath,  sometimes  pubescent;    change  to  bronze  in   autumn. 

140 


The  Walnuts  and  the   Hickories 

Flowers:  staminate  in  catkins,  3  to  4  inches  long,  brownish  pubes- 
cent, densely  flowered,  in  threes;  pistillate  terminal,  greenish, 
solitary  or  few,  scurfy  pubescent.  Fruit  small,  with  sweet  kernel, 
in  very  thick  shell,  smooth,  rounded,  pointed  at  both  ends,  in  thin, 
scurfy,  hairy,  4-valved  husk,  with  winged  sutures  that  open  almost 
to  base  at  maturity.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  soil  of  swamps, 
or  river  banks;  sometimes  dryer  hillsides.  Distribution,  coast 
regions  of  South  Carolina,  central  Carolina,  central  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  southern  Arkansas.  Uses:  Cultivated  sparingly  in 
Eastern  States.  Beautiful  ornamental  tree.  Locally  used  as 
fuel  and  lumber. 

It  is  the  lustrous  foliage  that  makes  this  tree  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  hickories.  The  deep,  perpendicular  roots  that  make 
transplanting  a  difficult  matter  among  all  the  hickories  have  prob- 
ably kept  this  one  from  the  full  recognition  it  deserves  at  the  hands 
of  nurserymen  and  planters.  Its  narrow  range  in  sections  that 
do  not  lack  beautiful  trees  is  another  cause.  In  fact,  the  tree 
itself  was  not  really  discovered  by  a  competent  observer  until 
1890,  although  the  nuts  were  seen  by  Michaux  as  early  as  1802. 
The  tree  is  rare  in  the  Southeast,  but  is  common  in  southern 
Arkansas.  The  fine  specimen  in  the  garden  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  at  Washington  proves  its  hardiness  in  that  latitude, 
and  brings  its  good  qualities  to  the  attention  of  the  public. 

Since  we  have  all  the  hickories  here  in  our  Eastern  States,  it 
certainly  behooves  us  to  foster  them,  and  share  them  with  the 
rest  of  the  world.  The  first  step  is  to  learn  how  best  to  propagate 
and  transplant  the  various  species.  The  next  is  to  plant  them 
freely,  and  so  set  forth  their  superior  merits  to  all  who  see  these 
plantations.  There  are  few  species  which  do  not  repay  the  cost 
in  returns  substantial  as  well  as  aesthetic.  Hickory  nuts  and  lum- 
ber are  in  constant  demand,  so  each  year  adds  to  the  value  of  the 
trees. 

Pecan  (Hicoria  Pecan,  Britt.) — Large,  thick-trunked  tree 
with  broad  top;  100  to  170  feet  high,  4  to  6  feet  in  diameter  at 
base.  Bark  light  reddish  brown,  broken  into  small,  scaly  plates; 
branches  smooth,  twigs  pubescent,  with  orange-coloured  lenticels. 
JVood  light  brown,  compact,  heavy,  hard,  not  strong.  Buds  small, 
yellow,  pointed,  pubescent,  with  narrow  scales  that  elongate 
slightly  in  spring.  Leaves  12  to  20  inches  long,  of  9  to  17  leaflets, 
short   petiolcd,  often  falcate,  lanceolate,  serrate,  bright  yellow- 

141 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

green  above,  paler  below;  petioles  yellow.  Flowers:  staminate 
in  catkins,  profuse;  pistillate  terminal,  in  spikes;  each  flower 
greenish,  scurfy,  4-angled,  tapering.  Fruit  3  to  11  in  cluster, 
pointed  at  both  ends,  elongated,  husk  thin,  4-angled,  winged  at 
sutures  which  open  at  maturity;  nut  smooth,  reddish,  cylindrical, 
thin  shelled;  kernel  sweet,  with  red,  astringent,  granular  coat. 
Preferred  habitat,  low,  rich  ground  near  streams.  Distribution, 
southern  Iowa,  Illinois  and  Indiana,  and  Southern  States  bordering 
the  Mississippi  River  to  central  Alabama.  Range  extended  by 
cultivation  into  all  Southern  States.  Uses:  Most  valuable  native 
nut  tree.  Wood  not  much  used  in  construction;  excellent  for 
fuel.     Fine  shade  and  ornamental  tree. 

One  of  the  things  that  solaced  Evangeline's  people,  homesick 
for  their  lost  Acadia,  and  wandering  in  a  new  and  unknown  region, 
was  the  wealth  of  sweet,  nutritious  nuts  that  grew  on  trees  the 
Indians  called  pecans.  The  "Cajons"  called  the  trees,  Pecanier, 
translating  the  name  into  their  own  language.  Twice  it  stood 
between  them  and  famine  before  they  became  established  along 
the  lower  courses  of  the  Great  River, 

The  salvation  of  the  pecan  tree  is  the  inferiority  of  its  wood. 
Being  brittle,  it  does  not  commend  itself  to  the  makers  of  wagon 
tongues  and  axe  handles.  Many  a  superb  specimen  adorns  the 
roadside  and  more  than  pays  its  way  at  nut  harvest,  while  other 
hickories  have  all  been  felled  and  dragged  off  to  the  factory.  No 
finer  tree  adorns  the  avenues  of  Southern  cities  than  the  pecan. 
Furthermore,  the  value  and  importance  of  the  nut  crop  is  an  ever- 
increasing  quantity.  Orchards  of  pecans  are  being  planted,  large 
thin-shelled  nuts  being  chosen  for  seed.  Grafting  and  budding 
have  been  attempted,  but  usually  failed.  Success  in  this  is 
coming  and  will  quickly  improve  the  character  of  the  nuts,  only 
the  trees  with  the  best  nuts  being  used  for  propagation  by  enter- 
prising growers.  Good  seed  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  repro- 
duce itself  in  the  fruit  of  the  seedling  trees.  Cions  and  buds  produce 
the  same  sort  of  nuts,  when  they  come  to  bear,  as  the  parent  tree. 

Pecans  are,  95  per  cent,  of  them,  still  gathered  in  the  woods. 
Buyers  pay  nut  gatherers  from  3  cents  to  5  cents  per  pound  for 
them  at  the  railroad.  The  retailer  gets  1 5  cents  to  75  cents  per 
pound.  The  yield  varies  with  the  years,  and  quantities  are  kept 
over  in  cold  storage  against  a  nut  famine.  The  prices  fluctuate 
?irprisingly,  and  offer  great  opportunities  for  speculation. 

142 


WATER  HICKORY  (Htco.-ia  aqitaiica) 


THE    PECAN  {Hkorta   Pecan) 

The  crown  spreads  into  a  broad  dome  in  open  situations.     The  foliage  mass  is  of  graceful,  lustrous,  sickle-shaped  leaflets  of 

variable  numbers.     The  wood  is  of  little  value,  compared  with  other  hickories.     The  bark  if  furrowed  but  not  shaggy 


The  W^alnuts  and  the   Hickories 

The  shiny  red  pecans  in  the  grocer's  box  owe  their  poHsh  and 
fresh  colour  to  rapid  friction  with  other  nuts  in  revolving  barrels. 
Unfortunately  this  process  restores  the  bloom  of  youth  to  the  shells 
of  stale  nuts  which  are  commonly  mingled  with  the  fresh  ones.  In 
many  places  the  nuts  are  cracked  and  shelled,  the  meats  sold  at 
50  cents  to  60  cents  per  pound.  There  is  economy  of  time,  at 
least,  in  this  for  the  confectioner  and  the  cook. 

The  "get-rich-quick"  man  is  sure  to  be  interested  in  pecans 
and  pecan  culture.  Large,  thin-shelled  nuts,  for  seed,  bring  from 
50  cents  to  |2. 50  per  pound.  Budded  and  grafted  trees,  one  or  two 
years  old,  cost  from  50  cents  to  I1.50  each  at  the  nursery.  An 
orchard  of  thrifty,  prolific  trees,  whose  nuts  have  thin-shelled, 
plump  kernels,  with  delicate  flavour  and  the  minimum  of  the 
astringent  red  shell  lining,  is  certainly  as  good  as  a  gold  mine  on 
any  farm. 

Of  the  seventy  and  more  varieties  that  have  been  described, 
not  twenty  are  worth  considering.  Anyone  interested  in  the 
subject  should  get  the  Report  on  Nut  Culture,  Division  of  Pomol- 
ogy, Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Bitternut,  Swamp  Hickory  (Hicoria  minima,  Britt.) — 
A  tall,  handsome  tree,  60  to  100  feet  high,  with  straight  trunk, 
stout  branches  and  slender  twigs,  forming  a  broad,  symmetrical 
head.  Bark  greyish  brown,  smooth,  close;  branches  smooth; 
twigs  yellowish  brown,  pale,  dotted.  H^cod  brown,  heavy,  hard, 
close  grained,  tough.  Buds  slender,  pointed,  yellow,  granular. 
Leaves  alternate,  compound,  6  to  10  inches  long,  of  7  to  11  narrow, 
almost  willow-like  leaflets,  bright  green,  paler  beneath,  leathery; 
yellow  in  autumn;  petioles  downy,  slender.  Flowers  in  May,  with 
leaves;  monoecious,  staminate  catkins,  3  to  4  inches  long,  in  threes, 
stalked;  pistillate  on  terminal  peduncles,  i  to  3  flowers,  J  inch 
long,  with  spreading  stigmas,  green.  Fruit  globular,  or  pear 
shaped,  f  to  i  inch  long,  wider;  husk  thin,  with  4  prominent 
winged  sutures,  reaching  half  way  to  base;  sometimes  2  go  to 
base,  never  4.  Golden  scurf  on  husk.  Nut  thin  shelled,  com- 
pressed, marked  with  dark  lines;  kernel  bitter,  white.  Preferred 
habitat,  low  wet  woods ;  swamps.  Distribution,  Maine  and  Ontario 
to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska  and  Texas.  Uses: 
Valuable  ornamental  and  shade  tree,  not  yet  appreciated. 
Wood  used  for  ox  yokes,  hoops  and  for  fuel. 

The  bitternut  is  known  among  the  hickories  by  its  flattened, 
141 


The  Walnuts  and  the  Hickories 

tapering,  yellow  buds,  which  it  always  carries,  no  matter  what  the 
season.  There  are  always  dormant  buds  in  spring,  even  when 
growth  is  at  its  height.  One  needs  only  to  follow  along  any 
twig  to  discover  several  of  such  lateral  ones  of  the  previous  year. 
Very  soon  the  new  buds  thrust  their  little  yellow  noses  up  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  you  have  there  the  sign  which  remains 
until  growth  begins  next  spring. 

The  bark  of  H.  minima  is  close  and  thin;  the  habit  of  the 
tree  is  like  a  hard  maple's;  its  leaflets  are  the  smallest  among 
hickories,  and  the  twigs  are  the  slenderest. 

One  need  not  depend  on  the  fruit  as  an  identification  sign. 
The  smooth,  round  nut  comes  easily  out  of  the  thin  shell.  But 
the  kernel,  white  and  plump,  is  bitter  as  gall.  No  woodland 
creatures  eat  it.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  trees  are  so 
numerous.  Nuts  roll  away  from  the  parent  tree,  and  are  privileged 
.to  grow,  while  edible  nuts  are  devoured. 

The  bitternut  has  all  the  good  qualities  of  an  ideal  park  tree, 
and  excels  the  other  hickories  in  rapidity  of  growth.  The  land- 
scape gardener  of  the  coming  generation  will  know  and  appreciate 
it,  for  the  native  trees  are  receiving  more  and  more  consideration, 
and  their  names  are  appearing,  in  increasing  numbers,  in  nursery- 
men's catalogues. 

The  Bitter  Pecan,  or  Water  Hickory  (//.  aquatica,  Britt.), 
is  least  in  size  and  value  among  the  hickories,  though  it  shoots  up 
occasionally  to  the  height  of  loo  feet.  It  grows  in  inundated 
districts — in  swamps  of  the  coast  region  from  Virginia  to  Texas, 
and  along  the  Mississippi  River  to  southern  Illinois.  There  is 
little  to  regret  in  its  comparative  uselessness,  for  the  trees  are 
practically  inaccessible.  The  bitter  little  nut  is  roughly  sculptured 
and  ridged,  reminding  one  of  the  butternut  shell.  This  probably 
led  Michaux  to  call  it  a  walnut.  The  kernel  is  thickly  coated 
with  a  bitter  red  powder,  like  that  of  the  pecan. 


144 


CHAPTER  XX:     THE  POPLARS 

Family  Salicace/^ 

Genus  POPULUS 

Quick-growing  trees  with  angled  or  round  twigs,  set  with 
scaly  buds,  soft,  light  wood,  and  bitter  bark.  Leaves  deciduous, 
simple,  alternate,  usually  broad,  on  long  petioles.  Flowers 
dioecious,  both  kinds  in  crowded,  pendulous  catkins;  each  flower 
subtended  by  a  bract  with  deeply  cut,  hairy  margin.  Fruit 
pendulous  racemes  of  2  to  4-valved  pods;  seeds  minute,  with  dense, 
silky  float  attached. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A,  Leaf  stalks  flattened. 

B.  Buds  smooth,  resinous. 

C.  Leaves  triangular,  coarsely  serrate. 
D.  Blades  of  leaves  3  to  5  inches  long. 

{P.  deltoidea)  Cottonwood 
DD.  Blades  of  leaves  2  to  2h  inches  long. 
E.  Twigs  slender,  pubescent,  yellow. 

{P.  Fremoniii)  cottonwood 
EE.  Twigs  stout,  smooth,  orange. 

(P.  Wisli{eni)  cottonwood 
CC.  Leaves  roundish,  finely  serrate. 

{P.  tremuloides)  quaking  asp 
BB,  Buds  downy;  leaves  ovate,  coarsely  toothed. 

(P.  grandideniaia)  great-toothed  aspen 
AA.  Leaf  stalks  round;  buds  resinous. 
B.  Foliage  green  on  both  sides. 
C.  Shape  of  leaves  lanceolate. 

(P.  angustijolia)  narrow-leaved  cottonwood 
CC.  Shape   of   leaves    rhombic   or   deltoid,   with   long- 
pointed  apex. 
D.  Margins  finely  serrate. 

(P.  acuminata)  lance-leaved  cottonwood 
DD.  Margins  coarsely  and  crenately  toothed. 

(P.  Mexicana)  Mexican  cqttonwqop 

M5 


The  Poplars 

BB.  Foliage  pale,  silvery  or  rusty  below;  margins  finely 
serrate. 
C.  Buds  thickly  covered  with  yellow  resin. 

{P.  halsamijera)  balm  of  gilead 
CC.  Buds  somewhat  resinous. 
D.  Bark  pale  grey. 

(P.  irichocarpa)  black  cottonwood 
DD.  Bark  reddish  brown. 

{P.  heterophylla)  swamp  cottonwood 


Trees  of  the  genus  Populus  form  extensive , forests  in  low, 
rich  land  and  on  high  slopes  of  mountains.  They  attain  large 
size,  are  quick  of  growth,  and  have  exceeding  tenacity  of  life, 
striking  roots  from  twigs  and  sending  up  suckers  from  under- 
ground. Seeds  are  also  a  reliable  means  of  reproduction,  as 
they  are  produced  in  great  numbers,  and  are  widely  scattered 
by  the  wind.  The  wood  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  pulp 
making,  and  for  a  multitude  of  cheap  wares  for  which  a  wood  easy 
to  work  is  demanded.  The  trees  are  largely  planted  for  shade  and 
ornament,  for  windbreaks,  and  to  hold  the  banks  of  streams. 

There  are  twenty-five  species  of  Populus  known,  eleven  of 
which  are  native  to  America.  European  species  are  often  planted 
in  this  country,  where  they  usually  thrive  as  if  at  home.  Som.e 
Russian  varieties  are  successful  on  the  Western  prairies.  China 
and  Japan  each  have  representative  poplars  here. 

Cottonwood  (Populus  deltoidea,  Marsh.) — Much-branched 
tree,  60  to  150  feet  in  height;  diameter  5  to  7^  feet.  Bark  deeply 
furrowed,  grey-brown,  becoming  greenish;  often  ashen  grey 
on  old  trees.  Wood  dark  brown;  sap  wood  white;  weak,  compact, 
light.  Buds  large,  pointed,  resinous.  Leaves  broadly  ovate, 
taper  pointed,  3  to  5  inches  long,  margin  wavy  and  coarsely 
toothed,  thick,  shining,  paler  beneath,  yellow  in  fall;  petiole 
long,  slender,  flat,  red  or  yellow.  Flowers,  March,  in  pendant 
catkins,  3  to  5  inches  long,  loosely  flowered;  staminate  red, 
numerous;  pistillate  green,  sparse  on  trees.  Fruits,  May,  aments 
6  to  12  inches  long;  capsules  ovate,  often  curved,  2-valved; 
seeds  in  white,  cottony  mass.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  soil  along 
streams.  Distribution,  Quebec  to  Northwest  Territory;  south  to 
Florida;  west  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  Uses:  Much 
planted  for  shade  and  windbreaks  in  the  prairie  states.  Wood 
has  recently  come  into  use  in  making  packing  cases. 

146 


THE    COTTONWOOD  {Popuhn    dehoi,ie,A 

The  quick-growing  tree  assume?  dignity  with  age,  though  wind  breaks    its  limbs.     The   .eaves  keep  fresh  despite  the  smoke 
and  dust.     The  catkins  appear  before  the  leaves  in  March.     On  pistillate  trees  the  seeds  ripen  in  green  balls,  which  open  to  dis- 

The  wood  is  now  being  used  for  boxes  ' 


charge  their  flufTv  contents  in  May.     The  buds  are  sealed  with  wax. 


SILVER    rOPLAR  {Populus  alba) 


GREAT-TOOTHED  ASPEN      NARROW-T.EAVED 
{Populus  grandidentata)  COTTONWOOD 

(Popului  an gu St i folia) 


COTTCJXWOOD  {Populus  Fremontii) 


SWAMP   COTTONWOOD  {Populus  heteropJnlla) 


BALM    OF   GILEAD  (Populus  bahamifera) 


The  Poplars 

We  all  concede  that  the  cottonwood  has  faults.  The  brittle 
wood  cannot  withstand  the  winds,  the  leaves  drop  untidily 
through  the  summer,  the  cast-ofT  staminate  catkins  are  a  nuisance 
in  spring,  and  the  fluffy  cottony  seeds  shed  so  deliberately  in 
early  summer  by  the  fertile  trees  fill  the  air  and  the  meshes  of 
door  and  window  screens  to  the  exasperation  of  the  whole  neigh- 
bourhood. 

But  go  out  into  one  of  the  little  breathing  spaces  called 
parks  in  a  great  city  like  New  York  in  the  early  spring  days 
when  the  children  of  the  tenements  and  the  stuffy  flats  are  brought 
out  for  a  first  breath  of  the  spring  air.  The  old  cottonwood  has  its 
buds  all  a-glisten  with  promise,  and  in  a  few  days  longer  the 
dainty  little  leaves  twinkle  all  over  the  treetop  with  the  most 
cheerful  green.  In  the  late  summer,  in  spite  of  its  losses,  the  tree 
still  carries  a  bright  green  crown  of  shade  which  turns  yellow 
before  it  falls.  With  all  its  faults,  it  endures  the  heat  of  cities, 
and  the  dust  and  soot  with  commendable  patience.  In  the 
protection  of  great  buildings  it  does  not  suffer  by  winds  as  it 
does  in  exposed  situations. 

There  are  better,  longer-lived  trees  for  the  open  country, 
but  in  cities  the  cottonwood  has  a  use  and  a  message  of  cheer  for 
rich  and  poor  who  look  up  and  learn  to  know  the  tree.  Unlike 
the  variety  next  described,  the  cottonwood  takes  on  dignity  with 
added  years. 

The  Carolina  Poplar,  considered  a  variety  (Carolinensis)  of 
the  cottonwood  above,  is  a  strict  pyramidal  tree  of  vigorous  and 
surprisingly  rapid  growth.  In  cities  the  varnish  on  the  leaves 
evidently  protects  them  from  dust  and  smoke.  Nurserymen 
have  exploited  this  tree  in  America  and  Europe  far  beyond  its 
merits,  for  though  useful  as  a  temporary  tree,  giving  shade  very 
soon,  poplars  should  give  way  gradually  to  more  permanent 
species  planted  with  them.  This  poplar  soon  outgrows  the  beauty 
and  luxuriance  of  its  youth,  and  becomes  broken  and  ugly. 
The  immoderate  planting  of  these  trees  gives  a  cheap  character  to 
many  an  otherwise  handsome  town  or  country  place.  New 
summer  resorts  and  city  "additions"  show  poplars  in  great 
numbers  about  their  premises.  The  "poplar  habit"  is  a  very 
short-sighted  one  and  expensive  in  the  long  run.  J.  Wilkinson 
Elliott,  of  Pittsburg,  persuades  his  clients  to  plant  Balm  of 
(jilead,  a  much  more  satisfactory  species. 

147 


The  Poplars 

The  Cottonwood  (P.  Fremontii,  Wats.)  grows  in  western 
California,  from  Sacramento  south,  and  eastward  to  Colorado  and 
Texas.  It  is  a  favourite  shade  tree,  and  an  important  source 
of  fuel.  Cut  back  systematically,  the  trees  produce  abundant 
crowns  of  suckers  in  a  very  short  time. 

Fremont's  cottonwood  is  distinguishable  from  the  preceding 
species  by  the  smaller  size  of  its  leaves  and  the  pubescence  of  its 
buds.  Its  haves  are  sometimes  kidney  shaped.  The  bark  of  old 
trees  is  reddish  brown.     The  trees  reach  loo  feet  in  height. 

The  Cottonwood  (P.  IVisli^eni,  Sarg.)  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  is  a  large,  wide-crowned  tree, 
with  stout,  smooth,  orange-coloured  twigs  and  leathery,  yellow- 
green  leaves.  Without  these  distinguishing  characters  it  might 
easily  be  confused  with  the  two  species  last  described.  The  tree 
is  not  met  with  outside  its  natural  range. 

Aspen,  or  Quaking  Asp  (Populus  tremuloides,  Michx.) — 
Slender  tree,  40  to  80  feet  high,  with  angular,  scarred  twigs,  and 
large,  vigorous  roots.  Bark  rough,  dark  on  base  of  trunk,  be- 
coming pale  greenish  brown  or  nearly  white,  and  marked  with 
broad,  dark  bands  below  the  limbs.  Wood  light  brown,  sap  wood 
white,  soft,  close  grained,  light,  weak,  not  durable.  Buds  waxy, 
conical,  scaly,  brown.  Leaves  alternate,  simple,  i^  to  2^  inches 
long,  ovate  or  almost  round,  with  straight  base  and  apex  acute; 
margin  faintly  toothed;  thin,  shining  green  above,  dull  yellow- 
green  beneath;  autumn  colour  yellow;  petiole  flattened,  flexible, 
slender.  Flowers  in  April,  dioecious;  catkins  pendulous,  ij  to  2^ 
inches  long,  each  flower  on  notched  bract,  fringed  with  hairs; 
stamens  6  to  12  on  disc;  ovary  conical;  stigmas  2-lobed;  disc 
broad,  persistent.  Fruits,  May,  borne  in  drooping  aments,  4 
inches  long;  capsules  oblong-conical,  2-valved,  pale  green;  seeds 
oblong,  covered  with  brush  of  long  white  hairs.  Preferred  habitat, 
sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  dry  or  moist.  Distribution,  Newfoundland 
to  Hudson  Bay  and  Alaska;  south  to  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Kentucky,  Nebraska;  also  high  altitudes  throughout  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  coast  ranges.  Uses:  Most  valuable  cover  for 
forest  land  devastated  by  fire.  Comes  up  from  seed  scattered 
broadcast  by  wind,  and  acts  as  nurse  to  hardwoods  and  conifers 
that  later  succeed  them.  A  pretty  shade  and  ornamental  tree, 
though  short  lived. 

Aspen  is  a  general  term  applied  to  trees  of  this  genus  whose 
148 


The  Poplars 

leaves  have  flattened  stems.  The  round-stemmed  ones  are 
poplars,  proper.  The  Russian  adage:  "There  is  a  tree  that 
trembles  without  even  a  breath  of  wind,"  might  well  fit  this 
most  apprehensive  of  all  the  aspen  trees.  Its  dainty  round 
leaf  blades  twinkle  in  the  sun,  a  grove  of  the  trees  together  pro- 
ducing at  a  little  distance  the  appearance  as  well  as  the  sound  of 
rippling  water.  It  is  the  gayest  of  trees.  That  was  a  lugubrious 
wight  who  imagined  it  accursed  by  being  the  tree  on  which  Judas 
Iscariot  hanged  himself,  and  doomed  "ever  afterward  to  shudder 
and  tremble  on  account  of  its  connection  with  the  tragedy  of 
Calvary."  The  same  legend  attaches  to  the  pretty  little  redbud, 
the  Judas  tree. 

"The  green  wood  moved,  and  the 'light  poplar  shook 
Its  silver  pyramid  of  leaves." 

We  might  easily  adapt  these  graceful  lines  to  our  quaking  asp, 
but  that  the  word  "silver"  will  not  apply  accurately.  The 
English  poet,  Barry  Cornwall,  was  describing  the  white  poplar 
with  white  leaf  linings. 

There  is  no  mystery  in  the  trembling  of  these  aspen  leaves. 
Examine  one.  The  stem  is  long  and  flexible.  It  is  flattened  in  a 
plane  at  right  angles  with  the  blade  of  the  leaf.  Now,  given  a 
leaf  that  is  dangling  from  its  twig,  and  has  four  flat  surfaces 
exposed,  it  is  a  cautious  breeze  indeed  that  is  able  to  get  by 
without  disturbing  the  leafs  unstable  equilibrium.  Given,  a 
treetop  of  leaves  similarly  made  and  hung,  and  you  have  a 
quaking  asp.  It  waves  you  an  invitation  to  examine,  and  see 
if  the  explanation  above  is  not  correct. 

Homer's  famous  simile  based  on  the  leaves  of  poplar  trees  is 
not  ungallant  as  that  of  Gerarde,  who  compares  them  to  "women's 
tongues  which  seldom  cease  wagging." 

The  most  delicate  colouring  is  found  in  this  aspen  tree. 
The  pale  bark  takes  on  a  cool,  greenish  tinge  in  earliest  spring. 
The  furry  catkins  flush  pink  with  their  silvery  grey  silk.  The 
opening  leaves  unroll,  soft  and  white,  like  flannel — "ju'  luk  a 
kitten's  ear,"  each  one  of  them,  to  quote  Uncle  Eb.  They  pass 
through  various  tones  of  rose  and  olive  on  the  way  to  their  lustrous 
adult  stage.  Every  day  from  early  March  till  May  it  is  worth 
while  to  go  by  a  copse  of  trembling  aspen  and  look  up  to  see 
what  new  phase  of  the  trees'  life  history  has  opened  since  last  we 
passed  that  way. 

149 


The  Poplars 

Large-toothed  Aspen  (Populus  grandidentaia,  Michx.)— 
Narrow,  round-headed  tree,  50  to  75  feet  high,  with  stout,  angular 
branchlets,  roughened  by  leaf  scars.  Bark  dark  brown  and  deeply 
fissured  between  broad  ridges  on  old  trunks ;  grey-green  on  limbs. 
Twigs  smooth,  pubescent  at  first.  Wood  soft,  weak,  pale  brown; 
sap  wood  white.  Buds  ovate,  pointed,  scaly,  waxed.  Leaves 
ovate  to  roundish,  heart  shaped  at  base,  acute,  with  sparse, 
irregular-rounded  teeth;  3  to  4  inches  long,  2  to  3  inches  wide, 
thick,  green,  with  pale  somewhat  tomentose  linings;  petioles 
slender,  laterally  flattened,  2  to  3  inches  long.  Flowers,  April, 
dioecious,  in  pendulous  catkins,  2  to  3  inches  long;  staminate 
red  from  anthers;  pistillate  green  from  spreading  stigmas;  bracts 
deeply  cleft.  Fruits,  hairy  capsules,  2-valved,  thin  walled,  slender, 
crooked,  filled  with  minute  seeds,  each  with  white,  hairy  float; 
May.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  sandy  loam,  on  borders  of  streams. 
Distrihution,  Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota;  south  to  New  Jersey,  and 
on  Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

The  coarse,  thick  leaves  with  large,  rounded  teeth  on  the 
margins,  distinguished  this  great-toothed  aspen  from  its  dainty 
cousin,  the  quaking  asp,  with  which  it  is  often  associated  in  the 
woods.  In  fact,  the  tree  is  coarser  throughout,  the  branchlets 
stout  and  the  buds  downy,  so  no  one  who  is  interested  and  ob- 
servant will  have  any  trouble  to  tell  them  apart. 

The  Narrow-leaved  Cottonwood  (P.  angustijolia,  James) 
has  lanceolate  leaves,  more  like  a  willow's  than  a  poplar's.  The 
margins  are  finely  saw  toothed,  the  petioles  short,  and  the  texture 
thin  and  firm.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  tree  is  a  poplar,  the 
flattened  petiole  alone  being  a  sufficient  clue.  The  tree  lines  the 
banks  of  mountain  streams  of  the  Rockies,  5,000  to  10,000  feet 
in  elevation.  It  grows  from  40  to  60  feet  high,  a  narrow  pyramid 
of  slender  limbs. 

The  Lance-leaved  Cottonwood  {P .  acummataj  Rydb.),  with 
scarcely  wider  leaves  than  the  preceding  species,  is  a  compact, 
round-headed  little  tree  that  grows  on  stream  borders  and  arid 
foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  British  Columbia  to 
southern  Nebraska  and  Colorado.  Its  distribution  is  not  fully 
ascertained.  It  is  used  for  fuel  and  planted  for  shade  in  com- 
munities within  its  natural  range. 

The  Mexican  Cottonwood  {P.  Mexicana,  Wesm.)  grows, 
a  graceful,  wide-spreading  tree  of  medium  size,  along  mountain 

150 


The  Poplars 

Streams  near  the  Mexican  border  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
Its  rhombic,  long-pointed  leaves  are  very  coarsely  toothed,  and 
when  they  first  unfold  are  dark  red,  soon  becoming  yellow-green 
and  leathery.     The  bark  is  grey  or  almost  white. 

Balm  of  Gilead  (Populus  halsamijera,  Linn.) — Large  tree 
with  stout  trunk,  75  to  100  feet  high.  Bark  grey,  broken  into 
broad  ridges;  branches  greenish,  smooth  or  with  warty  out- 
growths. Wood  pale,  soft,  compact,  weak,  light  brown.  Buds 
long,  slender,  shining  with  yellow  wax.  Leaves  broadly  ovate, 
acute,  finely  and  bluntly  toothed,  thick,  shining,  dark  green,  pale, 
often  rusty  beneath,  3  to  5  inches  long;  petioles  slender;  autumn 
colour  yellow.  Flowers,  March,  before  leaves;  aments  drooping, 
hairy;  stamens  18  to  30,  crowded  on  disc;  anthers  pale  red; 
pistils  green  with  spreading  stigmas;  flowers  scattered.  Fruits, 
May,  capsules  scattered  on  stems  4  to  6  inches  long;  seed  brown, 
buried  in  cottony  float.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  or  dry  soil  near 
water.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Hudson  Bay  and  Alaska; 
south  to  Maine,  New  York,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Idaho  and 
British  Columbia.  Uses:  Well  worthy  of  planting  for  shade, 
ornament  and  shelter. 

The  fragrant  wax  that  saturates  the  winter  buds  and  coats 
the  young  leaves  in  spring  gives  this  tree  its  name.  The  bees 
find  it  as  soon  as  the  sap  stirs  and  the  wax  softens.  Quantities 
of  it  are  collected  and  stored  in  hives  "against  a  rainy  day";  for 
this  is  what  bees  use  to  seal  up  weather  cracks  in  their  hives. 
It  is  known  to  bee  keepers  as  "propolis."  The  service  this  wax 
renders  the  tree  is  to  prevent  the  loss  of  water  from  the  buds,  and 
the  absorption  of  more,  after  they  are  ready  for  winter.  It  is 
not  "to  keep  the  buds  from  freezing,"  as  some  people  fondly 
imagine.  The  buds  freeze  solid,  but  it  does  them  no  harm.  They 
are  adjusted  to  it.  In  the  far  North  the  Indian  uses  the  balsam 
of  Balm  of  Gilead  trees  to  seal  up  the  seams  of  his  birch-bark 
canoe,  and  of  dishes  and  other  utensils  made  of  the  same  material. 

The  forests  of  Balm  of  Gilead  stretch  away  over  the  lake 
margins  and  bottom  lands  of  upper  Canada,  the  largest  and 
most  prominent  feature  of  vegetation  in  the  vast  regions  that 
approach  the  Arctic  circle,  and  extend  down  into  the  northern 
tier  of  states,  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

The  chief  interest  that  centres  about  the  tree  is  its  good 
record  when  planted  as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree,  and  in 

'51 


The  Poplars 

shelter  belts.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  of  excellent  habit,  compact 
and  erect,  but  not  too  narrow  for  shade.  It  is  easily  propagated 
and  transplanted,  and  grows  rapidly.  The  tree  is  handsome, 
winter  and  summer.  It  has  all  the  good  points  of  the  Carolina 
poplar,  and  lacks  its  fault  of  becoming  so  soon  an  unsightly 
cripple. 

The  Black  Cottonwood  (P.  irichocarpa,  Hook.)  is  the  giant 
of  the  genus,  reaching  200  feet  in  height  and  7  to  8  feet  in  trunk 
diameter.  It  is  tall  and  stately,  with  a  broad,  rounded  crown 
supported  upon  heavy  upright  limbs.  One  of  the  beautiful 
sights  of  the  Yosemite  Park  is  the  autumnal  gold  of  black  cotton- 
wood  groves  whose  abundant  foliage  embowers  the  stream  borders 
at  the  altitude  of  about  4,000  to  5,000  feet.  The  tree's  range 
covers  the  coast  plain  and  western  slopes  of  m.ountains  from 
Alaska  to  southern  California.  The  largest  trees  are  on  the 
lowest  levels.  The  dark  rich  green  of  the  leaves  gives  this  tree  its 
name.  They  are  ovoid,  3  to  4  inches  long,  with  the  finest  of  saw- 
toothed  margins.  The  wood  has  come  into  extensive  use  for 
the  manufacture  of  various  woodenwares  and  for  staves  of  sugar 
barrels. 

Swamp  Cottonwood  (Populus  hderophylla,  Linn.) — Round- 
topped  tree,  50  to  90  feet  high.  Bark  red-brown,  in  narrow, 
loose  plates;  twigs  red  or  grey,  containing  orange  pith.  Wood 
brown,  light,  compact.  Buds  resinous,  ovate,  with  red  scales. 
Leaves  broadly  ovate,  4  to  7  inches  long,  serrate,  dark  green  with 
pale  lining,  when  mature,  covered  with  white  tomentum  as  they 
unfold;  petioles  round,  slender;  yellow  or  brown  in  autumn. 
Flowers,  March  or  April;  staminate  aments  crowded,  erect  until 
blossoms  open;  anthers  deep  red;  pistillate  aments  few-flowered, 
drooping.  Fruit,  May,  aments  4  to  6  inches  long;  capsules  few, 
2  to  3-valved,  ^  inch  long,  bell  shaped.  Preferred  habitat,  wet  soil. 
Distribution,  swamps  from  southern  Connecticut  to  Georgia  and 
Louisiana;  north  along  Mississippi  to  Arkansas  and  Indiana. 

The  swamp  cottonwood  is  variable  in  the  base,  apex  and 
margin  of  its  leaf.  It  may  exhibit  coarse  or  fine  saw  teeth,  a 
blunt  or  sharp-pointed  apex,  a  square  or  heart-shaped  base. 
The  conspicuous  netted  veins  are  always  present,  and  the  leaves 
are  always  large  and  broadly  ovate,  with  slim,  round  petioles. 
The  orange-coloured  pith  of  the  branchlets  best  distinguishes  the 
tree  from  other  poplars.     The  new  shoots  and  the  unfolding 

152 


The  Poplars 

leaves   are  coated  with  white  down.     It  often   takes  a  whole 
summer  to  get  rid  of  it. 

The  Acadians  (probably)  are  responsible  for  the  name 
Ungues  de  jemmes,  by  which  the  tree  is  known  in  Louisiana. 
The  mild  calumny  of  Gerarde  is  thus  perpetuated  and  extended 
to  a  species  whose  leaf  stems  are  merely  flexible,  not  flat  at  all ! 
In  the  lumber  trade  the  wood  is  known  as  "black  poplar."  It  is 
dark  brown  in  colour. 


THREE   EUROPEAN   POPLARS   IN  CULTIVATION   IN 
AMERICA 

A.  Leaves  bright  green,  lined  with  white  down,  irregularly 
lobed  and  toothed. 

(Populus  alba)  abele  or  silver-leaved  poplar 
A  A.  Leaves  dark  green  on  both  sides,  smooth,  broad  as  long, 
finely  and  regularly  toothed;  apex  tapering. 
B.  Shape  broadly  pyramidal.     (Populus  nigra)  black  poplar 
BB.  Shape  narrowly  pyramidal. 

(P.  nigra,  van  Italica)  lombardy  poplar 

The  Abele  or  White  Poplar  {Populus  alba,  Linn.)  is  much 
planted  about  American  homes,  its  downy-leaved  and  "maple- 
leaved"  varieties  having  the  preference.  The  silvery  velvet 
of  the  leaf  linings  is  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  dark,  shining  upper 
surfaces  of  the  leaves.  The  flexible  stems  give  the  wind  much 
freedom  in  the  treetops,  and  the  sunlight  is  reflected  from  the 
leaves  much  as  it  is  on  rippling  water.  The  pale  outer  bark 
breaks  in  streaks  and  spots,  showing  the  dark  under  layers,  much 
as  the  palest  trunks  of  cottonwoods  do.  The  tree  is  distinctly 
a  poplar  in  flowers  and  fruits. 

Two  bad  habits  have  these  silvery  poplars:  (i)  their  roots 
send  up  suckers,  to  the  distress  of  owners  and  neighbours; 
(2)  their  leaves  accumulate  and  hold  dust  and  coal  soot  until 
they  are  filthy  before  the  summer  is  half  done.  Moral:  Plant 
your  silver  poplar  in  the  background,  where  its  sprouting  can 
be  controlled  without  damage  to  the  lawn  and  where  distance 
lends  enchantment  to  the  view  of  its  foliage. 

The  Black  Poplar  (P.  nigra,  Linn.),  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
has  become  established  in  certain  parts  of  the  Eastern  States,  but 
it   is   now   chiefly   met  with   in   its   cultivated  forms.     Variety 

153 


The  Poplars 

degans  is  a  dainty  tree  with  small,  bright,  twinkling  leaves  and 
ruddy  twigs  and  petioles.  The  following  variety  is  much  more 
extensively  known,  though  it  has  less  horticultural  merit. 

The  Lombardy  Poplar  (Populus  nigra,  var.  Italica)  is  the 
exclamation  point  that  marks  by  its  soldierly  rows  so  many 
familiar  boundary  lines  of  farms  and  village  properties.  It  has 
the  merit  of  infringing  but  slightly  even  by  its  shade  on  the  rights 
and  premises  of  others.  Indeed,  that  such  a  tree  should  be 
planted  for  the  shade  it  gives  is  scarcely  probable.  The  pencil- 
like form  and  the  twinkling  of  the  green  leaves  are  attractive. 
Italian  villas  were  punctuated  with  them,  and  any  piece  of  planting 
may  well  be  diversified  and  accented  by  a  group  of  these  trees. 
But  they  need  to  be  flanked  by  trees  of  diffuse  habit — never  set 
alone  or  in  rows!  The  great  fault  of  these  poplars  is  the  early 
dying  of  their  limbs,  because  of  much  crowding.  The  tree  retains 
these  dead  limbs,  and  so  loses  its  youthful  beauty  and  becomes 
scraggy  topped.  As  the  scientific  name  points  out,  these  trees  are 
an  Italian  variety  of  the  black  poplar. 


^H 


CHAPTER   XXI:     THE  WILLOWS 

Family  Salicace^ 

Genus  SALIX 

Chiefly  quick-growing,  water-loving  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
slender,  supple  twigs,  and  buds  with  a  single  protective  cap  or 
scale  of  two  coats.  IVood  light,  soft.  Leaves  simple,  alternate, 
narrow  and  pointed,  deciduous.  Flowers  dioecious,  in  loose 
catkins,  each  flower  subtended  by  a  bract  having  an  entire  hairy 
margin.  Fruit  a  2-valved  pod  with  papery  walls;  seeds  minute, 
in  copious  hairy  floats. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Shape  of  leaves  linear-lanceolate,  taper  pointed. 
.B.  Leaves  green  on  both  sides. 

C.  Stipules  persistent.  (S.  nigra)  black  willow 

CC.  Stipules  deciduous.     (S.  fluvtatilts)  sandbar  willow 
BB.  Leaves  pale  and  silky,  hairy  below. 

(S.  sessilijolia)  willow 
AA.  Shape  of  leaves  lanceolate,  sharp  pointed. 

B.  Stamens  more  than  2  on  each  scale  of  catkin. 
C.  Petioles  without  glands, 
D.  Leaves  silvery  beneath. 

(5.  longipes)  black  willow 
DD.  Leaves  glaucous  beneath. 

E.  Petioles  slender;  leaves  thin,  pale  green. 

{S.  amygdaloides)  peach  willow 
EE.  Petioles  stout;  leaves  leathery,  dark  green. 

{S.  Icevigata)  black  willow 
CC.  Petioles  with  glands  at  apex;  leaves  dark  green, 
lustrous,  pale  beneath. 
D.  Leaves  leathery.         {S.  lucida)  shining  willow 
DD.  Leaves  not  leathery.   (5.  lasiandra)  black  willow 
BB.  Stamens  2  on  each  scale  of  catkin, 

C.  Leaves  pubescent  and  silvery  beneath. 

(5.  Missouriensis)  Missouri  willow 
CC.  Leaves  smooth,  with  pale  linings. 

IS  5 


The  Willows 

D.  Leaf  linings  silvery;  blades  broad. 

(5.  discolor)  pussy  willow 
DD.  Leaf  linings  pale;  blades  narrow. 

(5.  cordata,  var.  Macken^ieana)  heart  willow 
AAA.  Shape  of  leaves  oblong  or  ovate. 
B.  Leaf  linings  pubescent,  white. 

C.  Apex  blunt.  (5.  Hookeriana)  willow 

CC.  Apex  short  pointed.  (S.  Behhiana)  willow 

BB.  Leaf  linings  smooth,  pale;  apex  blunt. 

(5.  balsamifera)  willow 

The  genus  Salix  is  distributed  from  the  equator  to  the  Arctic 
circle.  It  embraces  170  species,  beside  numbers  of  natural 
hybrids  between  closely  related  species.  Most  of  them  prefer 
moist  soil;  a  few  prefer  dry.  They  ascend  from  sea  level  to  the 
tops  of  mountain  chains.  They  vary  from  great  trees  to  prostrate 
shrubs.  No  climate  or  soil  but  can  show  its  native  willows. 
Among  woody  plants  they  are  comparable  to  grass  among  the 
herbs. 

The  wood  of  willow  is  uniformly  light  and  weak.  The 
trees  are  likely  to  get  less  than  their  due  of  credit,  when  compared 
with  the  average  large  genus  of  hardwoods  or  conifers.  But 
uses  have  been  found  for  them  from  time  immemorial.  Their 
soft,  light  wood  makes  superior  charcoal  for  gunpowder  and 
other  uses,  and  is  largely  used  for  summer  fuel  where  a  quick, 
hot  fire  is  desirable.  The  tough,  flexible  twigs  of  several  species 
form  the  basis  of  the  wickerware  industry.  Tannin  is  obtained 
from  the  bitter  bark.  In  Holland  and  other  countries  willows  are 
planted  to  hold  the  banks  of  streams  and  ditches.  Willow 
branches  formed  the  original  jetties  that  opened  and  kept  open  to 
navigation  the  channel  of  the  Mississippi.  Willows  are  among 
our  best  trees  for  quick-growing  shelter  belts,  in  the  newer  parts 
of  the  country.  They  furnish  ornamental  and  shade  trees  of 
value — pretty  when  young,  dignified  in  age. 

The  cultivation  of  willows  is  very  easy.  A  twig  stuck  into 
moist  soil  grows  into  a  tree.  Willow  posts  set  out  green  soon 
grow  into  roadside  trees,  thus  serving  a  double  purpose.  In 
damp  situations  their  roots  drain  and  greatly  improve  the  land. 
Many  species  have  twigs  that  snap  off  at  the  base.  These  twigs 
strike  root  if  they  fall  on  damp  ground;  many  waterside  willows 
cast  their  twigs  in  this  way,  and  the  stream  carries  them  down, 
lodging  them  on  shoals  and  bars,  which  soon  become  clothed  with 

156 


^    H, 


■^      c    o 

W      "-J 
I— I      tuO"£ 

o  .E 


&  g 


The  \A^illows 

trees.  It  is  an  unmeasured  advantage  to  a  region  to  have  its 
shifting  sands  and  mud  banks  established  thus,  and  covered  with 
green. 

There  are  comparatively  few  willows  that  grow  into  large 
trees.  The  rank  and  file  of  trees  even  in  these  species  are  small. 
From  Europe  we  have  naturalised  two  large  species,  5.  alba  and 
S.  jragilis.  The  golden  osier,  whose  yellow  limbs  are  bright  in 
early  spring  in  many  a  fence  row,  is  called  var.  viiellina  of  S.  alba, 
the  white  willow  of  Europe.  The  Babylonian  willow,  Salix 
Dahylonica,  is  the  much-planted  weeping  willow  of  the  Eastern 
States.  Var.  dolorosa  is  the  popular  "Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow." 
One  of  the  best  ornamental  willows  is  S.  peniandra,  the  laurel 
willow,  whose  crown  of  glossy,  broad,  green  leaves  adorns  many 
parks.  This  species  is  coming  into  well-deserved  popular  favour. 
The  Kilmarnock  Willow  is  a  weeping  horticultural  variety, 
pendula,  of  S.  Caprea,  Linn.,  the  European  goat  willow.  The 
staminate  tree  is  loaded  in  spring  with  catkins  which  are  coarse 
and  ugly  compared  with  those  of  our  own  pussy  willow,  S.  discolor. 

Black  Willow  (Salix  nigra,  Marsh.) — Medium-sized  tree, 
50  to  100  feet  high,  but  usually  smaller.  Twigs  slender,  brittle  at 
base.  BarJz  dark  brown,  flaky,  deeply  furrowed,  often  shaggy. 
IVood  light  reddish  brown,  weak,  soft,  fine  grained.  Buds  small, 
acute,  red-brown.  Leaves  narrowly  lanceolate,  acuminate  at 
apex,  finely  and  evenly  serrate,  green  on  both  sides;  petioles 
short,  2h  to  5  inches  long;  stipules  leaf-like,  semi  heart  shaped  or 
crescent  shaped,  deciduous  or  persistent.  Flowers  with  leaves, 
on  short  lateral  twigs,  dioecious;  catkins  i  to  3  inches  long,  pencil- 
like, erect;  ovaries  short,  distinct,  smooth;  stamens  3  to  7;  scales 
oval,  hairy,  deciduous.  Fruit  loose  racemed  capsules,  ovoid, 
tapering;  seeds  minute.  Preferred  habitat,  borders  of  lakes  and 
streams.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  west  to  Rocky 
Mountains,  reappearing  in  California. 

The  black  willow  earns  its  name  by  the  black  bark  of  old  trees. 
An  interesting  feature  of  the  foliage  is  the  pair  of  leaf-like,  heart- 
shaped  stipules  that  persist  throughout  the  summer,  as  a  rule,  at 
the  base  of  each  leaf.  Among  narrow-leaved  willows  this  is  the 
only  one  with  foliage  uniformly  green  on  both  sides.  The  leaves 
are  often  curved  like  a  sickle.  No  willow  has  a  wider  distribution 
than  this  intrepid  species,  which  takes  possession  of  stream 
borders,  climbs  mountains  and  crosses  arid  plains  to  plant  itself 

157 


The  Willows 

in  new  territory.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  our  native  species 
when  it  comes  to  maturity. 

The  Black  "Willow  (S.  longipes,  Anders.)  differs  from 
S.  nigra  in  the  wider,  more  typically  lanceolate  leaf  and  the 
silvery  lining  which  lightens  the  foliage  mass  wonderfully  as 
the  wind  plays  among  the  leaves.  The  two  heart-shaped  stipules 
are  usually  persistent;  they  can  always  be  found  near  the  tips 
of  growing  shoots,  even  in  midsummer. 

The  centre  of  this  tree's  distribution  is  in  the  Ozark  Mountains. 
Rocky  banks  of  streams  are  its  preferred  habitat.  It  grows,  a 
small  tree,  from  Washington,  D.  C,  to  Florida,  and  west  to 
Missouri  and  New  Mexico. 

Sandbar  Willow  (Salix  fluviatilis,  Nutt.) — Slender  tree,  20 
to  30  feet  high,  or  much-branched  shrub.  Leaves  silky,  becoming 
smooth,  linear-lanceolate,  coarsely  toothed,  tapering  at  both  ends, 
often  falcate,  2  to  4  inches  long,  thin  yellow-green,  paler  beneath; 
petioles  short;  midrib  raised,  prominent;  stipules  minute,  leafy, 
deciduous.  Flowers  in  slender,  silky  aments  on  leafy  side  twigs. 
Fruits  ovoid-conic,  sessile,  scales  smooth.  Preferred  habitat,  moist 
soil  along  streams.  Distribution,  Quebec  to  Northwest  Territory; 
south  to  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  New  Mexico. 

The  sandbar  willow,  like  S.  nigra,  does  a  good  work 
in  holding  in  place  a  body  of  drift  which  without  them  would  be 
moved  by  floods.  The  beautifying  of  rivers  by  embowering  the 
mud  flats  and  sandy  shoals  in  billowy  green  is  a  distinct  claim 
this  tree  has  to  the  gratitude  of  communities.  A  little  tree,  indeed, 
but  widely  distributed,  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful.  A  variety, 
argyrophylla,  with  silky,  downy  leaf,  is  found  from  Texas  west  to 
California  and  north  to  British  Columbia. 

The  Silver  -  leaved  Willow  {Salix  sessilifolia,  Nutt.), 
with  scarcely  any  stem  for  its  narrow  silky-lined  leaves,  is  a 
little  tree  that  follows  stream  borders  from  Puget  Sound  south 
to  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  one  of  the 
commonest  willows  of  the  coast  region  of  southern  California. 
The  hoary  tomentum  that  clothes  the  opening  leaves  is  never 
quite  lost  from  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  They  are  pale 
yellow-green  on  the  upper  sides  at  maturity. 

Peach-leaf  Willow  (Salix  amygdaloides,  Anders.) — Erect, 
straight-branched  tree,  30  to  40  feet  high,  rarely  70  feet  high. 
Bark  brown,  scaly,  on  thick  plates.     Wood  soft,  weak,  pale  brown. 

158 


The  Willows 

Buds  ovate,  lustrous,  brown.  Leaves  broadly  lanceolate  or  ovate, 
serrate,  taper  pointed,  3  to  5  inches  long,  i  inch  wide,  glabrous, 
paler,  and  glaucous  beneath;  petioles  slender,  compressed;  stipules 
kidney  shaped,  broad,  serrate,  soon  dropping.  Flowers  with  the 
leaves ;  catkins  loosely  flowered,  i  to  2  inches  long.  Fruits  narrowly 
ovoid  capsules,  taper  pointed,  smooth  on  stem  of  equal  length. 
Preferred  habitat,  borders  of  streams  and  lakes.  Distribution, 
Quebec  to  British  Columbia,  south  through  New  York,  Missouri 
and  New  Mexico. 

The  resemblance  of  the  foliage  of  this  tree  to  that  of  peach 
trees  is  striking.  The  leaves  curl  slightly,  and  hang  pendant  on 
their  slender,  flexible  stems.  It  is  one  of  our  few  willow  trees  that 
rise  above  medium  height.  Rare  in  the  East,  it  is  common  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  along  streams  that  flow  down  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  often  met  in  cultiva- 
tion in  the  Middle  West. 

The  Black  Willow  (S.  kevigata,  Bebb.)  is  recognisable  by 
its  pale  blue-green,  leathery  leaves,  which  are  pale  and  glaucous 
beneath  and  finely  serrate  or  almost  entire  on  the  margins.  It  is 
a  native  of  California,  following  streams  on  the  western  slopes  of 
the  Sierras.  It  is  rarely  more  than  40  feet  high,  averaging  a  little 
over  half  that  height. 

The  Shining  "Willow  (S.  lucida,  Muehl.)  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  North.  From  Newfoundland  it  ranges  westward  to 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  Rockies,  and  southward  only  as  far  as 
Pennsylvania  and  Nebraska.  A  small,  round-headed  tree,  its 
distinction  is  the  lustre  of  its  ruddy  twigs  and  the  beautiful  sheen 
of  its  dark  green,  leathery  leaves.  It  is  coming  to  be  recognised 
by  landscape  gardeners  and  nurserymen  as  a  species  of  consider- 
able horticultural  value. 

The  Western  Black  Willow  (S.  lasiandra,  Benth.)  grows 
to  be  a  tree  60  feet  high  on  river  banks  and  lake  shores  from 
British  Columbia  to  California  and  east  into  Montana,  Colorado 
and  New  Mexico.  The  type  becomes  modified  in  the  remote 
limits  of  its  range.  The  leaves  are  4  or  5  inches  long,  lanceolate 
and  finely  cut-toothed;  they  are  a  dark,  lustrous  green  above, 
paler  or  glaucous  below. 

Missouri  Willow  {Salix  Missouriensis,  Bebb.) — Tree,  to 
50  feet  high,  with  trunk  to  i^  feet  thick.  Twigs  pubescent. 
Bark  grey,  thin,  with  small  scales.     Wood  dark  brown.     Leaves 

>59 


The  Willows 

lanceolate,  acuminate,  finely  serrate,  with  rounded  bases,  3  to  6 
inches  long,  ^  to  i^  inches  wide;  pubescent  at  first,  becoming 
smooth,  green  above,  pale  and  glaucous  below;  stipules  leaf-like 
in  pairs,  often  persistent;  petioles  about  ^  inch  long.  Flowers 
before  leaves;  aments  slender,  long;  scales  persistent,  hairy; 
stamens  2;  style  short.  Fruit  capsules,  stalked,  narrowly 
ovoid,  smooth,  above  hairy  oval  scale.  Preferred  habitat,  river 
banks.  Distribution,  northern  Missouri,  northeastern  Kansas, 
Nebraska  and  western  Iowa. 

Pussy  Willow  (Salix  discolor,  Muehl.) — Shrub,  or  small 
tree,  to  25  feet  high,  with  stout  branchlets,  purplish  red  with 
pubescent  coating.  Buds  reddish,  flattened,  pointed.  Leaves 
oblong-lanceolate,  acute  at  both  ends,  irregularly  serrate,  often 
crenate,  thick,  3  to  5  inches  long,  bright  green,  with  pale  or  silvery 
lining;  midribs  broad,  yellow;  stipules  leaf-like,  half-moon  shaped; 
petioles  slender.  Flowers,  March,  often  showing  earlier,  before 
the  leaves;  aments  silky,  oval,  grey,  turning  yellow  as  flowers  open. 
Fruits  aments  of  beaked  capsules,  each  long  pointed,  on  long 
stem,  with  broad,  hairy  scale.  Preferred  habitat,  swamps  and  moist 
hillsides.  Distribution,  Nova  Scotia  to  Manitoba;  south  to 
Delaware  and  Missouri. 

This  is  the  familiar  bog  willow  which  we  rarely  recognise  in 
leaf.  The  twigs  are  usually  cut  when  the  little  furry  catkins  peep 
out  in  late  winter.  Florists  in  Eastern  cities  buy  large  quantities 
of  these  twigs  in  winter,  and  force  them  out  for  the  early  spring 
trade. 

The  Heart  Willow  (5.  cordata),  a  shrub  in  the  East,  has 
a  Western  variety,  Macken^ieana,  Hook.,  that  assumes  the  tree 
habit  and  size.  It  extends  from  the  far  North  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  Idaho  and  west  into  California.  The  narrow 
leaves  are  acute  at  the  apex  and  bear  minute  kidney-shaped 
stipules  throughout  the  summer.  It  is  an  extremely  variable 
willow. 

The  Hooker  Willow  (5.  Hookeriana,  Hook.)  has  broad, 
oblong  leaves,  blunt  at  apex,  and  white  below,  with  hoary  tomen- 
tum.  It  is  the  little  willow  of  sand  dunes  and  salt  marshes  from 
Vancouver  Island  to  southern  Oregon.  Its  hoary  twigs  further 
identify  it.     It  rarely  grows  above  30  feet  in  height. 

Bebb's  Willow  (Salix  Bebbiana,  Sarg.) — Small  tree,  with 
short  trunk,  10  to  20  feet  high,  with  downy  twigs  and  smooth. 

160 


THE    PUSSY   WILLOW  {Salix  discolor) 
This  is    the   familiar    bog  willow   whose   grey,  silky  catkins  appear  in  earliest  spring.     People  rarely  see  this  tree  in  summer 


THE   PUSSY 


3  Mature  pi-.tillate  flower 

WILLOW   (Salix  discolor) 


On  staminate  trees  the  catkins  turn  yellow  by  the  ripening  of  the  pollen  in  the  anthers.  On  pistillate  trees  the  catkins 
are  made  up  of  pistils,  each  on  a  silky,  entire  scale.  In  late  spring  these  matured  pistils  form  beaked,  2-valved  pods.  The  seeds 
are  minute,  and  each  has  a  silkv  float 


The   Willows 

reddish  bark.  Leaves  i  to  3  inches  long,  oblong-obovate,  acute 
or  blunt  at  apex,  sparingly  toothed  or  entire,  dull  green  and 
downy  above,  distinctly  veined  and  pale  blue  or  silvery,  hairy 
beneath;  petioles  short;  stipules  semi-cordate,  acute,  deciduous. 
Flowers  with  leaves,  sessile,  erect,  terminal;  staminate  silky 
white,  becoming  golden;  pistillate  silky,  with  yellow  stigmas 
which  spread  in  pairs.  Fruits  pubescent,  beaked  capsules; 
stalk  much  longer  than  scale.  Preferred  hahiiat,  dry  soil  or  stream 
borders.  Distribution,  throughout  British  America  and  south 
to  New  Jersey,  Nebraska  and  Utah. 

The  Balsam  Willow  (5.  halsamijera,  Barr.)  is  dressed  in 
spring,  like  the  Balm  of  Gilead,  in  young  shoots  that  glisten  in  a 
coating  of  balsam.  The  broad,  ovate  leaves  are  blunt  at  the 
apex,  and  look  scarcely  willow-like,  but  the  flowers  and  seed  pods 
maintain  the  family  traditions  and  leave  us  no  doubts.  The 
tree  is  found  in  the  northern  tier  of  states  and  ranges  far  north, 
becoming  a  prostrate  shrub.  In  its  best  estate  it  grows  into  a 
long  stem  crowned  with  a  small  clump  of  branches  bearing  the 
foliage.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  cold  bogs,  and  extends  no  farther 
west  than  Minnesota. 

Golden  Osier  {Salix  alba,  Linn.,  var.  vifellina) — Venerable- 
looking  tree,  with  short  trunk  and  regular,  spreading  top,  40  to 
60  feet  high.  Twigs  golden  yellow.  Bark  grey,  rough.  Leaves 
elHptical,  sparingly  serrate,  tapering  at  both  ends,  2  to  4  inches 
Iong,^silky  hairy,  becoming  smooth;  lining  white  and  somewhat 
hairy ;  stipules  ovate-lanceolate,  deciduous ;  petioles  short. 
Flowers  with  leaves;  scales  deciduous;  stamens  2;  stigmas  sessile. 
Fruits  flask  shaped,  sessile,  smooth  capsules.  Preferred  habitat, 
moist,  rich  soil.     Distribution,  eastern  North  America. 

This  American  derivative  of  the  white  willow  of  Europe 
deserves  mention  among  native  trees.  It  is  truly  naturalised. 
Its  yellow  twigs  are  its  best  identification.  It  is  far  more  common 
in  cultivation  than  its  parent,  although  the  latter  is  occasionally 
seen.  This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  useful  of  all 
the  willows  grown  in  this  country. 


lOl 


CHAPTER   XXII:     THE   HORNBEAMS 

Family  Betulace^ 

I.   Genus  OSTRYA  Scop. 

Small  trees  with  very  hard  wood  and  scaly  bark.  Leaves 
simple,  alternate,  ovate,  deciduous.  Flowers  small,  monoecious, 
both  in  catkins.  Fruits  conical,  hop-like,  of  many  nuts,  each  one 
in  an  inflated  sac. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  3  to  5  inches  long,  tapering  to  point. 

(O.  Virginiana)  hop  hornbeam 
AA.  Leaves  i  to  2  inches  long,  rounded  at  point. 

(0.  Knowltoni)  iron  wood 

2.    Genus  CARPINUS,  Linn. 

Small  tree,  with  smooth,  grey  bark,  showing  swellings  like 
veins.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  oblong-lanceolate.  Flowers,  both 
sorts  in  aments,  moncEcious.  Fruit,  paired  nutlets,  each  with  a 
3-lobed  wing.  (C.  Caroliniana)   Hornbeam 

The  hornbeams,  or  ironwoods,  are  little  trees  hiding  in  the 
shadows  of  the  forest.  They  are  of  slow  growth;  their  wood  is 
very  hard.  They  bear  their  flowers  in  catkins,  the  two  sorts 
upon  the  same  tree:  the  staminate  axillary,  the  pistillate  terminal. 
The  seeds  are  formed  for  wind  distribution.  Birches,  alders,  and 
that  shrubby  genus  Corylus,  the  hazels,  are  associated  by  family 
characters.  America  has  five  of  the  six  genera  that  compose  the 
family. 

As  a  rule  the  hardest  woods  come  from  tropical  forests. 
Witness  the  lignum  vitae,  hardest  of  woods,  which  grows  in 
Florida,  the  West  Indies,  and  northern  South  America;  the 
mahogany  of  Central  America;  the  rosewood  from  Brazil;  and 

162 


The  Hornbeams 

the  ebony  from  Ceylon,  tropical  Africa  and  Cuba.  Northern 
forests,  too,  furnish  some  species  with  exceptionally  hard  wood. 
The  hornbeams  are  the  best  proof  of  this  statement;  the  strength, 
hardness  and  flexibility  of  their  wood  rival  steel.  In  durability 
they  excel  the  best  oak. 

The  name,  ironwood,  is  locally  given  to  any  tree  whose  wood 
is  hard. 

I.  Genus  Ostrya,  Scop. 

Hop  Hornbeam,  Ironwood  {Osirya  Virginiana,  Willd.)— 
Small,  slender  tree,  with  round  head  of  stiff,  wiry  branches. 
Bark  greyish  brown,  furrowed  into  narrow,  scaly  ridges,  which 
break  into  small,  oblong  plates.  M^ood  reddish  brown,  heavy, 
cross  grained,  tough,  strong  and  hard  to  work.  Buds  lateral, 
ovate,  acute,  small,  brown.  Leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  sharply 
and  doubly  serrate,  3  to  5  inches,  thin,  tough,  dull  yellow-green 
above,  paler  beneath;  yellow  in  autumn;  petioles  short,  hairy. 
Flowers  with  leaves,  April  and  May,  monoecious;  staminate  in 
catkins  formed  previous  season;  pistillate  erect,  loose  catkins,  each 
flower  surrounded  by  three  united  bracts.  Fruit  a  hop-like  cluster 
of  inflated  bags,  formed  of  bracts,  each  containing  a  hard  little 
seed.  Preferred  habitat,  s\\2idy  iovQSi  ground.  Distribution,  Nova 
Scotia  to  Black  Hills;  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Uses:  Wood 
used  for  mallets,  levers  and  tool  handles.  Desirable  for  orna- 
mental planting,  but  rarely  used. 

The  hop  hornbeam  looks  like  a  relative  of  the  birches.  Its 
leaves  convey  this  impression,  and  slender  limbs  in  winter  bear 
green  catkins  that  cluster  in  threes  on  the  ends  of  twigs  and  wait 
for  spring,  just  as  the  birch  catkins  do. 

The  bark  of  this  hornbeam  is  thin  and  scales  off  in  narrow 
strips  whose  surfaces  are  covered  with  squarish  scales.  The 
pale  colour  and  the  stripping  of  the  bark  reminds  us  of  the  shell- 
bark — its  shaggy  strips  reduced  to  a  small  scale.  Among  the 
branches  the  bark  is  smooth  and  close,  and  the  twigs  look  like 
fine  wires,  springing  out  at  right  angles  from  the  stem. 

In  spring  the  staminate  catkins  swing  out,  even  as  the  birch 
flowers  do,  but  the  pistillate  clusters  have  to  be  looked  for.  1  he 
red,  forked  tongues  thrust  out  for  pollen  may  be  seen  at  the 
ends  of  leafy  side  shoots.     Here  the  midsummer  shows  a  hop- 

.63 


The  Hornbeams 

like  cluster  of  little  pale  green  sacs,  each  with  a  shining  seed 
inside. 

The  hop  hornbeam  is  of  a  retiring  disposition,  preferring  to 
hide  in  the  shadows  of  taller  trees.  But  there  is  nothing  dark  or 
funereal  about  it.  The  leaves,  bright  and  green,  are  held  out  in 
level  platforms  where  they  can  get  the  sunbeams  that  trickle 
down  to  them.  Then  comes  summer,  and  the  pale  green  "hops" 
make  the  tree  a  centre  that  seems  to  shed  light  into  dark  places. 
The  little  hop  tree,  Pielea  irijoliaia,  is  shining  in  its  corner,  and  at 
a  short  distance  the  two  trees  might  be  confused.  Each  one  is  a 
blessed  sight  on  a  hot  day,  for  pale  green  against  dark  green  is 
always  a  cool  colour  scheme. 

In  the  late  autumn,  after  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  fall,  the 
hops  still  hang,  grudgingly  giving  up  one  little  seed  balloon  after 
another  to  the  insistent  wind.  There  is  likely  to  be  a  long  sail 
for  each  one,  and  perhaps  more  than  one,  for  until  the  bag  is 
punctured  and  the  seed  covered,  the  wind  gives  it  no  rest. 

The  wood  of  the  hop  hornbeam  is  vexatious  stuff  for  the 
turner,  and  whoever  else  tries  tool  upon  it.  But  once  it  takes 
shape  it  lasts  indefinitely.  Sled  stakes,  levers,  rake  teeth, 
tool  handles,  wedges,  do  not  soon  need  replacing  if  made 
of  this  material.  It  is  equally  satisfactory  when  used  for 
fence  posts. 

The  parks  about  Boston  have  beautiful  specimens  of  the 
hop  hornbeam,  showing  that  its  merits  as  an  ornamental  tree 
are  being  recognised  by  the  best  judges.  The  next  step  will  be 
its  increasing  popularity  for  private  grounds. 

The  Western  Ironwood  (O.  Knowlioni),  which  was  dis- 
covered in  Arizona  but  a  few  years  ago,  is  smaller  in  every  way 
than  the  Eastern  species,  but  every  trait  proclaims  it  a  hop 
hornbeam.  The  leaves,  catkins  and  hops  are  short  and  blunt 
pointed.  The  protective  pubescence  which  belongs  to  desert 
plants  is  on  the  young  shoots  and  the  leaves  and  fruits  of  this 
tree.  Its  limbs  are  often  gnarled,  but  it  forms  a  rounded  sym- 
metrical top,  and  is  sometimes  30  feet  high. 

The  tree  is  probably  one  of  the  rarest  in  the  country,  for  as 
far  as  known  it  has  not  been  found  except  in  one  locality,  where 
it  has  formed  a  considerable  grove.  How  this  species  has  been 
cut  off  from  its  near  relative  in  the  East  is  a  problem  worthy 
of  investigation. 

164 


The  Hornbeams 

2,  Ghnus  Carpinus,  Linn. 

American  Hornbeam,  Blue  Beech  {Carpinus  Carolini- 
ana,  Walt.) — Small,  shapeless  tree  with  irregular  limbs,  often 
pendulous,  and  slender,  wiry  twigs.  Bark  furrowed  at  base  of 
trunk  on  old  trees;  smooth,  bluish  grey  above,  swollen  as  by 
veins  underneath  the  bark;  twigs  brown.  IVood  light  brown, 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  fine,  hard  to  work.  Buds  all  lateral,  ovate, 
small,  brown.  Leaves  ovate-oblong,  long  pointed,  irregularly 
doubly  serrate,  often  unequal  at  base,  dull  green,  pale  beneath, 
orange  or  scarlet  in  autumn;  hairy  petiole  and  veins.  Flowers 
monoecious,  with  leaves,  in  April;  staminate  catkins,  \\  inches 
long,  pendulous,  lateral;  pistillate  flowers  in  racemes,  terminal, 
loose  flowered,  with  forked  red  stigmas  under  green  scales. 
Fruit  racemed,  hard  nutlets  in  pairs,  each  supported  by  a  large, 
leaf-like,  3-lobed  bract.  Preferred  habitat,  swampy  rich  soil  near 
streams,  in  shade  of  taller  trees.  Distribution,  Georgian  Bay 
(southern  Canada)  to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas; 
also  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Uses:  Curious  and  inter- 
esting tree  for  planting  along  watercourses,  but  rarely  seen  in 
landscape  gardening.  Wood  used  for  tool  handles,  levers  and  ox 
yokes. 

The  American  hornbeam  has  no  "hop"  in  its  name  because 
its  fruit  has  none.  Each  little  seed  in  the  terminal  cluster  has  a 
mate  on  the  other  side  of  the  stem,  and  all  summer  they  have 
grown  close  together,  back  to  back,  generally  crowding  for  more 
room.  Each  seed  sits  in  the  prow  of  a  little  boat,  shaped  like 
a  red  maple  leaf,  but  hollowed  like  a  scallop  shell.  The  wind 
finally  loosens  the  hold  of  each,  and  for  a  time  seed  and 
boat  hang  by  a  thread.  This  breaks  at  last,  and  the  little 
nut  sails  off  at  the  will  of  the  wind,  to  grow,  if  it  falls  in 
wet  ground. 

This  hornbeam  resembles  Ostrya  in  many  particulars — its 
leaves,  its  flowers,  its  delicate  wiry  twigs,  its  foliage,  and  the  hard- 
ness of  its  wood.  It  grows,  too,  in  the  shadows  of  other  trees.  The 
bark  it  is  that  sets  the  trees  apart.  This  tree  has  bark  like  a 
young  beech,  a  thin,  smooth,  blue-grey  rind,  that  has  strange 
flutings  or  vein-like  swellings  coursing  up  the  trunk  and  out  on  the 
larger  limbs.  They  remind  one  of  the  veins  of  a  blacksmith's 
sinewy  arm,  or  an  athlete's.     A  trunk  a  foot  in  diameter  at  the 

165 


The  Hornbeams 

base  generally  shows  a  few  furrows,  and  some  minor  roughness 
near  the  ground,  but  above,  the  smoothness  is  unbroken. 

The  hornbeam  grows  often  in  thickets,  sometimes  as  scattered, 
single  trees,  in  marshy  ground  and  along  streams.  It  is  a  pretty 
tree,  with  blue-green  leaves  that  turn  to  orange  and  scarlet  in  the 
autumn.  It  is  coming  into  notice  as  an  ornamental  tree,  now  that 
people  are  learning  that  the  best  way  to  make  a  park  is  to  do  less 
levelling  and  filling,  and  plant  in  the  lower  ground  trees  and  plants 
that  choose  such  situations  naturally. 

The  anguish  of  working  in  this  wood  was  experienced  by  the 
early  colonists,  who  appreciated  its  value.  "The  New  England 
Prospect"  says:  "The  Home  bound  tree  is  a  tough  kind  of  wood 
that  requires  so  much  paines  in  riving  as  is  almost  incredible,  being 
the  best  for  to  make  bolles  and  dishes,  not  being  subject  to  cracke 
or  leake."  Heads  of  beetles,  stocks,  mill  cogs,  yoke  timbers, 
levers — for  such  uses  it  is  ideal  wood. 

The  European  Hornbeam  (Carpinus  Betulus,  Linn.) 
ranges  from  Scandinavia  and  England  to  the  Caucasus,  and  is  a 
beautiful  tree  of  no  small  note.  The  "hornbeams"  of  ancient  ox 
yokes  wore  indefinitely,  becoming  as  hard  and  smooth  as  horn. 
The  trees  grow  in  cold,  forbidding  situations,  where  most  trees 
fail,  and  so  serve  as  windbreaks  and  as  covers  of  barren  clay  soil. 
The  wood  makes  excellent  fuel  and  charcoal,  beside  its  special 
uses  to  the  turner.  In  the  old  days  of  formal  gardens,  the  horn- 
beam was  popular,  for  it  suffered  itself  to  be  clipped  with  as  much 
patience  as  the  linden,  the  beech  or  the  yew.  It  was  a  famous 
hedge  tree.  The  Germans  made  fences  by  planting  rows  of  the 
saplings  leaning  so  that  each  two  plants  formed  a  cross.  The 
bark  was  scraped  at  the  point  of  intersection,  and  then  the  two 
were  bound  together  with  straw,  until  they  grew  fast  to  each 
other.  Careful  pruning  made  of  this  in  a  short  time  a  beautiful 
and  impenetrable  wall.  Miles  of  this  fencing  were  seen  in  Evelyn's 
day.  The  Germans  also  planted  the  trees  near  the  gates  of  the 
great  cities,  training  their  branches  to  cover  arbours  "for  con- 
venience of  the  people  to  sit  and  solace  in."  Travellers  in  Europe 
will  find  the  hornbeam  still  much  used  as  in  earlier  centuries. 

China,  Japan  and  India  have  native  hornbeams;  there  are 
nine  or  ten  Species  in  all.  The  race  is  old — the  rocks  show  fossils 
of  extinct  species  that  once  inhabited  western  America. 

i66 


CHAPTER   XXIII:     THE   BIRCHES 

Family  Betulace.^ 

Genus  BETULA,  Linn. 

Trees  with  smooth  bark  marked  with  conspicuous  horizontal 
sHts  {leniicels),  usually  curling  back  in  thin  horizontal  layers. 
Leaves  simple,  alternate,  deciduous,  serrate,  stalked.  Flowers 
monoecious,  in  catkins.     Fruit  cone-like,  scaly;  seed  flat,  winged. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Bark  chalky  white,  yellow  beneath. 
B.  Leaves  triangular,  bark  close. 

{B.    pOpulifolid)    WHITE    BIRCH 

BB.  Leaves  ovate;  bark  separating  freely  into  layers. 

(B.  papyrifera)  canoe  birch 
AA.  Bark  grey,  curling  back,  yellow  beneath. 

(B.  luted)  yellow  birch 
AAA.  Bark  red,  curling  in  thin  ribbons;  cones  ripe  in  June. 

{B.  nigra)  red  birch 
AAAA.  Bark  dark  brown,  lustrous. 

B.  Twigs  aromatic;  bark  separating  into  thick  plates. 

{B.  lenia)  sweet  birch 
BB.  Twigs  not  aromatic;  bark  separating  into  thin,  papery 

layers.         (B.  occidentalis)  western  black  birch 

There  is  no  denying  the  inferiority  of  the  wood  in  most  species 
of  birch.  The  toughness  and  durability  of  the  bark  prevent  the 
prompt  evaporation  of  the  abundant  sap,  which  ferments  and 
breaks  down  the  wood  cells.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in  the 
woods  a  birch  trunk  with  the  bark  intact,  but  the  wood  crumbling 
like  chalk  when  touched.  When  the  trees  are  stripped  of  their 
bark  immediately  after  being  cut  down,  the  wood  seasons  properly 
and  lasts  fairly  well  as  lumber. 

There  are  twenty-eight  known  species  of  the  genus  Betula 
distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  a  fugitive  species 

1O7 


The  Birches 

grows  in  Terra  del  Fuego!  Ten  of  these  are  North  American, 
seven  or  eight  Asiatic,  and  six  European.  The  white  birch  of 
Europe  extends  through  Asia  to  Japan,  and  is  cultivated  in  many 
varieties  in  America. 

American  White  Birch,  Aspen-leaved  Birch  (Betula 
populifolia,  Marsh.) — Small,  short-lived  tree,  25  to  40  feet  high, 
with  slender  horizontal  branches  and  tremulous  foliage.  Bark 
chalky  white  or  greyish,  with  triangular  dark  patches  where 
branches  are  or  have  been;  not  easily  separated  into  layers; 
white  does  not  rub  oflF  on  clothing;  branches  dark  brown.  IVood 
light,  soft,  weak,  close  grained,  not  durable  in  contact  with  soil; 
light  brown;  takes  good  polish.  Buds  slender,  brown,  I  inch 
long.  Leaves  alternate,  simple,  triangular,  2  to  3  inches  long, 
long  pointed,  double  saw  toothed ;  dark  green  above,  paler  beneath, 
yellow  in  autumn;  teeth  of  margin  glandular;  petioles  long,  slim, 
twisted.  Flowers  before  leaves,  April,  monoecious;  staminate  in 
terminal  catkins,  single,  or  paired,  formed  in  previous  summer; 
pistillate  catkins,  ^  inch  long,  pale  green,  scales  ovate.  Fruits 
cylindrical  cones,  i  inch  long,  blunt  at  both  ends,  drooping; 
scales  downy,  3-lobed,  side  lobes  large,  spreading;  nut  oval, 
pointed,  with  broad  wing.  Preferred  habitat,  dry,  gravelly  soils, 
or  borders  of  swamps.  Distribution,  Nova  Scotia  along  coast  to 
Delaware;  northwest  to  Lake  Ontario.  Uses:  Graceful  and 
hardy  ornamental  tree;  thrives  in  any  soil,  but  rarely  planted. 
Wood  used  for  spools,  shoe  pegs,  v/ocd  pulp  and  fuel.  Valuable 
nurse  trees  to  hardwoods  and  conifers  on  land  Nature  is  reforesting. 

The  only  native  species  with  which  this  white  birch  might 
be  confused  is  the  canoe  birch.  Look  first  at  the  bark.  It  is 
chalky  white  and  yellowish  beneath,  but  the  chalk  does  not  rub 
off.  It  is  hard,  close  bark,  which  does  not  part  into  thin  layers. 
It  is  cracked  in  growth,  and  the  short  crevices  are  dark,  making 
the  trunk  look  grey  at  a  distance.  Wherever  a  bud  or  branch  has 
been,  a  large,  ever-widening  black  V  brands  the  trunk  and  limbs. 
Near  the  base  of  the  trunk,  the  white  bark  is  about  all  gone, 
leaving  a  black,  furrowed  area  that  grows  gradually  higher. 

The  foliage  mass  of  the  American  white  birch  is  much  thinner 
and  lighter  than  that  of  the  canoe  birch.  The  leaves  are  small 
and  dainty,  triangular,  taper  pointed,  suggesting  in  shape  and 
tremulous  poise  the  aspens  or  poplars. 

This  is  the  one  of  our  birches  that  most  nearly  resembles 
168 


The  narrow,  tapiT-pointcd,  triangular  leaves  are  very  glutinous  when  they  ■infoki.  They  tremble  like  aspen  leaves,  and 
form  a  thin  foliage  mass.  The  long,  pendulous  staminate  catkin  shown  has  a  slim  green  pistillate  one  above  it.  The  flowers 
appear  in  .April  before  the  leaves  are  half-grown.  The  narrow,  oblong  cone  has  scales  with  two  spreading  side  lobes.  Its 
wings  are  broader  than  the  seed.  The  bark  is  dirty  white  and  marked  with  a  conspicuous  black  triangle  or  an  inverted  V  under 
each  branch.  The  bark  can  with  difficulty  be  stripped  horizontally.  It  is  not  easily  separable  into  thin  sheets.  The  bases  of 
old  trunks  become  dark  and   furrowed 


^- '^'■"''  D.  Details  of  fruit  anrl  fruit  scales  A    I'istillate  flow=rs  B.  Stamin.ite  fl.  wer? 

THE    CANOE    BIRCH  {Betula   papyrijera) 
The  bark  of  this  tree  is  a  dull,  chalky  white,  and  curls  away  from   its   few  furrows  in   horizontal  plates.     On  old   trees  the 
bases  of  the  trunks  are  dark-coloured.     The  winter  twigs  often  end  in  three  stiff  catkins,  the  staminate  flowers  sealed  tight  to  pass 
the  winter.     In  April  the  ovate  leaves  come  out  with  the  flowers,  the  green  pistillate  catkir.s  erect  to  catch  pollen.     Ir  autumn  the 
seeds  fall  away  from  the  3-lobed  scales  in  the  pencil-like  cones.     Each  seed  has  a  pair  of  broad  wings 


The  Birches 

the  European  white  birch.  It  is  not  a  large  tree,  and  the  woods- 
man scorned  it,  until  the  manufacturer  of  wood  pulp,  shoe  pegs 
and  spools  sent  forth  a  demand  for  it.  Now  the  owner  looks  with 
satisfaction  upon  the  graceful,  bending  birches  that  bow  to  each 
other  in  the  swamps  along  the  streams,  over  abandoned  fields 
and  deforested  mountain  sides.  The  harvest  is  his  in  due  season. 
This  threatened  doom  of  the  white  birch  casts  no  warning  shadow 
across  these  sunny,  thick-set  acres.  The  trees  are  all  young 
together,  and  no  matter  how  scant  a  living  the  sterile  soil  yields, 
these  gypsy  trees  never  seem  to  languish.  Their  silken  ribbons  of 
dirty  white  bark  are  flaunted  gaily  against  the  sombre  back- 
ground of  evergreens,  and  they  "lean  out  over  the  stream,"  as 
Doctor  Van  Dyke  puts  it,  "Narcissus-like,  as  if  to  see  their  own 
beauty  in  the  moving  mirror."  Life  is  short — but  it  is  care  free 
and  joyous. 

There  is  a  philosophy  in  the  lives  of  these  vagabond  birches 
we  may  well  ponder  upon.  Do  they  not  clothe  with  beauty  the 
most  uninviting  places?  Do  they  not  come  again,  after  a  general 
slaughter,  promptly  and  abundantly,  from  stump  and  from 
scattered  seed?  A  noble  persistence  and  patience  under  adverse 
conditions  is  revealed  for  our  contemplation  in  the  parable  of  the 
white  birch. 

Canoe  Birch,  Paper  Birch  {Betula  papyrijera,  Marsh.) — 
Large  tree,  60  to  80  feet  high,  with  few  erect,  large  limbs  and 
numerous  horizontal  branches  with  flexible  twigs,  forming  a 
broad,  open  head.  Bark  dull,  chalky  white,  when  exposed  to  the 
sun,  stripping  horizontally  into  thin  sheets,  with  frayed  edges; 
chalk  rubs  off.  Wood  light  brown,  reddish,  light,  hard,  tough, 
close  grained.  Duds  resinous,  dark  brown,  sharp  pointed. 
Leaves  2  to  3  inches  long,  ovate,  abruptly  pointed,  finely  and 
irregularly  serrate,  thick,  dull,  dark  green,  with  paler  lining, 
yellow  in  autumn;  midrib  raised  and  marked  with  black  dots; 
petioles  grooved,  downy,  slender.  Flowers  monoecious,  April, 
before  leaves;  staminate  catkins,  3  to  4  inches  long,  pendulous, 
clustered  or  paired;  pistillate  catkins,  i  to  i^-  inches  long,  on 
stalks  I  inch  long;  scales  tapering;  pistils  red.  Fruit  slender 
cones  \h  inches  long,  cylindrical,  stalked;  scales  smooth,  3-lobed, 
two  outer  points  smaller  than  middle  one;  seed  oval,  with  broad 
wings.  Preferred  habitat,  river  banks  and  rich  slopes  of  mountains. 
Distribution,  Labrador  to  Alaskan  coast;  south  to  Long  Island, 

169 


The  Birches 

northern  Pennsylvania,  central  Michigan  and  Minnesota,  northern 
Nebraska,  Black  Hills,  northern  Montana  and  northwestern 
Washington.  Uses:  Picturesque,  graceful  ornamental  tree; 
hardy,  rapid  grower,  vigorous,  easily  transplanted;  wood  used  for 
spools,  shoe  lasts,  wood  pulp  and  fuel.  Starchy  cambium  furnishes 
food  to  Indians  and  trappers.  Bark  used  for  canoes,  letter  paper 
and  a  great  variety  of  articles,  useful  and  decorative. 

The  Indians  easily  proved  their  ingenuity  in  the  uses  of  the 
paper  birch.  They  framed  their  tents  of  it,  and  built  canoes, 
ribbing  them  with  cedar,  and  covering  them  with  large  sheets 
of  birch  bark.  They  sewed  the  seams  with  threads  made  of 
spruce  or  cedar  roots,  and  closed  the  chinks  with  pitch  or  gum  of 
the  Balm  of  Gilead.  These  small  craft  were  graceful  and  durable, 
and  the  Indian  managed  them  with  consummate  skill.  An 
early  letter  writer  from  the  colonies  described  these  "delicate 
canowes  so  light  that  two  men  will  transport  one  of  them  overland 
whither  they  list,  and  one  of  them  will  transporte  tenne  or  twelve 
Salvages  by  water  at  a  time."  Hunters  and  trappers,  following 
clumsily  the  Indian's  example,  are  able  to  supply  their  camps 
with  all  necessary  utensils,  such  as  baskets,  buckets,  dippers, 
dishes — all  made  of  this  material.  The  weather  is  never  so  wet 
but  that  fragments  of  birch  burn  merrily  to  start  a  campfire. 

The  range  of  the  canoe  birch  is  remarkable.  It  reaches  a 
higher  latitude  than  any  other  deciduous  tree,  and  covers  a  wider 
territory.  It  is  a  noticeable  feature  of  the  almost  continuous 
forest  that  once  stretched  from  Newfoundland  to  Washington 
state,  south  to  Nebraska  and  Pennsylvania  and  north  to  within 
the  Arctic  circle. 

The  bark,  which  gives  name  and  character  to  this  tree,  is 
distinguishable  from  the  white  bark  of  other  species  by  its  pearly 
surface  and  chalky  whiteness  which  rubs  off  on  clothing.  It 
strips  readily  into  thin  horizontal  sheets,  marked  with  elongated 
lenticels,  or  breathing  holes.  The  feminine  tourist  in  Northern 
woods  loses  no  time  in  supplying  herself  with  birch-bark  note 
paper.  The  bark  is  usually  removed  in  thick  plates,  from  which 
the  thin  sheets  may  be  stripped  at  leisure.  These  sheets  are 
orange  coloured,  with  a  faint  purplish  bloom  upon  them,  and 
darker,  purplish  lines.  Alas!  for  the  zeal  of  these  tourists.  They 
usually  cut  too  deep,  and  the  strip  that  tears  off  so  evenly,  girdles 
and  kills  the  tree,  because  nothing  is  left  to  protect  the  living 

170 


THE    YELLOW   BIRCH  {Betula  lutea) 
(Upper.)     A  flowering  twig  in  early  April.     Staminate  catkins  pendulous  at  tip.     Pistillate  catkins  small 


(Lower.)     Leaf,  cones,  3-lobed  cone-scales  and  heart-shapeH,  winged  seeds 
half  grown  and  sealed  up  for  winter 


solitary,  erect,  lateral. 
Twig  with    staminate   catkinf 


The  Birches 

cambium.  A  black  band  (of  mourning)  soon  marks  the  doomed 
tree,  and  it  eventually  snaps  off  in  the  wind. 

The  strain  of  the  growing  wood  breaks  the  bark  here  and 
there  and  it  curls  back  at  the  broken  edges.  Strips  gradually 
come  off,  on  trunk  and  branches,  leaving  black  bands.  But  this 
is  not  a  very  shaggy  birch.  The  pearly  lustre  of  its  clean  white 
bark  and  the  density  of  its  lustrous  foliage  make  B.  papyri jera  one 
of  the  most  beautiful,  as  it  is  one  of  the  largest,  of  our  native 
birches. 

Yellow  Birch,  Grey  Birch  (Betula  lutea,  Michx.) — Medium- 
sized  tree,  50  to  75  feet,  rarely  100  feet  high,  with  broad,  round 
top  with  slender,  drooping  branchlets  ending  in  fine,  leafy  spray. 
Bark  aromatic,  bitter,  dark  grey,  rough,  with  deep,  irregular 
furrows,  and  thick  plates;  younger  stems  silvery  yellow,  peeling 
horizontally  in  ribbons;  remnants  of  this  lustrous  bark  seen  on 
plates  of  old  trunks;  twigs  pubescent  the  first  season.  Wood 
reddish  brown,  pale,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  close  grained,  satiny. 
Buds  pointed,  \  inch  long,  brown,  shiny.  Leaves  ovate,  3  to  4 
inches  long,  sharply  and  doubly  serrate,  pointed,  oblique  at  base; 
veins  conspicuous,  hairy  beneath,  midrib  stout;  petiole  short, 
hairy;  colour  dull  dark  green,  with  yellow-green  lining;  autumn, 
pale  yellow.  Flowers  before  leaves  in  April;  staminate  catkins, 
3  to  4  inches  long,  brown  above,  yellow  below  the  middle;  pistillate 
catkins  §  inch  long,  reddish  green,  hairy.  Fruits :  cones  oblong  or 
ovoid,  stout,  I  inch  long,  erect,  scales  3-lobed,  narrow,  tapering, 
hairy;  nut  oval,  with  narrow  wings.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist 
uplands.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  south  to  Delaware,  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee;  west  to  Minnesota.  Uses:  A  desirable 
ornamental  tree,  but  rarely  planted.  Wood  valuable  for  imple- 
ments, furniture,  wheel  hubs,  button  moulds,  boxes,  and  for  fuel. 

The  bark  again  gives  the  name  to  a  large  birch  that  grows 
here  and  there  in  the  forests  of  the  Northern  States.  The  fringed 
and  tattered  outer  bark,  dingy  grey  with  pearly  lustre,  and 
showing  gleams  of  gold  at  every  rent,  is  unlike  the  other  birches. 
The  twigs  are  aromatic,  but  not  to  compare  with  the  black  birch. 
In  grace  and  lustiness  the  two  trees  are  well  matched.  The 
yellow  birch  leads  in  size,  of  its  catkins,  fruiting  cones,  and  the  tree 
itself.  The  leaves  are  not  larger,  but  they  are  more  distinctly 
toothed,  the  double  serrations  being  regular  and  clear  cut. 

The  yellow  birch  is  one  of  the  best  of  timber  trees.  The 
171 


\ 


The  Birches 

frames  of  sledges  are  made  of  it  in  the  North.  An  infinite  number 
of  small  articles  employ  it.  The  burs  make  good  mallets;  the 
fantastic  arching  roots  sometimes  show  curly  grain.  Often  a 
great  yellow  birch,  shaggy  with  age,  stands  long  in  the  woods 
after  it  is  dead.  Such  a  specimen  was  lighted  on  a  dark  night  by 
a  camping  party.  The  flames  swept  the  trunk  in  a  flash,  turning 
the  whole  tree  into  a  magnificent  pillar  of  fire  which  consumed 
it  utterly  before  it  had  time  to  fall!  So  a  veracious  camper 
declared.  The  safety  and  morals  of  such  a  bonfire  were  evidently 
not  considered  by  the  party.  Doubtless  this  is  a  common  tempta- 
tion to  camping  parties  in  the  north  woods.  It  might  be  quite 
justifiable  if  the  fire  could  always  be  controlled.  But  here,  as 
elsewhere,  playing  with  fire  is  dangerous  business,  and  responsible 
and  law-abiding  citizens  will  abstain  from  it. 

Red  Birch,  River  Birch  {Betula  nigra,  Linn.) — ^Tree  60  to 
90  feet  high,  numerous  pendulous  branches  forming  round  head; 
trunk  usually  dividing  into  a  few  main  limbs  which  spread  slightly. 
Bark  dark  reddish  brown,  furrowed,  v/ith  scaly  surface;  on  branches 
cinnamon  red  to  silvery,  curling  back  in  sheets,  fringed  with 
tatters  throughout.  Lenticels  prominent.  IVood  light  brown, 
strong,  close  grained.  Buds  chestnut  brown,  shining,  \  inch  long, 
ovate.  Leaves  alternate,  i  to  3  inches  long,  oval,  pointed,  twice 
saw  toothed,  thin,  tough,  shining  dark  green  above,  pale  yellow- 
green  beneath;  dull  yellow  in  autumn;  petioles  short,  flattened, 
fuzzy,  slim.  Flowers  before  leaves,  March  or  April;  staminate 
catkins  in  threes,  2  to  3  inches  long,  yellow  and  brown  mottled, 
pendulous;  pistillate  catkins  \  inch  long,  erect,  green,  fuzzy, 
stalked.  Fruit  ripe  in  June,  erect,  cylindrical  cones,  i  to  2  inches 
long,  bracts  3-lobed,~hairy,  divisions  narrow,  spreading,  central 
one  longest;  nut  oval,  with  broad  wings,  hairy.  Preferred  habitat, 
along  rivers,  ponds  and  swamps  inundated  part  of  the  year. 
Distribution,  Massachusetts  to  Florida,  west  to  Texas,  north 
along  Mississippi  to  Minnesota,  southern  Wisconsin,  eastern 
Nebraska,  and  in  Ohio.  Uses:  Desirable  ornamental  tree; 
planted  in  copses  to  hold  stream  banks  from  washing.  Wood 
used  for  fuel,  furniture,  ox  yokes,  shoe  lasts,  shoes  and  small 
woodenwares.     Branches  make  hoops  for  rice  casks. 

The  red  birch  earns  its  name  by  its  bark,  which  is  reddish  or 
chocolate  coloured  from  root  to  twig.  The  tree  is  a  tall,  graceful 
fountain  of  leafy  spray;  the  central  stem  breaks  into  two  or  three 

172 


The  Birches 

divergent  limbs  that  support  the  pendulous  horizontal  branchlets. 
No  birch  loves  the  stream  borders  more  ardently  than  this  Southern 
member  of  the  family.  The  lustrous  leaves  do  not  conceal  the 
flying  silken  tatters  of  bark  which  cover  the  tree  to  its  leafy 
twigs  the  year  round.  It  is  foolish  to  call  this  tree  nigra,  for  it 
is  not  black  but  red,  from  top  to  bottom.  It  is  at  its  best  along 
the  bayous  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  where  its  roots  and  base  of 
trunk  are  inundated  for  half  the  year. 

The  fruits  of  the  red  birch  are  ripe  in  June,  and  the  wind, 
shaking  the  erect  cones,  scatters  the  seeds  on  the  rich  land  from 
which  the  water  has  subsided.  Here  they  germinate  at  once,  and 
are  rooted,  vigorous  little  seedlings  by  the  time  the  floods  return, 
able  to  keep  their  heads  above  water,  and  to  thrive  like  their 
parents,  adding  colour  and  grace  of  line  and  motion  to  the  land- 
scapes of  many  different  regions. 

It  is  a  surprise  to  fmd  this,  our  semi-aquatic  and  southern- 
most birch,  growing  in  apparent  complacency  and  comfort  in 
dry,  upland  soil  in  the  New  England  States  and  Minnesota. 
But  so  it  behaves  in  cultivation.  It  well  exemplifies  the  versatility 
of  the  family. 

Cherry  Birch,  Sweet  Birch,  Black  Birch  {Betula  lenia, 
Linn.) — Handsome,  round-headed  tree,  50  to  80  feet  high, 
symmetrical,  with  slender,  often  tortuous  but  graceful  limbs, 
lower  ones  drooping;  twigs  delicate,  polished.  Bark  dark  brown, 
broken  by  furrows  into  thick  irregular  plates  which  show  frag- 
ments of  the  smooth,  silky  bark  that  covers  young  limbs.  Lenti- 
cels  prominent  as  horizontal  lines;  inner  bark  aromatic,  spicy. 
Wood  dark  brown,  reddish,  heavy,  strong,  hard,  close  grained. 
Buds  slender,  acute,  brown,  \  inch  long.  Leaves  ovate,  2  to  6 
inches  long,  pointed,  doubly  serrate,  dull,  dark  green  above, 
yellow-green  below;  midrib  yellow;  veins  prominent,  straight, 
downy;  petioles  short.  Flowers  before  leaves,  April;  staminate 
catkins,  3  to  4  inches  long,  purplish  yellow,  pendulous;  pistillate, 
erect,  sessile,  ^  to  i  inch  long;  bracts  hairy,  ovate.  Fruit,  June, 
erect  cones,  sessile,  scales  broad,  of  three  equal,  rounded  lobes; 
nuts  with  narrow  wings,  tapering  at  base.  Preferred  habitat, 
fertile  soil,  moist  and  well  drained.  Distribution,  Newfoundland 
to  western  Ontario;  south  to  Florida,  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and 
Kansas.  Uses:  Occasionally  cultivated  for  shade  and  ornament; 
wood  used  for  wheel  hubs,  furniture  and  fuel;  inner  bark  yields 

»73 


The  Birches 

salicylic  acid  and  wintergreen  oil,  used  in  medicine;  sap  made  into 
birch  beer. 

The  cherry  birch  has  several  common  names,  and  each  one 
has  a  good  reason  for  being.  The  bark  is  very  dark,  and  it 
breaks  into  rough,  square  plates  with  edges  curling  stiffly  back 
but  not  fraying  into  ribbons  at  all.  The  smooth  outer  layer, 
with  its  prominent  horizontal  lenticels,  remmds  one  of  the  bark 
of  cherry  trees.  This  epidermis  finally  disappears  from  the  large 
trunks,  but  it  may  always  be  found  covering  the  limbs. 

This  birch  is  one  of  the  handsomest  trees  of  the  woods.  In 
winter  the  grace  of  the  pendulous  branches  and  the  symmetry  of 
the  round  head  are  best  revealed.  On  the  bark,  from  dark  brown 
trunk  to  golden-brown  twig,  a  satiny  sheen  gives  brilliancy  and 
depth  to  the  colours.  The  tree  seems  aglow  with  life  even  in  its 
winter  sleep,  and  the  plump  buds  and  the  impatient  catkins, 
already  nearly  an  inch  long,  promise  what  the  spring  fulfils. 
The  abundant  sap  which  mounts  upward  in  early  April  forces  out 
the  catkins  into  tassels  that  hang,  all  purplish  yellow,  and  very 
large,  from  near  the  ends  of  the  branches.  Erect  among  them 
are  the  green  pistillate  ones,  rising  on  the  ends  of  short  side  shoots. 
The  abundance  of  its  leaves  and  their  glossy  sheen  and  brightness 
set  this  birch  apart  from  others  in  midsummer.  In  autumn  they 
turn  to  gold. 

The  small  boy  pulls  a  twig  ofi"  the  sweet  birch  sapling,  and 
chews  it  sedulously  as  he  fares  through  the  woods.  The  stimu- 
lating flavour  of  wintergreen,  which  is  in  the  bark  the  year  round, 
is  especially  strong  in  spring.  Wintergreen  oil,  used  in  flavouring 
medicines,  and  esteemed  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism  for  the 
salicylic  acid  it  contains,  is  extracted  from  the  bark  of  this 
species.  Birch  beer  is  brewed  from  the  sweet  sap.  The  spicy 
fragrance  extends  to  the  leaves  also,  and  a  twig  enables  one  to 
identify  the  tree  at  any  time  of  year.  In  Kamchatka  the 
natives  strip  the  inner  bark  of  B.  lenta  into  long  shreds  like 
vermicelli.  This  is  done  in  spring,  when  it  is  richest  in  starch  and 
sugar.  These  strips  are  dried  for  winter  use  as  food.  They  are 
boiled  with  caviar  and  with  fish. 

The  wood  of  cherry  birch  is  stained  to  imitate  mahogany  and 
cherry.  This  is  a  pity,  for  it  has  character  of  its  own  and  beauty 
that  deserve  recognition.  It  has  its  own  good  colour,  reddish 
brown,  and  this  in  "natural  finish,"  well  rubbed,  is  lustrous  and 

1/4 


HE    CHERRY    BIRCH  {lieiula  leni.i) 

The  brown  bark  lias  a  silky  outsiJc  layer  markcil  with  horizontal  slits,  just  as  cherry  trees  ha\e.  On  old  trunks  this  smooth 
layer  is  replaced  by  rough,  broken  plates.  The  wood  is  like  black  cherry.  The  twigs  have  a  pleasant,  aromatic  taste,  quite 
unlike  the  rank,  hitter  taste  of  cherry  bark.  The  leaves  come  out  in  pairs  from  side  buds  in  late  April.  The  staminate  catkins 
•re  in  evidence  in  winter,  sealed  up  tight  at  the  ends  of  twigs.  In  early  April  they  shake  out  their  golden  pollen  on  every  breeze, 
and  the  erect  green  catkins  of  pistillate  flowers  show  themselves  close  at  hand.  In  early  summer  the  oval  erect  cones  shed 
their  seeds.     One  figure  shows  the  3-lobed  bracts  still  hanging  by  threads  from  the  central  cone  stem 


THE    RED    BIRCH  {Betula  nigra) 
This  tree  blossoms  in  March,  before  the  leaves,  and  its  winged  seeds  are  falling  in  June  from  the  erect,  oblong  cones.      The 
trees  are  pyramidal,  with  many  drooping,  horizontal  branches.     The  bark  of  limbs  and  old  twigs  frays  into  ribbons.     Through- 
out, its  colour  is  red.     The  glossy  foliage  turns  to  yellow  before  falling 


The  Birches 

satiny,  often  showing  what  the  cabinetmaker  calls  "landscape" 
or  clouded  areas  of  unusual  beauty. 

The  Western  Black  Birch  (B.  occidentalis,  Hook.)  grows 
from  the  Black  Hills  westward,  widening  its  range  to  south  and 
north,  into  Alaska  and  California  along  the  coast,  and  following 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  New  Mexico.  It  is  widespread,  but 
nowhere  common.  This  graceful  little  tree  is  a  true  birch  in 
habit  and  in  the  lustrous,  horizontal  lenticelled  bark,  the  bronze 
colour  of  which  is  quite  sufficient  to  justify  its  name  and  to  identify 
the  tree.  Unlike  the  cherry  birch,  this  tree  sheds  its  bark  in  thin, 
papery  layers. 

The  brown  wood  is  locally  used  for  fencing  and  fuel.  It  is 
too  small  a  tree  to  be  important  for  its  lumber.  It  commends 
itself  to  planters  in  the  Western  States,  especially  where  its 
roots  can  get  water,  for  it  is  as  thirsty  as  an  alder,  following  streams 
always,  or  the  borders  of  lakes. 

The  White  Birch  of  Europe  (Betula  alba,  Linn.)  we  rarely 
see.  The  weeping  and  cut-leaved  varieties  of  this  species  adorn 
American  parks  and  gardens — their  only  fault,  that  they  are 
short  lived.  "Like  a  fair  lady  in  a  far  country"  is  the  white 
birch  here,  and  we  cherish  our  specimen  trees  with  profound 
solicitude. 

In  its  own  country  the  peasants  depend  upon  the  birch 
forests  in  a  great  many  ways.  In  the  north  of  Europe  birch  is 
the  principal  fuel  in  houses  and  smelting  works.  It  makes  good 
charcoal.  The  Russians  eat  with  wooden  spoons,  and  wear  wooden 
shoes,  both  made  of  birch.  They  live  in  houses  furnished  with 
birch  furniture,  and  shingled  with  slabs  of  birch  bark.  They 
strip  and  grind  the  soft  inner  bark,  and  mix  it  with  meal  in  their 
bread.  Even  the  tiny  winged  seeds  serve  a  useful  purpose. 
Birds,  especially  the  white  ptarmigan  in  Lapland,  feed  upon 
them  through  the  long,  cold  winters,  when  deep  snows  cover  all 
other  foods.  Lopped  trees  send  up  suckers  which  are  cut  and 
bound  into  birch  brooms.  The  inner  bark  is  stripped  into  sheets 
and  serves  for  paper.  The  famous  books  of  Numa  Pompilius 
were  written  on  birch  bark,  if  Plutarch  is  to  be  believed.  Birch 
wood  contains  abundance  of  sap.  In  spring  a  tree  will  often 
yield  its  weight  in  sap  in  a  fortnight.  Birch  mead  and  wine  are 
most  refreshing  beverages.  Birch  bark  yields  tannin,  a  yellow 
dye,  and  an  oil  which  gives  Russia  leather  its  characteristic 

175 


The  Birches 

colour  and  odour.  Swedish  farmers  look  for  the  opening  leaves 
of  the  birch  as  a  sign  to  sow  their  barley.  In  England  the  elm 
is  watched  for  the  same  reason. 

In  Parkinson's  day  the  "physicall  uses"  of  birch  were  few. 
But  he  adds: 

"Many  other  civill  uses  the  Birch  is  put  unto,  as  first  to 
decke  up  Houses  and  arbours,  both  for  the  fresh  greennesse  and 
good  sent  it  casteth;  it  serveth  to  make  hoopes  to  binde  caskes 
withall;  the  young  branches  being  fresh  are  writhed,  and  serve 
for  bands  unto  faggots:  of  the  young  twiggs  are  made  broomes  to 
sweepe  our  houses,  as  also  rods  to  correct  children  at  schoole, 
or  at  home,  and  was  an  ensigne  borne  in  bundles  by  the  Lictors 
or  Sargeants  before  the  Consulls  in  the  old  Romans  times,  with 
which,  and  with  axes  borne  in  the  like  manner,  they  declared 
the  punishment  for  lesser,  and  greater  offences,  to  their  people." 

In  the  very  end  of  their  swift  decay  birch  trees  served  the 
fashionable  world  in  the  heydey  of  the  powdered  wig.  "The 
whitest  part  of  the  old  wood  of  doating  birches  is  made  the  grounds 
of  our  effeminate  farined  Gallants'  sweet  powder." 

American  birches  are  more  valuable  lumber  trees  and  more 
graceful  for  ornamental  uses  than  the  forest  birches  of  Europe. 
Let  us  cease  to  compare  them  with  oaks  and  hickories,  and  set 
ourselves  to  appreciate  those  peculiar  virtues  and  charms  that  the 
birches  alone  possess. 


176 


^ CHAPTER  XXIV:  THE  ALDERS 

Family  Betulace^ 

Genus  ALNUS,   Linn. 

Small  water-loving  trees  of  rapid  growth.  Leaves  simple, 
deciduous,  alternate,  short  stemmed.  Flowers  apetalous,  monoe- 
cious, in  catkins.  Fruit  woody,  cone-like,  oval,  with  2  seeds 
on  each  scale. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Flowers  in  autumn.  {A.  maritima)  seaside  alder 

AA.  Flowers  before  leaves  in  winter  or  early  spring. 

B.  Staminate  catkins  becoming  4  to  6  inches  long. 

C.  Bark  smooth,  pale  grey  or  white;  tree  with  nar- 
rowly pyramidal  head.     {A.  Oregona)  red  alder 
CC.  Bark  ridged,  dark  brown;   tree  with  wide,  open 

head.  (A.  rhomhijolia)  white  alder 

BB.  Staminate  catkins  becoming  2  to  3  inches  long. 
C.  Leaves  narrow,  tapering  to  base  and  apex. 

{A.  ohlongijolia)  lanceleaf  alder 
CC.  Leaves  broad,  oval,  papery. 

{A.  ienuijolia)  paperleaf  alder 
AAA.  Flowers  after  the  leaves  in  spring  or  summer. 

{A.  Sitchensis)  Alaska  alder 

The  genus  Alnus  includes  twenty  species  of  shrubs  and  trees, 
nine  in  North  America,  six  of  which  are  trees  in  habit  and  size. 
The  largest  and  most  important  timber  tree  is  the  black  alder 
of  the  Old  World.  Widely  distributed  by  Nature  and  by  man, 
this  genus  is  the  source  of  many  hardy  ornamentals  adapted  to 
damp  soils. 

"Alder,    the    owner    of    all    waterish    ground." 

Seaside  Alder  (Alnus  maritima,  Nutt.) — A  round-topped 
tree  15  to  30  feet,  with  slender  branches.  Bark  thin,  smooth, 
light  brown ;  twigs  greyish.     ^Vood  soft,  light  brown,  close  grained. 

177 


The  Alders 

Btids  acute,  dark  red,  \  inch  long,  with  silky  pubescence.  Leaves 
3  to  4  inches  long,  oblong,  ovate  or  obovate,  acute  at  both  ends, 
shining  dark  green  above,  pale  green  and  dull  beneath,  edges 
set  with  fine  incurving  teeth;  petioles  short.  Flowers  autumnal, 
from  buds  of  previous  spring;  monoecious;  staminate  catkins, 
golden,  I  to  2  inches  long;  pistillate,  oblong,  J  inch  long,  with  red 
tips  of  stigmas  protruding  from  scales.  Fruit,  a  woody,  oval 
strobile,  ripe  a  year  after  blooming;  scales  thick,  shiny,  each 
bears  two  flat,  obovate,  pointed  nuts  or  seeds.  Preferred  habitat, 
borders  of  streams  and  ponds,  near,  but  not  actually  on,  seacoast. 
Distribution,  eastern  Delaware  and  Maryland,  Indian  Territory. 
Uses:  Rarely  planted,  but  deserving  of  cultivation  for  its 
glossy  foliage  and  the  beauty  and  unusualness  of  its  golden  catkins, 
appearing  in  September. 

The  seaside  alder  divides  with  the  witch  hazel  the  distinction 
of  bearing  flowers  and  ripening  fruit  simultaneously  in  the  fall 
of  the  year.  They  do  not  compete  for  popular  favour,  because 
the  alder  comes  first,  hanging  out  its  golden  catkins  in  clusters 
on  the  ends  of  the  season's  shoots  in  August  and  September. 
Nothing  is  left  of  them  when  the  witch  hazel  scatters  its  dainty 
stars  along  the  twigs  in  October  and  November.  The  tiny 
pistillate  cones  of  the  alder  are  scarcely  larger  than  the  buds  that 
keep  them  company. 

The  seaside  alder  grows  well  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  at 
Boston,  flowering  profusely,  thus  proving  itself  hardy  in  New 
England,  and  comfortable  in  dryer  soil  than  it  naturally  chooses. 
It  is  quite  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  who  seek  for  beauty 
and  novelty  of  habit  among  little  native  trees. 

The  Oregon,  or  Red  Alder  (A.  Oregona,  Nutt.),  is  a  large 
tree  for  an  alder,  sometimes  80  feet  in  height,  with  a  narrow 
pyramid  of  drooping  branches  about  a  trunk  that  may  exceed  3 
feet  in  diameter.  The  smooth,  pale  grey  bark  of  this  tree  sets  it 
apart  from  other  alders.  The  flowers  and  strobiles  are  large  to 
match  the  tree;  the  ovate  leaves  are  crenately  lobed  and  finely 
cut  toothed.  They  are  lined  with  rusty  pubescence,  and  are 
usually  smooth  and  dark  green  above. 

This  is  the  alder  of  the  Western  coast  that  climbs  mountains 
until  it  leaves  the  spruces  behind,  but  reaches  its  greatest  size 
about  Puget  Sound.  From  Sitka  south  through  Washington  and 
Oregon  it  lines  the  stream  borders,  and  along  the  mountains  it 

178 


The  Alders 

reaches  as  far  as  Santa  Barbara  in  California.  It  loves  also  the 
canon  sides  in  the  coast  range. 

The  reddish-brown  wood  is  beautifully  satiny  when  polished. 
It  is  light  and  easily  worked,  and  though  weak  and  brittle  is  made 
into  furniture.  The  Indians  make  "dug-outs"  of  the  butts  of 
large  trees. 

The  White  Alder  (A.  rhombifolia,  Nutt.),  equal  in  size  to 
the  preceding  species,  grows  along  the  mountain  streams  from 
northern  Idaho  to  southern  California.  It  has  a  white  scurf  on  its 
new  shoots  and  the  opening  leaves  are  clothed  with  white  hairs. 
Its  wide  sap  wood  is  also  white.  The  tree's  spring  appearance 
probably  justifies  its  name.  The  irregularly  diamond-shaped 
leaves  are  sharply  and  finely  cut  on  thin  wavy  margins. 

The  wonderful  thing  about  this  tree  is  its  blooming  in  January 
or  February,  hanging  its  conspicuous  yellow  catkins  out  while 
yet  all  other  trees  are  asleep.  Even  in  California  this  is  a  striking 
phenomenon  along  the  mountain  streams  fringed  with  these  trees. 

The  bark  of  the  trunks  of  white  alder  is  furrowed  and  dark 
brown.  The  trees  need  not  be  confused  with  the  Oregon  alder, 
if  the  trunk  be  examined. 

The  Lanceleaf  Alder  {A.  oUongijolia,  Torr.),  whose  name 
describes  it  well,  comes  up  from  the  Peruvian  Andes  through 
Mexico,  and  is  found  at  high  altitudes  along  caiion  sides  in  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona. 

The  Paperleaf  Alder  {A.  tenuifolia,  Nutt.) — A  small  tree 
with  thin,  firm-textured  leaves,  ovate  in  shape  with  laciniate 
lobes,  twice  saw  toothed,  one  of  the  prettiest  of  the  alders,  is 
abundant  in  thickets  along  the  headwaters  of  streams  that  rise 
in  the  Western  mountains.  It  follows  the  various  ranges  from 
British  Columbia  to  Lower  California,  Colorado  and  northern 
New  Mexico. 

Poets  do  not  always  realise  their  responsibility.  The  one 
who  characterised  the  trees  that  fringed  the  sluggish  streams  and 
cover  the  "water  galls"  in  England  as  "the  water  spungie  alder, 
good  for  naught,"  put  into  rhythmic  form,  too  easy  to  remember, 
a  stigma  that  brands  a  really  picturesque  and  useful  tree.  The 
alder's  primary  virtue  is  that  it  will  thrive  in  places  so  boggy 
that  even  willows  and  poplars  cannot  grow  there.  Can  any  lover 
of  English  landscapes  spare  the  alders  from  unsightly  places  whose 
lines  they  soften  and  whose  baldness  they  conceal  with  billows  of 

179 


The  Alders 

living  green?  "He  who  would  see  the  alder  in  perfection  must 
follow  the  banks  of  the  Mole,  in  Surrey,  through  the  sweet  vales 
of  Dorking  and  Wickleham,  into  the  groves  of  Esher." 

The  English  people  cherish  an  affectionate  regard  for  their 
native  black  alder,  a  description  of  which  follows.  The  hawthorns 
of  their  hedgerows  are  not  more  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  people. 
John  Evelyn  expresses  the  sentiment  when,  after  recounting  the 
many  practical  uses  of  the  tree  and  its  wood,  he  adds  two  more: 
"The  fresh  leaves  alone  applied  to  the  naked  sole  of  the  foot, 
infinitely  refresh  the  surbated  traveller";  and  "The  very  shadow 
of  this  tree  doth  feed  and  nourish  the  grass  that  grows  under  it." 

The  Black  Alder  {Alnus  glutinosa,  Gaertn.),  native  of  Europe, 
Asia  and  North  Africa,  is  the  most  picturesque  of  water-loving 
trees,  with  its  dark  green,  round  or  oblong  leaves  glutinous 
when  they  unfold  in  the  spring.  The  trees  are  tall  and  erect,  with 
dark  trunks.  The  tallest  sometimes  reach  70  feet  and  have  a 
trunk  diameter  of  3  feet.  These  giant  alders  are  dignified,  indeed, 
but  the  rank  and  file  of  the  species  are  smaller  trees.  They  hang  out 
their  long  yellow  catkin  fringe  on  the  bare  twigs  in  earliest  spring,  a 
sight  to  repay  a  visit,  even  if  it  involved  the  wearing  of  rubber 
boots;  and  the  little  green  knobs  on  the  branching  side  stems  grow 
by  autumn  into  ripe  cones,  out  of  whose  slits  fall  the  little  flat  seeds. 

Compared  with  oak  and  ash  timber,  alder  is  indifferent  in 
quality  and  does  not  interest  the  lumberman,  but  there  are 
special  uses  to  which  alder  is  always  put.  Growing  in  water,  it 
seems  to  recognise  its  element;  alder  piles,  water  pipes,  pumps 
and  watering  troughs  kept  always  saturated  last  indefinitely. 
The  piles  of  the  Rialto  in  Venice  and  those  of  Amsterdam,  ac- 
cording to  ancient  authorities,  are  of  alder.  Exposed  to  conditions 
of  alternate  wet  and  dry,  the  wood  soon  rots.  It  was  a  canny 
Scot  who  buried  alder  boards  in  a  peat  bog,  in  which  lime  was 
also  thrown.  This  prevented  the  invasion  of  destructive  insects, 
and  turned  the  pinkish  brown  wood  to  the  colour  and  hardness  of 
mahogany.  The  grain  of  alder  is  smooth,  fine  and  lustrous. 
It  does  not  warp  nor  splinter.  In  the  old  days  it  was  a  wood 
for  the  boatbuilder.  "Excepting  Noah's  Ark,  the  first  vessels 
we  read  of  were  made  of  alder."  Virgil  gives  a  pretty  glimpse  o' 
northern  Italy  in  one  of  his  Georgics: 

"And  down  the  rapid  Po  light  alders  glide." 
180 


The  Alders 

Alder  wood  serves  many  cheap  and  common  uses:  for  sabots 
and  c!:-gi,  and  woouon  heels;  truncheons,  kricading  troughs, 
barrel  staves,  bobbins,  trays,  hop  poles,  and  the  like.  The 
bark  and  cones  yield  tannin  used  in  tanning  leather  and  in  medi- 
cine, and  a  yellow  dye  which  is  also  used  in  the  making  of  ink. 
The  best  charcoal  for  gunpowder  is  made  from  willow  and  alder. 
Warty  excrescences  on  old  trees  and  twisted  roots  furnish  the 
inlayer  with  small  but  beautifully  veined  and  very  hard  pieces. 
Articles  made  of  this  once  brought  high  prices. 

One  of  the  best  uses  to  which  alder  is  put  is  planting  in 
hedges  along  borders  of  streams  where  their  roots,  closely  inter- 
lacing, hold  the  banks  against  crumbling. 

The  black  alder  is  most  often  met  in  horticultural  forms  in 
America.  There  is  a  variety  with  large,  shining  leaves  and  red 
veins  and  petioles.  The  daintiest  varieties  are  those  with  finely 
cut  leaves,  of  which  imperialis,  with  fingered  leaves  like  the  white 
oak,  is  a  good  example. 

The  Hoary  or  Speckled  Alder  {Alniis  incana,  Willd.), 
native  of  both  hemispheres,  is  a  handsome  tree  of  medium  size 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  but  it  rarely  rises  above  a  shrub  in  America. 
It  is  second  only  to  the  black  alder,  from  which  it  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished, for  its  branches  are  speckled  with  white  spots.  Its 
leaves  are  pointed  and  lined  with  a  hoary  bloom;  and  there  is 
nothing  glutinous  about  the  opening  leaves  and  shoots.  The 
wood  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  other  species. 

Two  Japanese  species  of  alder  have  come  into  American 
gardens,  both  vigorous,  large-leaved  trees,  of  good  size  and 
excellent  habit.  Alnus  Japonica  has  a  pyramidal  head  of  shining 
dark  green  foliage;  /5f/wM5  tinctoria  is  round  headed,  with  handsome 
foliage,  and  is  proving  hardy  and  rapid  of  growth  in  New  England. 
A  cardinal  merit  of  these  cultivated  alders  is  that  they  thrive  in 
ordinary  garden  soil. 


i8i 


CHAPTER  XXV:     THE  BEECHES 

Family    pAGACEyE 

Genus  FAGUS,  Linn. 

Trees  valuable  for  their  timber  and  nuts,  and  also  for  shade 
and  ornamental  planting.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  feather 
veined,  deciduous.  Flowers  monoecious,  small,  crowded  into 
spikes  or  heads.     Fruit  a  pair  of  triangular  nuts  in  a  4-valved  bur. 

The  great  family  of  the  cup  bearers  includes  the  beeches, 
chestnuts  and  oaks — trees  of  profound  importance  to  the  human 
race.  They  are  the  mast  trees,  whose  fruit  has  fed  man  and 
beast  from  the  days  when  they  both  depended  upon  Nature's 
bounty.  Times  have  changed,  and  men  have  less  primitive  appe- 
tites, but  their  need  of  these  trees  is  not  diminished,  but  rather 
broadened  with  the  advance  of  civilisation.  Mast  of  oak,  beech 
and  chestnut  remain  the  chief  reliance  of  many  wild  animals. 

There  are  in  all  five  species  of  beech,  three  of  which  are  Asiatic, 
America  has  one  species  and  Europe  one.  Two  are  native  to 
China  and  Japan.  The  so-called  beeches  of  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere form  a  genus,  Nothofagus,  of  twelve  species.  They  differ 
in  habit  and  in  flowers  from  Fagus,  and  the  leaves,  often  ever- 
green, are  very  small.  Nevertheless,  the  two  genera  are  closely 
related. 

Beech  {Fagus Americana,  Sweet.) — A  round-topped  or  conical 
tree,  with  horizontal  or  drooping  branches,  and  dense  foliage; 
50  to  75  feet  high.  Bark  close,  smooth,  pale  grey,  or  darker, 
often  blotched;  branches  grey,  twigs  brov/n,  shining.  IVood  light 
red,  close  grained,  hard,  strong,  not  durable,  tough;  lustrous 
when  polished.  Buds  alternate,  tapering,  f  to  i  inch  long,  brown, 
in  silky  scales.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  strongly  feather  veined, 
saw  toothed,  pointed,  smooth,  silky  or  leathery,  green  on  both 
sides;  autumn  colour,  pale  yellow,  persistent  till  late.  Flowers 
monoecious.  May,  staminate  in  pendant  balls,  few  at  base  of  leafy 
shoot,  yellow-green;  pistillate,  solitary  or  paired,  in  axils  of  upper 

i32 


B.  Staininate  flo 


A.  Pistillate  flower?  C.  Fruit 

THE    SEASIDE   ALDER   {.llmus  maritiii 


Flowers  and  ripe  cones  occur  together  on  this   tree   in   August.      The    pistillate    flower    spikes    are    little  green-stalked 
knobs,  wliile  the  staminate  catkins  are  yellow  and  brown 


THE    SPECKLED    ALDER    (.llnus  incana) 


This  is  known  bv  the  wl 


dois  on  its  branches.    .X  ti 
The  second  trunk  i 


in  Europe  and  Asia,  it  is  rarclj-  more  than  a  shrub  In  .Vnierica. 
if  tlie  slirubb\-  .llnus  rugosa 


The  Beeches 

leaves,  short-stemmed,  in  scaly  involucre.  Fruit,  October,  a 
prickly  bur  containing  2  triangular,  pale-brown  nuts,  sweet, 
edible,  in  thin  shells.  Preferred  habitat,  rich  river  bottoms.  Dis- 
tribution, Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Huron,  and  northern  Wisconsin; 
south  to  Florida,  Missouri  and  Texas.  Uses:  Beautiful  orna- 
mental and  shade  tree.  Wood  used  for  chairs,  tool  handles,  plane 
stocks,  shoe  lasts,  and  for  fuel.  Nuts  fatten  hogs,  and  feed  wild 
animals  and  birds. 

We  have  but  one  native  beech,  and  it  is  a  clannish  tree.  Find 
me  a  single  specimen  in  the  woods,  and  I  will  show  you  a  miniature 
forest  of  beeches  springing  up  around  it  as  soon  as  the  tree  comes 
into  bearing.  Squirrels  carry  the  nuts,  so  do  the  bluejays,  and 
the  wind  helps  to  scatter  them.  Beech  nuts  have  much  vitality, 
and  the  seedlings  grow  well,  even  in  dense  shade.  This  gives  them 
a  distinct  advantage  over  the  young  of  many  other  trees.  Seeds 
of  sun-loving  species  must  fall  in  the  clearings  if  they  hope  to  grow. 
In  a  few  years  there  is  a  dense  beech  thicket,  with  only  large  trees 
of  other  kinds.  When  these  are  cut  out  the  area  comes  to  be 
called  "the  beech  woods." 

In  April  and  May  we  may  see  the  germination  of  beech  nuts. 
The  gaping  burs  and  three-cornered  nuts  lie  in  plain  sight  under 
the  tree.  A  nut  splits  along  one  sharp  edge  and  a  slender  root 
protrudes.  It  grows  downward  and  burrows  in  the  leaf  mould. 
The  stem  emerges  at  the  same  time  and  place  and  extends  in  the 
opposite  direction.  It  is  topped  by  a  crumpled  green  bundle, 
which  unfolds  directly  into  a  pair  of  short  and  broad  seed  leaves, 
totally  unlike  the  leaves  of  the  beech  tree. 

In  this  case  the  triangular  shell  clings  but  a  little  while  to  the 
growing  plantlet.  Oftener,  however,  the  opening  is  just  wide 
enough  to  let  the  root  out.  Then  the  stem  carries  the  shell  up 
and  wears  it  like  a  helmet  until  the  leaves  within  spread  themselves 
and  cast  it  off. 

Young  beech  trees  are  very  weak  and  pale  and  twisted  at  first. 
They  lean  helplessly  against  dead  leaves  and  twigs  for  support. 
But  when  the  roots  get  a  grip  on  the  soil  and  the  leaves  turn  a 
brighter  green  they  become  quite  independent.  A  shoot  bearing 
true  beech  leaves  rises  from  the  bud  between  the  two  seed  leaves, 
which  soon  wither  away.  In  the  fall  a  long  whip  set  with  winter 
buds  represents  the  first  season's  growth. 

From  now  on  the  life  of  a  little  beech  is  just  like  that  of  a 
183 


The  Beeches 

twig  on  an  older  tree.  The  opening  of  the  long,  pointed  buds  is  a 
sight  worth  watching.  If  one  has  net  time  to  go  to  the  tree  every 
day  in  spring  he  may  bring  in  some  lusty  twigs,  put  them  in  a 
jar  of  water  in  a  sunny  window,  and  see  the  whole  process  exactly 
as  it  happens  on  the  tree. 

Each  bud  loosens  and  lengthens  its  many  thin  bud  scales  and 
a  leafy  shoot  is  disclosed  which  elongates  rapidly.  Daily  measure- 
ments v/ill  show  a  wonderful  record  for  the  first  few  days. 

As  the  scales  drop  off  a  band  of  scars  appears  on  the  base  of 
the  shoot,  like  the  thread  of  a  small  screw.  When  the  last  of  the 
scales  has  fallen  this  band  may  be  half  an  inch  wide.  Each  such 
band  on  a  twig  means  the  casting  off  of  the  bud  scales — the  begin- 
ning of  a  year's  growth.  Counting  down  from  the  tip  of  any  twig, 
the  age  may  be  accurately  read.  Add  one  year  as  each  scar  band 
is  passed.  Often  the  band  is  quite  as  wide  as  the  length  of  the 
season's  growth. 

It  is  plain  to  see  that  the  leaves  in  the  opening  buds  were  all 
made  and  put  away  over  winter,  and  that  they  have  only  to  grow. 
As  the  shoot  lengthens  the  outer  scales  fall,  and  each  leaf  is  seen 
to  have  its  pair  of  special  attendant  scales,  each  edged  with  an 
overhanging  fringe.  The  leaf  itself  is  plaited  in  fine  folds  like  a 
fan  to  fit  into  the  narrow  space  between  the  scales.  Each  rib 
that  radiates  from  the  midrib  bears  a  row  of  silky  hairs  which 
overlap  its  neighbour's,  so  that  each  side  of  each  leaf  is  amply 
protected  by  a  furry  cover.  As  the  leaf  spreads  itself  it  gradually 
becomes  accustomed  to  the  air  and  the  sunshine,  and  the  protecting 
hairs  disappear.  Occasionally  a  leaf  that  is  in  a  shaded  and  pro- 
tected situation  on  the  tree  may  keep  its  hairs  on  the  ribs  until 
midsummer. 

As  the  leaves  lift  themselves  into  independent  life  the  blossoms 
of  the  beech  appear.  Few  people  see  them.  The  staminate  ones 
are  in  little  heads  swung  on  slender  stems.  When  they  shed  their 
yellow  pollen  they  fall  off.  In  twos  the  pistillate  flowers  hide  near 
the  ends  of  twigs.  Those  which  catch  pollen  on  their  extruded 
tongues  "set  seed"  and  mature  into  the  triangular  nuts,  two  in 
each  of  the  burs.  Early  in  the  autumn  the  burs  open  and  the 
nuts  fall,  to  the  great  delight  of  boys  and  girls  as  well  as  the  little 
people  of  the  woods.  Though  small,  the  nuts  are  very  rich  and 
fine  in  flavour. 

The  beech  is  the  most  elegantly  groomed  of  all  the  trees  of  the 
184 


THE    BEECH    {f\i,,us    Jweriuimi) 

The  fine-texturfd  bark  varies  from  dark  gray  to  almost  white.  The  buds  arc  Icnig  and  pointed  and  -shining  golden 
brown.  The  prickly  4-valved  pod  remains  long  after  the  two  triangular  nuts  have  fallen  out.  The  opening  shoots  are  beautiful 
in  May,  the  pendant  staminate  heads  are  as  soft  and  silky  as  the  baby  leaves.  The  pistillate  flowers,  solitary  or  paired,  stand  ir 
the  angles  of  the  uppermost  leaves 


I  111.  CHESTNUT  {Castnnea  dentata) 
Aside  from  its  value  as  a  nut  tree,  many  a  fine  spec.men  tree  ,s  saved  from  the  sawm.!!  because  the  community  cannot  spart 

from  the  landscape 


The  Beeches 

woods.  Its  rind  is  smooth,  close  knit  and  of  soft  Quaker  grey, 
sometimes  mottled  and  in  varying  shades,  and  decorated  with 
delicate  lichens.  The  limbs  are  darker  in  colour,  and  the  brown 
twigs,  down  to  their  bird's-claw  buds,  shine  as  if  polished.  Through 
the  long  summer  the  beech  is  beautifully  clad;  its  leaves  are  thin 
and  soft  as  silk.  Few  insects  injure  them,  and  they  resist  tearing 
by  the  wind.  In  the  autumn  the  first  touch  of  frost  turns  their 
green  to  gold,  and  they  cling  to  the  twigs  until  late  in  winter. 
Young  trees  in  sheltered  places  hold  their  leaves  longest. 

The  European  Beech  {F.  sylvatica,  Linn.)  is  one  of  the 
most  important  timber  trees  of  Europe,  and  the  parent  of  the 
purple  and  weeping  beeches  and  other  ornamental  horticultural 
forms  in  cultivation  in  European  and  American  parks  and  private 
grounds.  It  grows  to  noble  size  and  form  in  America,  distin- 
guished chiefly  by  the  darker  colour  of  its  bark  from  the  native 
species.  At  home  from  middle  Europe  south  and  east  to  the 
Caucasus,  the  beech  is  much  used  as  a  dooryard  tree;  it  grows 
famously  in  England,  their  beeches  being  the  pride  of  many 
English  estates. 

Pure  forests  of  beech  are  often  seen  in  Germany  and  Den- 
mark. The  lumber  is  hard  and  heavy,  one  of  the  most  important 
hard  woods  of  the  Continent,  The  multitude  of  its  uses  prevents 
a  complete  list.  Beech  bark  with  hieroglyphics  cut  in  it  bore 
messages  between  tribes,  friendly  and  belligerent,  in  the  earliest 
times.  Beechen  boards  preserved  the  first  records.  These  were 
the  primitive  hooks  of  northern  Europe.  From  heech  to  huch  is  not 
a  long  etymological  step  in  the  Teutonic  languages.  Book  is  a 
lineal  descendant  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  hece,  the  name  of  this 
tree.  There  are  those  who  derive  the  words  beaker  through 
Becher,  a  drinking  cup,  from  the  same  old  tree  root.  Justification 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  bowls  and  other  household  utensils  were 
made  of  beech  wood  because  they  could  be  depended  upon  not 
to  leak. 

Beech  nuts  furnished,  in  ancient  times,  a  nutritious  article 
of  human  food,  and  an  oil  used  for  lamps,  quite  as  sweet  and  good 
for  cooking  and  table  use  as  olive  oil.  Fagus  (Gr.  phagein,  to  eat) 
means  "good  to  eat."  Beech  leaves  furnished  forage  for  cattle, 
and  were  dried  and  used  to  fill  mattresses.  Evelyn  vows  he  never 
slept  so  sweetly  as  on  a  bed  of  beech  leaves.  The  idea  is  certainly 
an  attractive  one,  and  worth  carrying  out. 

185 


CHAPTER   XXVI:     THE   CHESTNUTS 

Family  Fagace^ 

Trees  of  ornamental  and  timber  value.  Leaves  simple, 
oblong  to  lanceolate,  strongly  ribbed,  alternate,  leathery.  Flowers 
monoecious,  in  spikes,  showy.     Fruit,  nuts  in  spiny  burs. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  deciduous;  fruit  annual. 

1.  Genus  Castanea,  Adans. 
B.  Trees  large;  leaves  smooth  and  green  on  both  sides; 

nuts  2  to  3  in  4-valved,  spiny  bur. 

(C.  dentata)  chestnut 
BB.  Trees   shrubby,   leaves  pale  and   pubescent   beneath; 
nuts  solitary  in  2-valved  bur.    (C.pumila)  chinquapin 
AA.  Leaves  evergreen;  fruit  biennial. 

2.  Genus  Castanopsis,  Spach. 
(C.  chrysophylla)  golden-leaved  chestnut 

1.  Genus  CASTANEA,  Adans. 

There  are  five  known  species  of  the  true  chestnuts,  three  of 
which  are  American.  One  of  these  is  a  shrub,  C  alnijolia,  Nutt. 
The  European  species  (C.  saliva,  Mill.)  is  the  well-known  sweet 
chestnut  of  Italy  and  Spain,  as  important  in  the  diet  of  the  peas- 
antry as  are  potatoes  in  Ireland.  This  species  extends  its  range 
to  Eastern  Asia.  The  Japanese  C.  crenata,  Sieb.  &  Zucc,  has  been 
introduced  into  American  gardens.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  when 
very  young.  The  nuts  are  not  sweet  like  our  native  chestnuts, 
but  they  are  good  when  cooked. 

Chestnut  {Castanea  dentata,  Borkh.) — Oblong,  thick-topped, 
symmetrical  tree,  60  to  100  feet  high,  of  rapid,  vigorous  growth. 
Bark  grey-brown,  cut  into  broad  irregular  ridges  by  shallow 
fissures;  branchlets  reddish,  smooth.  Wood  brown,  light,  coarse, 
soft,  weak,  durable,  easily  worked.     Buds  dark  brown,  ovate 

186 


'05.  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 

FRUITING    BRANCH    OF    CHESTNUT     ( Castanea  dentata) 


/ 


The  Chestnuts 

pointed,  small,  lateral.  Leaves  alternate,  6  to  8  inches  long, 
tapering  at  both  ends,  strong  ribbed,  toothed,  shining  above,  paler 
lining;  autumn  colour  yellow;  petioles  short,  stout.  Flowers 
monoecious,  in  July;  staminate  catkins,  slender,  4  to  6  inches 
long,  clustered  at  bases  of  leafy  shoots,  spreading,  pollen  abun- 
dant; pistillate,  solitary  or  few,  short  stalked  on  base  of  staminate 
catkins  or  in  axils  of  leaves;  involucre,  prickly,  green,  styles  thrust 
out,  stigmas  branched.  Fruit  2  to  3  compressed  nuts,  thin 
shelled,  in  4-valved  spiny  bur,  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  globular, 
opening  after  frosts.  Preferred  habitat,  strong,  well-drained  soil; 
pastures,  hillsides,  rocky  woods.  Distribution,  southern  Maine  to 
Michigan;  south  to  Delaware  and  Indiana;  along  mountains  to 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Uses:  Valuable  lumber  tree,  used  for 
interior  woodwork  of  houses,  furniture,  railroad  ties,  fence  posts 
and  fuel.  A  handsome  shade  and  ornamental  tree.  Nuts  com- 
mercially important. 

The  elegance  of  chestnut  foliage  must  strike  the  most  casual 
observer.  Each  leaf  is  so  long  and  tapering,  so  regularly  veined 
and  toothed,  so  polished,  and  finally  so  admirably  set  among  the 
others  as  to  make  it  a  beautiful  and  useful  part  of  the  great  green 
dome  that  hides  the  limbs  in  summer  time. 

Buds  of  the  chestnut  are  small  and  plump  set  askew  on  the 
smooth  winter  twigs.  They  open  late  in  spring.  The  fresh  leaves 
make  the  neighbour  oaks  look  dingy.  The  other  trees  have  all 
done  blooming  but  the  lindens  and  the  catalpas  when  the  chestnut 
dome  on  the  hillside  gradually  brightens  from  green  to  pale  gold, 
and  each  twig  holds  up  its  feathery  plume,  and  waves  it,  pollen 
laden,  in  the  wind.  July  has  come,  and  the  fields  of  grain  have 
passed  into  stacks  and  stubble.  The  chestnut  takes  on  its  flower 
crown  to  harmonise  with  the  golden  midsummer  landscape.  It  is 
the  most'  beautiful  thing  in  the  woods  at  this  time.  A  solitary 
tree  on  a  lawn  or  in  a  lonesome  pasture  is  a  joy  to  every  beholder. 

A  near  view  of  the  tree  shows  along  the  bases  of  certain 
scantily  furnished  spikes  a  few  green  scaly  flowers,  with  pale 
yellow  threads  extended  at  the  tips.  These  are  the  chestnuts  in 
embryo,  v/ith  stigmas  reaching  out  for  the  pollen  that  "sets  seed." 
Two  or  three,  or  sometimes  only  one,  of  these  flowers  are  fertilised. 
They  develop  rapidly,  and  by  the  middle  of  August  the  tree  bristles 
with  spiny  green  globes. 

The  first  frost  is  the  signal  for  the  splitting  of  the  husks  into 
187 


The  Chestnuts 

four  velvet-lined  valves,  from  which  the  smooth  brown  nuts  fall. 
The  over-anxious  small  boy  who  beats  the  nuts  off  earlier  wounds 
his  fingers  painfully  in  attempting  to  force  open  the  stubborn 
husks.  The  nuts  are  not  nearly  so  sweet  and  rich  flavoured  as 
those  that  wait  until  the  frost  unlocks  their  cells.  But  boys  will 
never  believe  this. 

The  chestnut  tree  turns  to  gold  again  in  autumn,  and  the 
naked  tree  stands  "  knee-deep  "  in  its  own  leaves  all  winter.  Then 
its  massive  trunk,  with  deep  furrowed  bark,  and  the  multitude 
of  horizontal  branches,  striking  out  from  the  short  central  shaft, 
are  distinctly  etched  against  the  sky.  The  small  limbs  are  numer- 
ous and  contorted,  the  lower  boughs  often  drooping.  Few  trees 
are  more  attractive  in  winter. 

Chestnuts  are  among  the  trees  of  longest  life  and  greatest 
trunk  diameter.  The  famous  giant  at  the  foot  of  Mount  /Etna,  the 
"Chestnut  of  a  Hundred  Horsemen"  (because  it  sheltered  them 
all  at  one  time),  had  a  diameter  of  over  60  feet,  and  lived  to  be 
2,000  years  old.  Though  hollow,  and  with  its  shell  in  five  parts 
when  measured,  records  showed  that  a  century  before  it  had  been 
a  continuous  cylinder.  Each  year  these  decaying  stems  wore  a 
crown  of  green,  until  an  eruption  of  the  volcano  destroyed  the  tree. 

In  our  woods  old  chestnut  stumps  6  feet  in  diameter  and 
more  stand  covered  with  moss  and  lichens  and  crumbling  to  decay, 
while  a  circle  of  fine  young  trees,  each  tall  and  slender,  with  a 
diameter  of  a  foot  or  less,  have  sprung  up  from  the  roots  of  the 
old  tree.  Specimens  10  feet  in  diameter  were  not  unusual  in  the 
virgin  forests,  though  the  tallest  ones  were  usually  more  slender. 

The  tannic  acid  in  chestnut  wood  is  what  preserves  it  from 
decay  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Because  of  its  durability  it  is 
largely  cut  for  railroad  ties  and  posts.  It  is  well  worthy  of  culti- 
vation as  a  lumber  tree.  In  woodwork  and  furniture  chestnut  is 
almost  as  handsome  as  oak.  The  chestnut  is  a  valuable  nut  tree. 
Had  it  none  of  these  merits  it  would  still  be  saved  from  the  saw  in 
many  instances  because  the  landscape  can  ill  afford  to  lose  a  fine 
old  chestnut  tree. 

The  Chinquapin  (C.  pumila,  Mill.)  is  the  chestnut  in  minia- 
ture — rarely  a  tree  of  medium  height  and  spreading  habit — usually 
a  shrub  that  seizes  the  land  by  its  suckering  roots,  and  forms  thick- 
ets on  hillsides  and  bare  ridges  or  on  the  margins  of  swamps.  It 
is  found  from  Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Arkansas  and 

188 


A.   Pistillate  flow 

THE    CHESTNUT  {Casta„ea   dentaUi) 


Two 


three   flat-si. 


1,  silk\ 


are  exposed  when  the  4-valved  spinv  hurs  open  in  October. 
are  gilded  by  the  profusion  of  staminate  flower  spikes  that  are  waved  like  plumes  of  vellow  chenille 
twigs^  Very  inconspicuous  green  spikes,  sparsely  flowered,  hear  solitary  green  pistillate  flowers  at 
tnreads  extruded  from  the  tip  of  each  spinv  oval  cone  are  the  stigmas  eager  to  catch  pollen 


In  July  tlie  green  leaves 
fringe  at  the  ends  of  the 
their  bases.     The  yellow 


The  Chestnuts 

Texas.  It  grows  to  be  a  tree  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  reach- 
ing its  greatest  size  and  abundance  in  Arkansas  and  Texas.  The 
leaves,  flowers  and  nuts  proclaim  this  tree's  close  kinship  with  the 
chestnut.  A  single  ovoid  nut  with  sweet  kernel  is  contained  in  the 
globular  spine  husk.  These  are  found  in  autumn  in  the  markets 
of  Southern  cities. 

The  chinquapin  grows  lustily  and  fruits  abundantly  on  a 
rocky  bank  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum  at  Boston.  This  proves  its 
hardiness  far  north  of  its  natural  range,  and  a  sight  of  this  thicket 
(or  any  other  like  it)  must  convince  anyone  that  it  is  an  orna- 
mental shrub  worthy  of  introduction  into  parks  and  private 
estates. 

Where  the  chinquapin  grows  large  it  is  used  for  railroad  ties 
and  fence  posts.  Its  wood  has  the  qualities  of  chestnut  lumber, 
but  is  heavier. 


2.  Genus  CASTANOPSIS,  Spach. 

The  Golden  -  leaved  Chestnut  (Castanopsis  chrysophyUr, 
A.  DC),  also  called  chinquapin,  seems  to  be  a  connecting  link 
between  chestnuts  and  oaks.  One  American  species  represents 
the  large  genus  which  is  widely  distributed  through  Asia.  Our 
tree  grows  from  Oregon  south  along  the  mountain  slopes  that  face 
toward  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  northern  California  it  is  one  of  the 
splendid  trees  of  the  coast  valleys,  often  above  loo  feet  in  height, 
with  sturdy  trunk  supporting  a  broad,  dense,  rounded  dome. 
The  glory  of  the  tree  is  its  dark,  lustrous  foliage,  lined  with  a  yellow 
scurf.  The  leaves  persist  for  two  or  three  years,  turning  yellow 
before  they  fall.  Thus  the  twigs  are  always  decked  with  green 
and  gold.  The  flowers  are  much  like  those  of  the  chinquapin  of 
the  South;  the  sweet  nut  protrudes  from  a  cup,  or  saucer,  thickly 
set  with  long  spines.  One  hardly  knows  whether  to  call  it  a  chest- 
niit  bur  or  a  spiny  acorn  cup.  It  is  both — and  neither.  The 
coarse  wood  which  resembles  chestnut  is  sometimes  used  for 
ploughs  and  other  implements.     The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin. 


189 


CHAPTER   XXVII:     THE   OAKS 

Family  Fagace.^ 

Genera  PASANIA  and  QUERCUS 

Trees  of  great  lumber  and  horticultural  value.  Leaves  sim- 
ple, alternate,  entire  or  lobed.  Flowers  monoecious,  inconspicuous; 
staminate,  in  pendulous  catkins;  pistillate,  solitary  or  few  in  a 
cluster.     Fruit,  a  dry  nut  in  a  scaly  cup  (an  acorn). 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  GROUPS 

A.  Flowers  of  two  sorts  borne  in  the  same  cluster — an  erect, 
crowded  spike;  leaves  evergreen,  chestnut-like. 

I.  Genus  Pasania,  Orst. 
AA.  Flowers  of  two  sorts  borne  in  separate  clusters;  staminate  in 
pendant  catkins;  pistillate,  few  or  solitary  on  short  stalks. 

2.  Genus  Quercus,  Linn. 
B.  Fruit  annual;  leaves  with  rounded  lobes,   not  spiny 
pointed;  bark  usually  pale.     The  White  Oak  Group 
BB.  Fruit  biennial;  leaves  with  lobes  spiny  pointed;  bark 
usually  dark.  The  Black  Oak  Group 

The  oaks  form  one  of  the  largest  and  noblest  of  the  tree 
families.  There  are  300  species  recognised  by  botanists,  and  this 
probably  does  not  include  them  all.  They  are  distributed  widely 
over  the  continents  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  follow  the 
mountains  through  Central  America  and  across  the  equator  along 
the  Andes.  All  but  a  very  few  species  are  large  trees,  important 
features  of  the  landscape  and  the  commerce  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  grow.  Among  broad-leaved  trees  they  hold  a  pre- 
eminent place,  and  have  held  it  from  ancient  times,  in  house  and 
naval  architecture  and  in  bridge  building,  in  durability,  strength 
and  toughness  oak  has  few  superiors. 

Fifty  species  of  oak  are  native  to  America;  half  of  them  dis- 
tributed in  the  Eastern  and  mid-Continental  regions,  half  on  the 
Western  slopes.     The  backbone  of  the  continent,  the  main  chains 

190 


The  Oaks 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  have  no  indigenous  oaks.  No  Pacific 
coast  species  is  distributed  also  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  vice 
versa.  No  European,  Asiatic  or  American  species  is  found  outside 
its  own  continent,  except  as  it  is  introduced  by  man. 

The  acorn  distinguishes  oaks  from  all  other  trees.  It  is  the 
characteristic  fruit  of  the  family,  and  is  found  nowlierc  outside  of 
it.  All  oaks  bear  acorns  when  they  are  old  enough.  Few  begin 
bearing  under  twenty  years  of  age. 

The  leaf  of  an  oak  is  also  characteristic.  People  usually 
learn  to  know  an  oak  leaf  from  those  of  other  trees  without  realis- 
ing exactly  how  or  why.  There  is  great  variety  in  the  lobing  of  the 
leaves,  but  they  are  all  simple,  alternate  and  almost  always  oval 
in  outline,  leathery,  and  cut  by  deep  bays,  called  sinuses. 

The  flowers  of  oaks  are  separate,  but  near  together  on  the 
new  shoots.  The  staminate  are  in  fringe-like  catkins;  the  pis- 
tillate few-flowered  clusters  in  the  axils  of  leaves;  except  in  the 
genus  Pasania.  The  acorns  are  either  one  or  two  years  in  ripening. 
It  happens  that  annual-fruited  species  have  rounded  lobes  and 
sinuses  in  their  leaves.  Quercus  alba  is  the  type  of  this  class,  and 
as  these  trees  generally  have  pale  bark,  they  are  known  as  'hi 
white  oak  group.  Biennial-fruited  species  have  dark-coloured 
bark  and  the  lobes  of  their  leaves  end  in  angles  tipped  with  bristly 
points.  They  form  the  black  oak  group.  Their  type  is  Quercus 
velutina. 

.  I.  Genus  PASANIA,  Orst. 

The  Tan-bark  or  Chestnut  Oak  of  California  (Pasania  den- 
siflora,  Orst.),  formerly  included  in  the  genus  Quercus,  is  now  set 
apart  as  our  sole  representative  of  an  Asiatic  genus  of  trees  that 
stand  half  way  between  oaks  and  chestnuts.  It  is  a  handsome 
oak,  decked  the  year  round  in  evergreen  foliage,  similar  in  form 
to  the  chestnut.  The  leaves  are  coated,  when  young,  with 
yellow  pubescence,  which  lights  up  the  tree  as  if  with  golden 
blossoms. 

In  summer  the  crown  of  the  tree  shines  again  with  gold.  The 
profuse  staminate  spikes  stand  erect  with  greenish  pistillate  flowers 
at  their  bases.  The  latter  are  scaly,  but  the  nut  finally  rises  out 
of  a  densely  fringed  cup,  declaring  itself  an  acorn,  which  takes  twii 
years  to  mature. 


The  Oaks 

The  wood  of  the  tan-bark  oak  is  used  for  fuel,  but  has  little 

lumber  \aljc.  Its  bark,  however,  is  more  valuable  to  the  tanner 
than  any  other.  So  the  tree  is  threatened  with  extinction  by  the 
irresponsible  bark  peelers,  and  by  forest  fires  carelessly  set. 

This  tree  grows  along  dry  hillsides  and  in  mountain  ravines 
in  California  and  Oregon,  keeping  along  the  coast  range,  and 
flourishing  especially  among  the  redwoods.  Government  pro- 
tection of  the  latter  would  save  from  utter  annihilation  another 
remnant  of  former  times,  for  the  tan-bark  oak  is  scarcely  less 
interesting  to  the  botanist  than  the  redwood  itself. 


2.  Genus  QUERCUS,  Linn. 

I.     THE  WHITE  OAK  GROUP 

Acorns  annual;  leaf  lobes  rounded;  bark  usually  pale. 
KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Pacific  coast  species.     Deciduous. 

B.  Foliage  blue  with  silvery  lining.    {Q.  Douglasii)  blue  oak 
BB.  Foliage  green. 

C.  Acorns  slenderly  conical;  branchlets  slender,  pendu- 
lous; leaves  white  lined. 

{Q.  lohata)  California  white  oak 

CC.  Acorns   oval;   branchlets   stout,   erect;   leaves   not 

white  lined.  {Q.  Garryana)  pacific  post  oak 

AA.  Eastern  species.  < 

B.  Foliage  evergreen.  {Q.  Virginiana)  live  oak 

BB.  Foliage  semi-persistent,  blue.    {Q.  hreviloha)  durand  oak 

BBB.  Foliage  deciduous. 

C.  Leaves  pinnately  lobed  by  deep  sinuses. 

D.  Under  sides  of  leaves  smooth.  {Q.  alba)  white  oak 
DD.  Under  sides  of  leaves  downy. 

E.  Branches  corky;  acorn  large,  in  fringed  cup. 

(Q..  macrocarpa)  bur  oak 
EE.  Branches  not  corky;  acorn  medium  in  size. 
F.  Acorn   globose,    enclosed   by   scaly   cup. 

{Q.  lyrata)  overcup  oak 
FF.  Acorn  ovoid,  half  hid  in  scaly  cup;  leaf 
lobes  and  sinuses  broad,  squarish. 

{Q.  minor)  post  oak 
CX2.  Leaves    sinuately    dentate    with    shallow    sinuses; 
linings  pale,  downy. 
192 


The  Oaks 

D.  Lobes  of  leaves  acute.  (Q.  acuminata)  yellow  oak 
DD.  Lobes  of  leaves  rounded. 

E.  Bark  dark  brown,  deeply  furrowed. 

(Q.  Frinus)  chestnut  oak 
EE.  Bark  light  grey,  scaly. 

F.  Limbs    sheading    bark    in    large    flakes; 
acorns  on  long  stalks. 

(Q.  platanoides)  swamp  white  oak 
FF.  Limbs  not  shedding  bark  in  flakes;  acorns 
sessile  or  on  short  stalks. 

{Q.  Michauxii)  basket  oak 

The  Blue  Oak,  or  Mountain  White  Oak  (Quercus  Doug- 
lasii,  Hook,  and  Arn.),  is  a  striking  and  beautiful  feature  of  the 
landscape  of  northern  and  central  California.  Silvery  grey  bark 
and  pale  blue  foliage,  deepened  by  greenish  leaf  linings,  and 
lightened  by  their  silvery  pubescence!  No  wonder  the  blue  oak 
attracts  attention  whether  it  stands  among  the  scattered  groves 
of  California  white  oak  in  the  broad  valleys — a  fine,  round-headed 
tree — or  climbs  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierras  till  it  dwindles  to 
a  shrub  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet.  It  is  strangely  variable  in  the 
shape  of  its  leaves  and  fruit.  Its  leaf  may  have  deep  lobes  like 
other  white  oaks,  or  it  may  have  scarcely  any  noticeable  waves; 
some  leaves  are  entire,  some  have  pointed,  even  spiny-tipped  lobes 
like  those  of  the  black  oaks.  The  blue  of  them,  however,  is  a 
dependable  characteristic;   also  the  silky  leaf  linings. 

The  acorns  are  very  numerous,  and  so  vividly  green  in 
summer  that  they  often  overcome  much  of  the  blue  of  the  foliage 
until  they  take  on  their  rich,  chestnut  brown.  The  nut  often 
bulges  above  the  saucer-like  cup  as  if  too  large  for  it;  often  it  is 
elongated  into  a  pencil  shape. 

The  wood  is  too  brittle  and  the  sap  wood  too  thick  for  use  in 
building.     It  is  an  excellent  fuel. 

California  White  Oak  {Quercus  lobata,  Nee.) — A  large, 
graceful  tree  with  stout  trunk  dividing  near  the  ground,  with 
spreading  top  and  pendulous  branches,  making  a  broad  dome, 
80  to  100  feet  high,  and  1 50  to  200  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  brown- 
ish grey,  scaly,  with  shallow  furrows,  and  ridges  broken  into 
plates;  twigs  hoary,  grey  or  reddish  brown.  H^ood  hard,  fine 
grained,  brittle  and  hard  to  season.  Buds  ovate,  small,  pubescent. 
Leaves  alternate,  variable,  oblong  or  obovate,  2  to  4  inches  long, 
deeply  7  to  i  i-lobed,  thin,  firm,  pubescent,  paler  beneath;  petioles 

193 


short,  broad,  hairy.  Flowers  with  half-grown  leaves,  February 
to  April,  staminate  in  hairy,  yellowish  catkins;  pistillate,  solitary 
and  sessile,  as  a  rule;  stigmas  broad.  Acorns  \\  to  2\  inches  long, 
annual,  sessile  (rarely  stalked),  solitary  or  in  pairs,  conical,  elon- 
gated, with  sharp,  horny,  hairy  tip;  cup  shallow,  tomentose, 
with  thick  scales  that  become  finer  toward  fringed  border;  kernel, 
sweet,  edible.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  sandy  loam.  Distribution, 
valleys  in  California  west  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  Forms 
open  groves,  never  forests.  Uses:  Splendid  feature  of  natural 
scenery,  but  never  successfully  cultivated  outside  of  its  range. 
Wood  useless  except  for  fuel.     Fruit  used  as  food  by  Indians. 

It  is  a  happy  circumstance  for  Californians  and  for  all  people 
who  visit  "the  Land  of  the  Setting  Sun"  that  this  valley  oak 
is  scorned  by  all  lumbermen.  The  tree  is  practically  worthless  for 
timber,  therefore  gigantic  individual  trees  stand  scattered  or 
grouped  in  the  spacious  valleys  of  western  California,  helping 
to  make  a  landscape  that  cannot  be  duplicated  this  side  of  England. 
Indeed,  Vancouver,  journeying  around  the  world  in  1792,  was 
astounded  at  the  park-like  Santa  Clara  Valley,  set  round  with 
mountains,  diversified  with  hills  and  intervales,  covered  with  a 
carpet  of  verdure,  and  adorned  with  majestic  oaks.  Writing 
home  of  this  landscape  untouched  by  the  hand  of  man,  he  says; 
"It  required  only  to  be  adorned  with  the  neat  habitations  of  an 
industrious  people  to  produce  a  scene  not  inferior  to  the  most 
studied  effect  of  taste  in  the  disposal  of  grounds." 

The  California  white  oak  is  the  largest  and  most  graceful  of 
the  Western  oaks.  Its  branches  end  in  long  shoots  that  are 
pendulous  like  those  of  the  weeping  willow.  The  trunk  branches 
near  the  ground  and  rises  and  spreads  out  like  a  great  fan.  A 
British  elm  often  has  the  same  habit — our  American  elm,  some- 
times. The  dome  is  broader  even  than  that  of  our  Eastern  white 
oak.  The  twigs  are  willowy  at  first,  but  there  is  a  surprising 
tortuousness  acquired  with  added  years.  The  limbs  are  gnarled 
in  the  most  complex  way.  " Picturesqueness  gone  miad"  well 
characterises  the  expression  of  the  tree  in  its  bare  winter  aspect. 

"The  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  Oak,"  100  feet  high,  7  feet  in  diam- 
eter of  trunk  and  150  feet  in  spread  of  dome,  on  General  Bidwell's 
farm  in  Butte  County,  California,  v/as  named  after  the  great 
English  botanist  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  with  Asa  Gray  in  1877. 

The  tree  is  always  broader  than  it  is  high,  and  bears  a  prO' 
194 


^fi#S 


^•P^i^- 


.^■m 


THE    LIVE    OAK   {Quncus  Virginiana) 

The  thick  trunks  of  old  trees  break  into  horizontal  limbs  of  great  length  and  si?.e,  forming  a  broad  dome  not 
unlike  a  picturesque  old  apple  tree.     The  small  leaves  remain  on  the  twigs  all  winter 

THE    CALIFORNIA    LIVE    OAK  {Quercus  agrifolia) 

This  evergreen  oak  has  holly-like  leaves  with  bristly  tips  upon  its  lobes,  but  its  acorns  are  annual.  Nevertheless 
it  belongs  to  the  black-oak  group.  The  staminate  catkins  are  delicate  and  numerous.  The  red-headed  woodpeckers 
store  the  acorns  away  for  winter  in  holes  they  drill  in  the  bark  furrows 


THE    CALIFORNIA   WHITE    OAK    {^:^uercus   lohata) 

The  largest  and  most  picturesque  of  the  Western  oaks.  The  dome  is  broader  than  high  ;  the  outer  twigs  droop  like  a  weening 
willow's,  but  acquire  a  wonderful  tortuousness  later.  Lumbermen  have  spared  this  tree  because  its  wood  is  not  strong.  Gigantic 
individuals  stand  in  the  park-like  valleys,  set  rovmd  bv  moimtain  peaks,  making  a  landscape  which  is  unrivalled  in  anv  country 


The  Oaks 

fusion  of  acorns  of  extraordinary  length.  These  resemble  the 
acorns  of  Quercus  alba  in  other  respects.  The  Digger  Indians 
store  them  for  winter  use,  and  depend  upon  them  as  the  source  of 
their  bread.  They  are  roasted  and  hulled,  then  ground  into  a 
coarse  meal,  which  is  made  into  loaves  and  baked  in  rude  ovens 
in  the  sand. 

The  leaves  of  Quercus  lobata  are  of  the  true  white  oak  type, 
with  squarish  lobes  and  pale  linings.  They  vary  in  size  and  form, 
some  being  almost  cut  in  two  like  those  of  the  bur  oak. 

Attempts  to  introduce  this  tree  into  cultivation  outside  of 
its  own  range  have  proved  unsuccessful.  It  is  believed  that  the 
climate  of  Australia  might  be  agreeable  to  the  species,  which  is 
too  exacting  in  its  demands  to  thrive  in  Europe  or  in  Eastern 
America. 

Pacific  Post  Oak,  Oregon  White  Oak  {Quercus  Garryana, 
Hook.) — Large  tree  (or  a  shrub)  60  to  100  feet  high,  with  stout 
erect  or  spreading  branches  forming  a  compact  head.  Bark 
orange  brown  or  greyish,  with  shallow  fissures  and  broad  ridges; 
twigs  rufous,  hairy.  Wood  light  yellowish  brown,  hard,  firm, 
strong,  tough.  Buds  large,  pointed,  coated  with  red  fuzz.  Leaves 
obovate  or  oblong,  4  to  6  inches  long,  coarsely  7  to  9-lobed,  with 
shallow  sinuses  and  blunt  lobes,  leathery,  dark  green,  shining, 
with  pale  or  orange-brown  hairy  lining  and  conspicuous  veins. 
Flowers:  staminate  in  haii-y  catkins;  pistillate,  sessile,  solitary. 
Acorns  annual,  ^  to  i  inch  long,  pointed,  in  shallow,  fuzzy  cup 
with  small,  thin,  loose  scales.  Preferred  habitat,  dry,  gravelly 
slopes.  Distribution,  Vancouver  Island  and  the  valley  of  the 
lower  Eraser  River,  along  coast  valleys  to  Santa  Cruz  Mountains. 
Best  and  most  abundant  in  western  Oregon  and  Washington, 
Shrubby  on  mountains.  Uses:  The  most  important  timber 
oak  on  the  west  coast.  Wood  of  young  trees  especially  tough  and 
valuable.  Used  in  construction  of  ships,  buildings,  vehicles, 
agricultural  implements,  barrels  and  in  finer  cabinet  work; 
excellent  fuel. 

This  oak  has  leaves  and  rusty  twigs  that  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  post  oak  of  our  Eastern  coast  barrens.  The 
bark,  however,  is  pale  grey,  and  often  broken  into  squares  by 
transverse  fissures.  The  acorns  are  quite  distinctive,  being 
large,  often  over  an  inch  long,  nearly  twice  as  long  as  wide,  and 
set  in  a  small  cup,  often  shallow  as  that  of  Quercus  rubra. 

195 


The  Oaks 

Upon  the  mountain  slopes  this  oak  .s  scrubby  in  growth, 
but  in  the  rich  loam  of  the  lower  valley  land  it  is  a  lofty  tree, 
which  often  loses  its  lower  limbs  by  the  crowding  of  young  conifers 
about  it.  The  crown  expands,  the  outer  branches  become 
pendulous,  and  the  tree  assumes  the  shape  of  a  tall  Etruscan  vase 
— a  common  form  of  our  American  elms. 

The  whiteness  of  the  wood  makes  it  popular  for  the  interior 
finish  of  houses,  as  well  as  for  the  coarser  staple  uses  to  which 
white  oak  is  devoted.  Its  fault  is  checking  as  it  dries.  It  takes 
two  years  to  season  properly. 

Robert  Douglas,  the  great  botanical  explorer,  named  this 
tree  in  honour  of  Nicholas  Garry,  secretary  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company,  in  recognition  of  the  courtesies  and  substantial  aid 
rendered  by  him  to  scientists  studying  the  flora  of  the  Northwest. 

Live  Oak  (Quercus  Virginiana,  Mill.) — Evergreen  tree,  50 
to  75  feet  high,  with  thick  trunk  and  horizontal  limbs  of  great 
length  forming  a  low,  spreading  dome,  like  an  old  apple  tree. 
Often  shrubby.  Bark  reddish  brown,  scaly,  with  shallow  fissures; 
twigs  rigid,  slim,  hoary  at  first.  Wood  light  brown  or  yellow 
(sap  wood  nearly  white),  close  grained,  lustrous,  compact  with 
hardly  distinguishable  annual  rings,  heavy,  tough,  strong,  durable, 
easy  to  split,  hard  to  work.  Buds  globose,  brownish,  small. 
Leaves  evergreen,  leathery,  elliptical  or  oblanceolate,  entire, 
rarely  wavy  margined,  and  spiny  tipped  above  the  middle,  2  to  5 
inches  long,  dark  green  above,  paler  beneath,  brownish  yellow  in 
late  winter,  falling  when  new  leaves  appear.  Flowers  in  March, 
April;  staminate  in  hairy  catkins;  pistillate  3  to  5-flowered  on 
long  spikes  with  bright  red  stigmas.  Acorns  annual,  brown, 
stalked,  pointed,  i  inch  long,  in  thin  cup  with  tapering  base  and 
small,  closely  appressed  scales;  nut  sweet,  ^  to  §  of  it  embraced  by 
the  cup.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  sandy  soil  near  the  coast.  Dis- 
tribution, islands  and  coast  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  west  to 
Mexico,  and  in  Lower  California.  Uses:  Superb  avenue  and 
ornamental  tree  in  the  South.  Grows  rapidly  and  is  easily 
transplanted.  Lumber  better  in  all  respects  than  that  of  Quercus 
alba,  even. 

The  evergreen  live  oak  of  the  South  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
of  all  our  native  trees  in  cultivation.  Specimen  trees  in  New 
Orleans,  Charleston  and  other  cities  certainly  challenge  the 
observer  to  mention  a  more  perfect  example  of  all  that  is  to  be 

1^6 


desired  in  tree  form.  The  dome  is  low,  but  exceedingly  broad, 
often  spreading  to  twice  its  height  and  more.  The  trunk  breaks 
near  the  base  into  horizontal  limbs  of  incredible  length  and  size. 
It  seems  as  if  the  weight  of  these  great  arms  must  split  the  trunk, 
especially  under  the  force  of  the  wind.  But  the  fibre  of  the  wood 
is  equal  to  resisting  the  strain  put  upon  it. 

The  leaves  are  not  as  showy  and  beautiful  in  form  as  many 
Northern  oaks.  They  are  plain  dull  green  beneath,  lustrous 
above,  and  they  last  all  winter  until  the  new  leaves  appear  in  the 
spring.  The  acorns  are  dainty  and  dark  brown,  set  in  a  hoary  long- 
stemmed,  top-shaped  cup.  They  are  a  profuse  crop,  and  very 
sweet  and  pleasant  to  taste.  The  Indians  gathered  them  "to 
thicken  their  venison-soop "  with,  and  also  cooked  them  in  other 
ways.  "They  likewise  draw  an  Oil,  very  pleasant  and  whole- 
some, little  inferior  to  that  of  almonds."  So  wrote  Mark  Catesby, 
a  century  and  a  half  ago. 

Live-oak  timber  ranks  highest  among  the  white  oaks.  Ship- 
building depended  upon  it  in  this  country  until  the  era  of  steel 
construction.  Reservation  of  tracts  of  these  trees  in  western 
Florida  for  the  use  of  the  navy  was  made  in  the  early  days. 
"Knees  of  oak"  still  brace  the  sides  of  vessels,  if  they  can  be 
obtained.  The  beauty  of  the  wood  when  polished  would  make 
it  in  great  demand  for  furniture  and  for  decorative  purposes, 
except  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  work,  and  it  splits  easily 
when  nailed.  The  short  trunk  prevents  the  getting  out  of  timbers 
of  large  size. 

As  an  avenue  and  shade  tree  the  live  oak  deserves  especial 
attention.  It  grows  rapidly  and  is  easily  transplanted.  It  is 
not  particular  as  to  soils.  The  trees  are  becoming  scarce  in  the 
wild.  They  should  be  saved  for  the  landscape's  sake  and  planting 
should  go  steadily  on.    To  our  Northern  poet,  these  trees 

"Stand  like  Druids  of  old,  with  voices  sad  and  prophetic; 
Stand  like  harpers  hoar,  with  beards  that  rest  on  their  bosoms." 

Live  oaks  without  their  draperies  of  moss  would  lose  much  of 
their  charm.  However,  there  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  beauty  of  the  moss.  It  generally  looks  well  in  a  picture, 
but  some  people  think  its  grey  straggling  clusters  give  the  oaks 
an  unkempt  and  uncomfortable  look,  as  if  a  parasite  were  choking 
its  host. 

197 


The  Oaks 

The  Durand  Oak  (Quercus  breviloba,  Sarg.)  is  a  Southern, 
blue-leaved  white  oak,  80  to  90  feet  high,  with  bark  and  leaf 
linings  as  silvery  as  its  California  cousin's.  These  leaves,  which 
are  leathery  and  scarcely  3  inches  long,  have  indistinctly  wavy 
margins,  and  tend  to  broaden  at  the  tip,  ending  in  three  lobes. 
An  ovate  nut  of  moderate  size  sits  in  a  thin  saucer  with  hairy 
scales. 

In  the  bayou  region  of  the  South,  and  on  the  dry  prairies  of 
Alabama  it  is  a  fme,  tall  tree,  with  lumber  equal  to  the  best  white 
oak;  but  west  of  the  middle  of  Texas  it  decreases  in  size  and 
becomes  an  almost  evergreen  shrub  which  is  worthless  except  for 
fuel.  It  grows  in  thickets  on  sterile  bluflfs,  even  across  the 
Mexican  border. 

White  Oak  (Quercus  alba,  Linn.) — A  large  tree,  60  to  1 50 
feet  high,  3  to  8  feet  in  trunk  diameter,  tall  in  the  forest,  low  and 
broad  domed  in  the  open  fields.  Bark  pale  grey,  broken  into 
small,  thin  plates.  IVood  tough,  strong,  heavy,  hard,  durable, 
light  brown,  with  prominent  medullary  rays.  Buds  short,  round, 
smooth,  clustered  at  tip  of  twigs.  Leaves  alternate,  5  to  9  inches 
long,  obovate  or  oblong  in  outline,  with  7  to  9  rounded  or  finger- 
shaped  lobes  with  deep,  rounded  sinuses  between;  petioles  stout; 
colour  red  at  first,  with  white  silky  lining,  then  bright  green  above, 
paler  beneath ;  in  autumn  deep  red,  pale  purplish  beneath.  Flowers 
in  May,  with  half-grown  leaves;  staminate  catkins,  hairy,  2^  to  3 
inches  long,  yellow;  pistillate,  i  to  2  on  short  stems,  stamens 
bright  red.  Acorns  annual,  on  short  or  long  stems;  cup  shallow, 
thin,  with  closely  appressed  scales;  nut  of  long,  shiny,  brown, 
f  to  I  inch  long,  sweet,  edible.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  well- 
drained  soil.  Distribution,  southern  Maine  to  Florida;  west  to 
Minnesota,  Kansas  and  Texas.  Uses:  A  lumber  tree  of  highest 
rank.  Its  bark  is  used  in  tanneries  in  the  making  of  leather. 
The  wood  is  used  in  naval  architecture,  in  house  building  and 
inside  finishing,  for  furniture,  agricultural  implements,  cooperage, 
railroad  ties  and  fuel. 

The  white  oak  is  the  noblest  tree  of  its  race;  king  by  common 
consent,  in  our  forests  of  broad-leaved  trees.  It  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  strength,  dignity  and  independence.  The  Briton  has  but 
one  native  oak  on  which  to  spend  his  loyalty  and  devotion.  We 
have  fifty  kinds — all  American — but  the  white  oak  is  chief  among 
them  all.     In  this  opinion  the  lumberman  and  the  tree  lover 

198 


THE   WHITE    OAK  {^uercus  alba) 

Wc  know  this  tree  by  its  broad,  round  dome  above  a  short,  pale-grey  trunk;  by  its  finger-lobed  leaves,  its  rounded  buds  and  its 

large,  sweet  acorns.     It  embodies  our  ideals  of  strength,  dignitv  and  independence  m  tree  form 


THK    WHITE    OAK  {iluenus  alba) 
£he  leai  lobes  are  finger-like,  and  the  linings  white.     The  twigs  are  slender.     The  flowers  appear  with  the  new  leaves.    Thf 
bark  is  pale  gray.     This  species  is  the  type  of  the  annual-fruited  oaks. 


It  is  one  of  the  nobles  of  our  native  oaks 


generally  concur,  and  each,  as  he  gazes  on  a  fine  old  tree,  feels 
the  smouldering  fires  of  ancestral  tree  worship  flame  once  more  in 
his  breast.  There  is  something  in  Anglo-Saxon  blood  that 
remembers. 

We  shall  know  the  white  oak  in  the  winter  woods  by  its 
pale  grey  bark,  with  shallow  fissures  and  scaly  ridges.  It  is  a 
tall,  narrow-headed  tree  where  it  is  crowded  among  its  forest 
neighbours.  In  the  open  it  has  a  sturdy,  low-branched  trunk 
that  flares  into  buttresses  at  the  base  and  supports  a  rounded 
dome  of  great  breadth  and  dignity.  The  mighty  arms  reach 
toward  the  horizon  or  the  sky,  breaking  into  tortuous  limbs  and 
these  into  dense  thickets  of  twigs.  Over  these  is  the  luxuriant 
thatch  of  fingered  leaves,  through  whose  narrow  sinuses  the 
light  sifts  so  freely  that  even  the  inner  framework  of  the  dome 
bears  leafy  twigs.  The  characteristic  arrangement  of  these 
leaves  is  a  tuft  of  them  on  the  end  of  a  twig,  spread  out  like  the 
divisions  of  a  horse-chestnut  leaf. 

In  spring  a  shimmering  veil  of  rose  and  silver  covers  the  grey 
old  tree.  The  edges  are  fringed  with  the  yellow  tassels  of  the 
staminate  flowers.  From  the  axils  of  the  opening  leaves  the 
forked  tongues  of  the  pistillate  flowers  are  thrust  out  into  the 
pollen-laden  air. 

All  summer  the  leaves  are  bright  green  with  pale  linings.  In 
autumn  the  red  comes  back  again  with  bluish  tones  that  blend 
into  beautiful  vinous  reds  and  violet  purple.  Gradually  the 
colour  fades  out,  but  the  leaves  usually  hang  on  until  pushed  off, 
even  as  late  as  the  following  April. 

We  shall  find  no  acorns  on  white  oak  trees  in  winter,  for 
they  mature  in  a  single  season,  and  fall  without  delay.  The 
crop  is  usually  a  light  one,  and  it  is  hard  to  find  acorns  even  under 
the  tree.  The  sweet-flavoured  nut  is  a  favourite  food  of  animals, 
wild  and  domestic.  The  Indians  and  the  early  colonists  ate  them. 
These  shrewd  and  provident  ancestors  of  ours  discovered  also 
that  this  "ackorne"  had  other  good  qualities.  "By  boyling  it 
long,  it  giveth  an  oyle  which  they  keep  to  supple  their  joynts." 
They  skimmed  this  oil  from  the  water  before  they  ate  the  acorns 
in  the  pot. 

White-oak  lumber  is  becoming  rare  and  correspondingly 
high  priced.  Its  quality  is  of  the  first  order.  Clear,  quarter- 
sawed  oak  exhibits  a  higher  percentage  of  the  "mirrors"  (pith 

'99 


The  Oaks 

rays)  than  any  other  species.  Its  durability,  hardness  and  fine 
colour  are  exceptional  among  oaks.  So  great  is  the  demand  for  it 
in  the  fmer  decorative  arts  employing  wood  that  it  is  going  out 
of  use  in  general  construction  where  inferior  woods  can  be  sub- 
stituted. Roots  of  white  oak,  sawed,  planed  and  polished,  present 
a  wood  of  extraordinary  beauty.  It  is  pale  yellow  in  colour, 
tinged  with  oHve,  and  shows  a  feathered  grain  of  intricate  and 
graceful  pattern.  The  lustre  of  it  is  equal  to  that  of  mahogany  or 
rosewood.  Fifty  years  ago  Nuttall  cited  an  instance  of  an  English 
cabinetmaker  paying  five  pounds  sterling  for  the  roots  of  a  single 
tree,  counting  that  furniture  veneered  with  it  would  vie  with  the 
finest. 

Bur  or  Mossy-cup  Oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa,  Michx.) — A 
large  tree,  75  to  160  feet  high,  with  spreading  branches,  and 
irregular,  round  head.  Bark  greyish  brown,  deeply  furrowed, 
becoming  scaly;  branches  roughened  with  thick,  corky  ridges; 
twigs  winged  or  smooth,  stout,  and  pubescent  at  first.  IVood 
brown,  v/ith  paler  sap  wood,  close  grained,  heavy,  hard,  durable 
in  soil;  medullary  rays  conspicuous.  Buds  small,  blunt  pointed, 
pubescent.  Leaves  obovate,  alternate,  6  to  12  inches  long,  3  to  6 
inches  wide,  5  to  7-lobed;  sinuses  rounded,  shallow  or  deep, 
middle  ones  often  wider,  opposite  and  nearly  reach  the  midrib; 
petioles  short,  grooved;  summer  colour  lustrous  dark  green,  with 
pale,  or  silvery  pubescent  lining;  autumn  colour  yellow  or  brown. 
Flowers  with  half-grown  leaves  in  May;  staminate  in  hairy  yellow 
catkins;  pistillate,  with  hairy  red  scales  and  bright  red  stigmas. 
Acorns  annual,  ^  to  2  inches  long,  ovoid,  variable  in  size  and  shape, 
pubescent,  in  deep  (rarely  shallow)  cup,  brown,  hairy,  with  loose 
scales  and  mossy  fringe.  Kernel  white,  sweet.  Preferred  habitat, 
rich,  well-drained  soil.  Distribution,  Nova  Scotia  to  Montana; 
south  to  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee  and  Texas.  Uses:  Sam.e  as 
Q.  alba.  Picturesque  park  tree.  Easily  transplanted  when 
young. 

The  bur  oak  is  a  rugged-looking  tree,  more  picturesque  than 
its  near  relative,  the  white  oak,  which  is  conventional  and  sym- 
metrical Vv'hen  it  has  its  own  way  in  growing.  The  bur  oak 
flings  out  its  antlered  arms  without  regard  for  balance  and  sym- 
metry, and  casts  off  the  bark  of  its  shaggy  limbs  with  utter 
indifference  to  any  law  of  neatness.  Broad  corky  wings  are  seen 
even  on  young  twigs,  and  these  are  stout  and  curiously  gnarled. 

200 


THE   CHESTNUT   OAK  {iluercu,  Frinus) 

The  dark-coloured  bark  and  pointed  buds  would  class  this  species  among  the  black  oak  group,  but  the  wavy-margined  learei 
and  the  annual  acorns  decide  the  case.     This  is  one  of  the  important  tanbark  oaks 


The  Oaks 

The  leaves  are  of  unusual  length  and  deeply  cut  into  irregular 
fingers,  or  broader  lobes.  Often  two  opposite  sinuses,  wider  than 
the  rest,  almost  cut  the  leaf  in  two  in  the  middle.  Bright  and 
shining  above,  these  leaves  are  woolly  lined  and  thick. 

The  acorns  are  very  striking  in  appearance.  The  brown 
nut  is  often  2  inches  long  and  set  in  a  thick,  hairy  cup,  covered 
with  coarse,  pointed  scales  that  become  elongated  toward  the 
rim,  and  form  a  loose,  fringed  border.  The  nut  is  half  covered  by 
the  cup  as  a  rule.  Sometimes  it  is  quite  swallowed  up  in  it. 
From  this  the  species  is  sometimes,  but  erroneously,  called  the 
overcup  oak. 

This  tree  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  and  valuable 
of  North  American  oaks.  It  has  an  astonishing  power  of  adapta- 
tion to  different  regions  and  climates.  It  grows  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  western  Texas;  there  are  forests  of  it  in  Winnipeg; 
it  forms  the  "oak  openings"  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota.  It 
seems  as  much  at  home  in  the  hot  and  arid  stretches  of  the  West 
and  Southwest  as  in  the  cold,  damp  air  of  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land, or  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Ohio,  where  it  reached  nearly 
200  feet  in  height  in  the  virgin  forests. 

The  sturuiness  of  the  bur  oak,  its  rapid  growth  in  good  soil, 
its  rugged  picturesqueness,  winter  and  summer,  all  commend  it 
to  planters.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ornamental  of  American  oaks 
in  cultivation;  and  the  raising  and  transplanting  of  it  are  fairly 
easy.  People  who  do  not  plant  oaks  because  they  take  so  long  to 
become  big  trees  miss  much  pleasure  they  have  not  counted  on. 
It  may  be  children's  children  who  see  the  aged  tree,  beautiful  in 
its  expression  of  massiveness  and  rugged  strength.  But  the 
planter  enjoys  the  grace  of  the  sapling,  the  rich  foliage  of  the 
young  tree  which  is  always  larger  than  on  the  old  ones;  and  there 
is  very  early  seen  in  any  bur  oak  the  stocky  build  and  the  shaggy 
bark  that  mark  the  adult  tree.  It  grows  rapidly,  and  soon  blossoms 
and  fruits  freely.  Every  year  shows  gains,  and  the  cycle  of  the 
year  in  the  treetop  is  worthy  of  close  attention. 

The  wood  of  white  oaks  is  of  highest  quality,  the  English 
oak  itself  being  one  of  this  group.  The  bur  oak  is  counted  even 
better  than  that  of  Quercus  alba,  when  grown  in  rich  soil.  The 
planting  of  bur  oaks  on  the  prairie  is  especially  recommended  by 
those  who  understand  the  conditions  prevailing  there.  It  is 
grown  for  shade  and  for  lumber. 


The  Oaks 

Overcup  Oak,  Swamp  Post  Oak  (Quercus  lyrata,  Walt.) — 
Large  tree,  70  to  100  feet  high,  with  small  pendulous  branches 
forming  a  symmetrical  round  head.  Bark  grey  or  reddish,  fur- 
rowed and  shedding  in  thick  plates.  IVood  dark  brown,  strong, 
heavy,  hard,  durable.  Buds  small,  blunt  pointed,  hairy,  brown. 
Leaves  obovate,  narrowed  at  base,  6  to  8  inches  long,  with  3  to 
5  pairs  of  oblong  or  pointed  lobes,  with  wide  sinuses,  especially 
the  middle  pair,  bright  green  above,  shining,  with  dense  white 
down  beneath.  Acorns  annual,  short  stalked;  nut  flattened  and 
almost  or  entirely  enclosed  by  the  round,  rough-scaled  cup; 
I  to  i^  inches  across.  Preferred  habitat,  coast  or  river  swamps. 
Distribution,  Maryland  to  Florida;  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas. 
Rare  except  in  the  Southwest.  Uses:  Rare  in  cultivation. 
Wood  confused  with  white  oak  in  the  trade. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  oak  is  its  button-like 
acorns.  The  scaly  cup  quite  swallows  up  the  nut,  as  a  rule. 
The  grey  of  bark  and  leaf  lining,  the  narrow,  deeply  cut  leaves, 
and  the  strong,  durable  wood  are  all  characteristics  that  show 
this  tree's  close  kinship  with  the  bur  oak  on  one  side  and  the  post 
oak  on  the  other.  It  grows  to  majestic  proportions  in  watery 
ground  and  wears  a  luxuriant  crown  of  shining  foliage. 

Post  Oak,  Iron  Oak  (Quercus  minor,  Sarg.) — A  dense, 
round-topped  tree,  scrubby  or  40  to  50  feet  high,  with  low,  crooked 
branches  and  stubby,  rough  twigs.  Bark  greyish  brown,  deeply 
furrowed,  scaly  wide  ridges;  branches  brown;  twigs  brownish 
with  yellow  fuzz.  IVood  pale  brown,  close  grained,  hard,  strong, 
heavy,  durable  in  contact  with  soil.  Buds  small,  round,  rusty, 
downy.  Leaves  4  to  5  inches  long,  clustered,  abundant,  stiff, 
rough,  dark,  shining  above,  brown  woolly  beneath,  obovate, 
with  5  to  7  unequal,  square-tipped  lobes  separated  by  wide 
sinuses,  hanging  on  all  winter,  turning  yellow  or  pale  brown. 
Flowers  in  May  with  half-grown  leaves;  staminate  catkins,  3  to  4 
inches  long,  yellow,  hairy;  pistillate  flowers,  almost  sessile; 
stigmas  bright  red.  Acorns  annual,  f  to  i  inch  long,  ovoid,  brown- 
ish, in  shallow  cup  of  loose,  blunt-pointed  scales,  enclosing  only 
J  to  I  of  the  nut.  Kernel  sweet.  Preferred  habitat,  dry,  sandy 
or  rocky  soil.  Distribution,  southern  Massachusetts  to  northern 
Florida;  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas.  Especially  common  in  the 
Southwest.  Uses:  Hardy  ornamental  oak;  grows  well  in  dry, 
rocky   soil.     Lumber   used   largely   for   railroad    ties,   fuel    and 

202 


The  Oaks 

fencing;  also  for  cooperage  and  construction.  Seldom  distin- 
guished in  the  trade  from  white  oak. 

The  post  oak  looks  like  a  tree  with  its  trunk  buried  in  the 
ground.  Its  head  is  broader  at  the  top,  no  matter  how  it  is 
crowded  in  the  woods,  and  the  multitude  of  stubby  branches  are 
"full  of  elbows,"  i.  e.,  the  angles  between  limb  and  branch  are  all 
wide  open,  giving  the  tree  a  distinct  character. 

The  foliage  is  another  means  of  knowing  the  post  oak.  At 
a  distance  it  looks  almost  black  in  summer.  Come  nearer. 
The  leaf  lining  is  coated  with  greyish  pubescence.  The  texture 
of  a  leaf  makes  you  cringe  as  you  crumple  it  in  your  hands.  It  is 
thick  and  leathery,  and  roughened  above  by  wonderfully  branched 
iiairs,  that  are  star-like  under  a  magnifier.  Three  broad,  squarish 
lobes  form  the  top,  and  the  blade  tapers  from  these  to  the  stubby 
petiole.  Sometimes  there  are  five  lobes  altogether;  sometimes 
only  the  three  at  the  top.  Each  twig  holds  out  a  cluster  of  these 
leaves,  like  a  fan.  In  the  autumn  they  turn  yellow  or  brown, 
but  the  twigs  will  not  let  them  go.  A  characteristic  post  oak  is 
densely  leafy  all  winter,  and  until  the  opening  shoots  push  the 
stubborn  old  leaf  stalks  out  of  the  way.  This  habit  gives  the  post 
oak  much  of  its  picturesqueness  in  winter,  for  the  foliage  does  not 
entirely  conceal  its  ruggedness  and  crookedness  of  limb. 

The  acorns  are  trim  and  dainty.  The  annual  crop  rarely 
fails.  They  are  very  sweet,  and  in  the  old  days  were  devoured 
by  wild  turkeys.     Then  people  knew  it  as  the  turkey  oak. 

The  names  of  this  species,  iron  oak  and  post  oak,  indicate  the 
reputation  of  its  wood  for  durability  in  contact  with  the  soil  and 
with  water.  Post-oak  staves  from  Baltimore  were  preferred  in 
the  West  Indian  trade  in  sugar,  rum  and  other  barrelled  com- 
modities. "Knees"  of  post  oak  are  always  in  demand,  and, 
where  trees  attained  sufficient  size,  the  timbers  are  used  in  the 
framework  and  sides  of  ships. 

Chestnut  Oak,  Tan-bark  Oak  (Quercus  Prinus,  Linn.) — 
A  forest  tree  with  broad,  irregular  head  on  a  short  trunk,  50  to  100 
feet  high.  Bark  dark  brown,  deeply  furrowed,  rich  in  tannic  acid; 
twigs  smooth.  Wood  dark,  reddish  brown,  close  grained,  with 
conspicuous  medullary  rays,  tough,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  durable 
in  contact  with  soil.  Buds  pointed,  long,  smooth,  greyish  red. 
Leaves  alternate,  5  to  9  inches  long,  obovate,  with  coarse  teeth 
rounded  at  the  tops,  thick,  yellowish  green  above,  paler,  usually 

203 


The  Oaks 

pubescent  beneath;  autumn  colour  yellow  and  brown.  Flowers 
in  May.  solitary  or  paired;  staminate  yellow;  pistillate  on  short 
spurs ;  stigmas  short,  dark  red.  Acorns  usually  solitary,  peduncled, 
annual,  i  to  i\  inches  long,  shining,  brown;  cup  thin,  downy 
lined,  covered  with  smaU  tubercular  scales.  Kernel  sweet, 
edible.  Preferred  habitat,  rocky  upland  soil,  like  the  sides  of 
ravines  and  stream  borders.  Distribution,  southern  Maine  to 
western  New  York;  south  to  Maryland,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee; 
along  mountains  into  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Uses:  A  handsome 
tree  for  parks;  grows  well  in  dry  ground;  lumber  used  for  railroad 
ties,  fencing  and  fuel;  bark,  in  tanning  leather. 

The  chestnut  oak  is  the  type  of  a  group  of  white  oaks  whose 
leaves  are  like  those  of  a  chestnut  tree.  This  group  has  sweeter 
nuts  than  any  other  oaks.  All  but  this  species  have  pale  bark. 
Quercus  Prinus  has  bark  so  dark  in  colour  and  so  deeply  furrowed 
that  it  has  often  been  mistaken  for  one  of  the  black  oak  group, 
although  its  wavy  leaf  margins  and  annual  fruit  deny  the 
insinuation  most  emphatically. 

It  is  a  vigorous  tree,  and  grows  very  rapidly  in  dry  soil. 
Its  acorns  in  their  fuzzy  cups  often  sprout  before  they  fall  to  the 
ground!  The  tree  is  handsome,  and  worthy  a  place  in  any 
plantation.     It  finally  makes  the  best  of  fuel. 

The  name,  "rock  chestnut  oak,"  refers  to  the  hardness  of  its 
wood.  "Tan-bark  oak"  calls  attention  to  the  tannin  which 
makes  this  tree  the  prey  of  "peelers"  throughout  its  range. 
Only  the  black  oak  yields  as  good  bark  to  the  tanner. 

The  Yellow  Oak  {Quercus  acuminata,  Sarg.)  has  smaller  and 
narrower  leaves  than  Quercus  Prinus,  and  the  margins  are  coarsely 
and  sharply  toothed.  They  closely  resemble  chestnut  leaves  in 
form,  but  are  lined  with  pale  pubescence.  The  tree  reaches  i6o 
feet  in  height  in  the  lower  Ohio  Valley  and  extends  from  Vermont 
to  Minnesota,  and  south  to  Alabama  and  Texas.  It  prefers  dry 
soil,  and  is  a  worthy  shade  and  ornamental  tree.  The  silvery 
grey  bark  and  handsome  leaves,  shining  yellow-green  above  and 
white  beneath,  trembling  on  slender  petioles,  make  it  a  beautiful 
object  in  any  landscape.  The  yellow-green  of  the  foliage  mass 
gives  the  tree  its  common  name. 

The  Chincapin  Oak  {Quercus  prinoides,  Willd.)  is  a  shrub, 
which  spreads  by  underground  stems.  Its  opening  leaves  are 
silvery    below    and    orange-red    above.     In    autumn    they    turn 

204 


THE    OVERCUP    OAK  {^uercus  lyrata) 

Tlic  narrow  leaves  broaden  toward  the  apex  ;  the  largest  of  the  lobes  are  above  the  middle.  The  leaf  lining  is  dense 
down.  The  wood  is  confused  with  other  white  oak.  The  bark  is  gray,  tinged  with  red.  The  best  character  is  the 
,  which  is  usually  entirely  enclosed  by  the  cup 


THE    LIVE    OAK  {^uercus  Virginiana) 
Th»se  leathery  leaves   are  individually  small  and  characterless,  as  oak  leaves  go,  but  the  ma.<;s  of  them  keeps  the  treetop 
and  glossy   until  spring  produces  a  new  crown  of  foliage.     The  slender  acorn  seems  too  big  for  its  thin  little  cup.     The 
ranks  higher  than  any  other  species  of  oak 


THE    SWAMP   WHITE    OAK  (Ouercus  platanoides) 

The  IcaTes  arc  obovate,  with  wedge-shaped  bases  and  white,  downy  linings.     Thev  are  green  when  they  open.    The  »d 
acorns  are  sweet.     The  wood  is  not  distinguished  in  the  trade  from  other  white  oaW 


The  Oaks 

bright  red  again.  The  Httle  sweet  acorn  probably  suggested  the 
common  name.  From  its  leaves  and  habit  this  oak  is  called 
the  scrub  chestnut  oak.  It  occurs  from  Maine  to  Minnesota, 
and  south  to  Alabama  and  Texas.  In  the  West  it  seems  to  in- 
tergrade  with  the  preceding  species.  Horticulturally  it  is  a 
desirable  species  for  covering  dry,  sterile  areas. 

Swamp  White  Oak  (Quercus  platanoides,  Sudw.) — A  shaggy 
picturesque  tree,  70  to  100  feet  high,  with  pendulous  branches, 
and  crooked  twigs  forming  a  narrow,  round  head,  bushy  with 
dead  twigs  that  hang  on.  Bark  pale  greyish  brown,  peeling  in 
thin  flakes  from  branches  and  trunk.  IVood  pale  brown,  coarse 
grained,  heavy,  tough,  strong.  Buds  short,  blunt,  brown,  hairy, 
clustered  at  tips  of  twigs.  Leaves  alternate,  obovate,  5  to  7 
inches  long,  wedge  shaped  at  base,  wavy  toothed  or  lobed  regu- 
larly, dull,  dark  green  above,  white-downy  beneath.  Flowers 
staminate,  hairy,  yellow  catkins;  pistillate  few  on  long  peduncles, 
hairy  with  red  stigmas.  Acorns  annual,  paired,  on  long  stems; 
nut  oval,  1  to  i^  inches  long,  brown,  hairy  at  tip,  in  rough  cup 
with  thickened  scales,  sometimes  fringed  at  border;  kernel  sweet, 
edible.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  or  swampy  soil.  Distribution, 
southern  Maine  to  southern  Iowa;  south  to  Maryland,  Kentucky 
and  Arkansas;  along  mountains  into  Georgia.  Commonest 
about  the  Great  Lakes.  Uses:  Picturesque  tree  in  landscape, 
but  rarely  planted.  Lumber  not  distinguished  commercially 
from  other  white  oak.  Used  in  construction  of  houses,  boats, 
agricultural  implements  and  vehicles;  also,  for  fencing,  railroad 
ties  and  fuel. 

The  swamp  white  oak  loves  the  waterside,  and  many  a 
noble  specimen  has  been  swept  away  by  spring  floods  or  by  the 
gradual  undermining  of  the  bank  on  which  it  grew.  Such  was 
the  fate  of  the  famous  Wadsworth  oak,  a  landmark  in  the  Genesee 
Valley  in  New  York  State,  even  when  the  Indians  were  the  only 
people  there  to  admire  it.  A  young  tree  of  this  species  is  generally 
pyramidal  and  quite  symmetrical  in  form,  its  stout  branches 
short  and  horizontal,  the  lower  ones  tending  to  droop.  The 
strength  of  character,  however,  the  ruggedness  that  make  so 
strong  appeal  to  us  in  this  tree,  comes  when  it  has  put  by  the 
comeliness  of  3'outh  and  the  stern  battle  of  life  has  left  its  scars  on 
the  veteran. 

Look  at  a  swamp  white  oak  against  a  winter  sky.  I  mean 
205 


The  Oaks 

that  old  one  which  has  stood  there  with  its  feet  in  the  water  as 
long  as  you  can  remember.  In  fact,  it  seemed  to  be  grown  up 
when  first  you  were  told  its  name.  The  head  is  narrow  for  an  oak, 
the  limbs  short  and  tortuous,  especially  on  the  lower  half  of  the 
tree  where  they  have  a  downward  tendency,  seeming  to  sprawl 
as  widely  as  their  grizzled  and  stubby  length  permits.  Storms 
have  cut  gashes  in  the  outline  of  the  top.  A  weird  grey  pallor 
heightens  the  expression  of  age.  The  bark  strips  off  of  the  branches 
somewhat  after  the  sycamore's  mode  of  m.oulting.  Nothing 
contributes  more  to  the  picturesqueness  of  a  tree  than  ragged 
bark. 

In  spring  the  rough  coat  of  the  tree  is  concealed  by  the  open- 
ing leaves.  The  black  oaks  flush  crimson  when  they  wake  in 
the  May  sunshine.  The  young  leaves  of  the  swamp  white  oak  are 
green,  with  a  silvery  scurf  that  lines  them  the  summer  through. 
Even  in  its  autumn  colour  the  foliage  turns  yellow  and  never  red. 
All  through  the  summer  the  brilliant  foliage,  lustrous  yellow- 
green  above,  turns  its  silvery  linings  out  in  every  breeze,  and 
fairly  illuminates  the  duller  trees  that  stand  about.  One  authority 
calls  it  Quercus  hicolor,  for  the  two  colours  of  its  leaves. 

This  is  one  of  the  chestnut  oak  group.  The  leaf  proves 
it  by  its  shape  and  margin.  The  long,  sweet  nut  in  its  fringed 
or  plain  cup  is  worthy  the  attention  of  any  hungry  man  or 
beast. 

The  swamp  white  oak  is  easily  transplanted  and  it  grows 
rapidly,  but  because  it  is  known  to  be  a  hard  drinker  people  do  not 
plant  it,  forgetting  that  trees  sometimes  are  happy  out  of  their 
normal  habitat.  This  oak  flourishes  as  a  street  tree,  and  does 
well  in  any  moist,  rich  soil,  graciously  waiving,  for  our  satisfaction, 
its  natural  preferences. 

But  he  who  would  have  this  tree  in  its  grandest  state  will 
wish  it  set  at  some  distance  from  his  house,  and  where  it  is  made 
very  comfortable.  While  we  transplant  small  saplings  into  our 
grounds,  let  us  exert  ourselves  to  cherish  the  old  ones  and  help 
the  community  to  realise  what  a  precious  thing  one  of  these 
veteran  trees  is — the  natural  heritage  of  all  who  can  see  it. 

Basket  Oak,  Cow  Oak  {Quercus  Michaiixii,  Nutt.) — A  large 
handsome  tree,  60  to  100  feet  high,  3  to  7  feet  in  diameter  at  base, 
with  stout  ascending  branches  forming  a  round,  dense  head. 
Barh   scaly,   silvery  or  ashy  grey,   with   reddish   tinge.     Wood 


The  Oaks 

hard,  strong,  tough,  durable,  close  grained  with  large  medullary 
rays  and  spring  wood  ducts,  separating  it  into  annual  layers. 
Similar  to  other  white-oak  lumber.  Buds  pointed,  \  inch  long, 
scaly,  with  red  hairs.  Leaves  6  to  8  inches  long,  broadly  obovate, 
regularly  undulate  on  margins,  sinuses  equal  to  the  lobes  in 
size  and  shape,  shining,  dark  green  above,  pubescent,  often 
silvery  white  below.  Crimson  in  autumn.  Flowers  with  half- 
grown  leaves,  March  to  May.  Acorns  annual,  solitary  or  paired, 
on  short  stem  i  to  i^  inches  long,  oval,  pointed,  bright  brown, 
in  shallow,  scaly  cup,  which  is  flat  bottomed  and  lined  with  down; 
kernels  sweetest  of  Eastern  acorns,  eaten  by  children,  negroes  and 
domestic  animals.  Preferred  habitat,  swamps  and  bottom  lands 
liable  to  inundation.  Distribution,  northern  Delaware  to  Florida; 
west  to  Illinois,  Missouri  and  Texas.  Uses:  Important  timber 
tree,  lumber  ranking  with  white  oak.  A  handsome  ornamental 
tree,  worthy  of  cultivation  in  wet  ground. 

The  common  names  of  trees  are  interesting,  always,  and 
often  confusing.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  trace  their  origin 
and  to  explain  their  meaning.  This  beautiful  tree,  the  most 
valuable  annual-fruited  oak  of  the  Southeastern  States,  differs 
from  others  of  the  group  in  that  its  wood  separates  like  that  of 
the  black  ash  into  annual  layers.  The  toughness  and  strength 
of  these  sheets  adapt  them  to  basket  making — the  most  durable 
bushel  baskets,  china  crates,  etc.,  are  made  of  strips  of  this  oak. 
It  is  easy  to  see  why  the  name  "basket  oak"  came  into  use. 
But  who  shall  explain  the  name  "cow  oak"?  Perhaps  it  is 
enough  that  the  acorns  are  sweet  and  cows  eat  them.  Perhaps 
if  I  lived  where  the  cow  oak  does  I  might  give  an  answer  that  is 
more  than  simply  a  guess.  The  basket  oak  is  one  of  the  best 
mast  trees  in  the  country.  The  trees  are  very  prolific,  and  each 
year  hogs  are  fattened  upon  the  acorns  wherever  the  trees  are 
common  in  the  woods. 

There  would  be  an  appearance  of  heaviness,  perhaps,  in  this 
handsome  oak,  if  it  were  not  that  the  lustrous  leaves  are  lined 
with  Oliver  that  seems  to  catch  and  hold  the  light,  reflecting  it  to 
the  inrer  parts  of  the  trcetop.  When  the  wind  blows  the  contrast 
of  light  and  shade  is  strikingly  beautiful.  In  many  particulars 
the  basket  oak  resembles  the  swamp  white  oak,  and  some  author- 
ities hold  that  Quercus  Michauxii  is  the  Southern  form  of  Quercus 
platanoides,  for  their  ranges  meet  and  do  not  overlap. 

207 


The  Oaks 

II.    THE  BLACK  OAK  GROUP 

Acorns  biennial;  leaf  lobes  spiny  tipped;  bark  dark. 
KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Pacific  coast  species. 

B.  Leaves  holly-like,  evergreen, 

C.  Young  growth  golden   tomentose;  branchlets  pen- 
dulous. (Q.  chrysolepis)  mountain  live  oak 
CC.  Young  growth  hoary;  branchlets  erect. 

D.  Acorns  elongated ;  leaves  pubescent ;  fruit  annual. 

(Q.  agnfoha)  California  live  oak 
DD.  Acorns  ovate;  leaves  smooth, 

(Q.  IVisUieni)  highland  oak 
BB,  Leaves  not  holly-like,  deciduous. 

(Q.  Calijornica)  kellogg's  oak 
AA.  Eastern  species.     Deciduous, 

B.  Leaves  pinnately  toothed  and  cleft  by  deep  sinuses,  petiole 
slender, 
C.  Acorn  cup  shallow,  broader  than  high, 

D,  Tree  pyramidal;  branches  with  pin-like  spurs. 

{Q.  palusiris)  pin  oak 
DD.  Tree  spreading;  acorn  large,  in  smooth,  shallow 

saucer  (Q.  rubra)  red  oak 

DDD.  Tree  of  oblong  head;  acorn  cup  greyish,  downy. 

(Q.  Texana)  texan  red  oak 
CC,  Acorn  cup  hemispherical,  as  high  as  broad. 

D,  Leaves  thin,  glabrous  beneath;  acorn  cup  drawn 
in  at  top,  {Q.  coccinea)  scarlet  oak 

DD.  Leaves    coarse,    tufted   with    rusty    hairs    below; 
acorn  cup  not  drawn  in  at  top. 

(Q.  velutina)  black  oak 
DDD,  Leaves  firm,  pale  greyish  downy  beneath ;  acorn 
cup  drawn  in  at  top. 
E.  Lobes  5  to  7,  lanceolate  or  sickle-like. 

F.  Leaves  thin,  6  to  7  inches  long;  lobes 
entire  {Q.  diptata)  Spanish  oak 

FF.  Leaves  thick,  3  to  12  mches  long;  lobes 
toothed.  (Q.  Catesbcei)  turkey  oak 

HE.  Lobes  3  to  5,  broad,  spiny  tipped. 

(Q.  nana)  bear  oak 
BB.  Leaves  3  to  5-lobed  at  apex  or  nearly  entire,  on  short 
petioles,  becoming  glossy. 
C.  Tree  squat,  contorted,  spreading. 

(Q.  Marilandica)  black  jack 
CC.  Tree  slender,  tall,  graceful.         {Q.  nigra)  water  oak 


THE    POST   OAK  {^uercus  minor) 
The  leaves  are  leathery,  lined  with  brown  wool,  and   they  cling  to   their  twigs  all  winter, 


the  middle  form  the  broadest  part  of  the  leaf;  below  the  middle  sinuses 
wood  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  use  as  posts,  railroad  ties  and  barrel  staves 


Three  large  square  lobes  above 
triangular  basal  portion  and  the  short  petiole.     The 


THE  BLUE  JACK 

{^luercus  brevi folia) 


THE    COW   OAK  THE  BLACK  JACK 

{^uercus   Miihauxii)         {Quercus   MarilnnJitii) 


THE  WATER  OAK 

{^"ercui  nigra) 


THE  YELLOW  OAK 

{Qjiercui  acuminata) 


The  Oaks 

BBB.  Leaves  entire,  elongated,  rarely  toothed. 

C.  Foliage  willow-like,  shining.    {Q.  Phellos)  willow  oak 
CC.  Foliage  laurel-like,  shining. 

D.  Tree  pyramidal,  pendulous. 

{Q.  imhricaria)  shingle  oak 
DD.  Tree  round,  thick  topped. 

{Q.  laurijolia)  laurel  oak 

Mountain  Live  Oak,  Maul  Oak,  Gold-cup  Oak  (Quer- 
cus  chrysolepis,  Liebm.) — A  low,  broad  tree,  with  drooping  limbs, 
scrubby  in  high  altitudes,  40  to  50  feet  high,  rarely  100  feet,  and 
100  to  1 50  feet  across;  trunk  2  to  6  feet  through.  Bark  pale  grey 
or  reddish  brown,  flaky.  JVood  pale  brown,  close  grained,  tough, 
strong,  hard  to  work.  Buds  broadly  ovate,  small,  scaly.  Leaves 
evergreen,  oblong,  entire,  acute,  i  to  2  inches  long,  bright  green, 
shining  above,  yellowish  pubescent  below.  Flowers,  ]une;  stami- 
nate  catkins  profuse;  pistillate,  sessile,  solitary  or  few  in  a  cluster; 
scales  golden  tomentose.  Fruits  solitary,  ^  to  ij  inches  long; 
cups  shallow,  thick,  of  triangular  scales,  concealed  by  yellow 
tomentum.  Preferred  habitat,  canon  sides  and  rocky  gulches. 
Distribution,  southern  Oregon  to  Lower  California,  on  western 
slopes  of  Sierra  Nevada  and  coast  mountains,  mountains  in  south- 
ern Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Uses:  Most  valuable  timber  oak 
of  the  Pacific  coast.     Used  for  wagons  and  farm  implements. 

The  mountain  live  oak  is  not  a  horticultural  tree,  beautiful  as 
it  would  be  in  the  broad,  rolling  valleys  of  California.  It  is  a  wild 
thing,  untamable  as  the  mountain  goat,  loving  the  rocky  canon 
sides  and  the  high  terraces  on  which  earthquake  and  avalanche 
have  left  mighty  indelible  scars.  Two  thousand  feet  above  sea 
level  these  trees  begin  to  appear.  On  these  heights  they  rear 
their  sturdy,  buttressed  trunks  which  soon  break  into  limbs  that 
spread  into  broad,  low  domes.  The  width  of  these  trees  is  often 
twice  their  height,  and  their  resemblance  to  the  live  oak  of  the 
Southeastern  States  is  striking.  Instead  of  the  Spanish  moss  that 
decks  these  Southern  trees  and  gives  them  such  a  funereal  look, 
here  is  nothing  to  droop  but  the  tree's  own  long,  flexible  twigs  clad 
in  leaves  all  yellow-green  and  shining,  which  brighten  the  sun- 
shine that  sifts  through  them.  They  are  lined  all  summer  with 
yellow  down,  and  the  spring  catkins  and  autumn  acorn  cups 
give  an  extra  Midas  touch  to  the  tree  at  both  ends  of  the  growing 
season, 

:?oc) 


The  Oaks 

There  is  a  wonderful  story  of  struggle  and  victory  mutely  but 
eloquently  told  by  this  tree,  as  it  contends  with  the  adverse  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  weather,  grappling  the  rocky  ground  with  its 
spreading  roots  and  losing  nothing  in  dignity  and  character  as  its 
size  dwindles  and  it  reaches  its  limit — 5,000  feet.  This  low,  knotty 
oak  chaparral  that  the  mountain  climber  grasps  so  thankfully  as 
he  faces  toward  the  summit  is  fringed  with  yellow  tassels  in  the 
spring  and  set  in  autumn  with  golden  acorn  cups,  even  as  are  its 
brethren,  the  gnarled  giants  he  passed  on  the  terraces  3,000  feet 
lower  down.  In  the  highest  elevations,  8,000  to  9,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  this  oak  is  reduced  to  a  foot  in  height.  This  is  the  "huckle- 
berry oak"  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  va.nety  vaccinifolia,  of  the 
parent  species.  Another  dwarf  variety,  Palmeri,  called  the  Pal- 
mer oak,  grows  on  the  boundary  between  California  and  the  lower 
peninsula. 

The  California  Live  Oak  (Quercus  agrijolia,  Nee.),  with 
holly-like  leaves,  is  a  ponderous  tree  with  a  low,  wide  dome,  very 
common  in  California,  extending  to  the  coast  and  farther  to  the 
islands  of  the  southern  half  of  the  state. 

The  wood  of  this  species  is  of  a  hard,  durable  sort,  but  can  be 
got  out  only  in  short  boards,  as  the  trunk  is  not  tall.  It  is  excellent 
for  fuel. 

The  Highland  Oak  {Quercus  Wisli^eni,  A.  DC.)  is  a  large 
tree  on  the  elevated  foothills  back  from  the  coast  in  California. 
Its  dark  green,  shining  evergreen  leaves  resemble  those  of  holly. 
Ilex  opaca,  except  that  they  are  more  finely  toothed,  and  some- 
times entire.  The  acorn  is  long  and  slender.  The  wood  is  of 
especial  value  in  mechanical  construction,  being  hard,  tough, 
strong  and  durable.     It  is  also  valuable  as  fuel. 

The  Kellogg  Oak,  or  California  Black  Oak  {Quercus  Cali- 
fornica.  Coop.),  is  large  and  beautiful,  spreading  wide  its  pictur- 
esquely gnarled  branches  covered  with  smooth,  bright  green 
leaves,  much  like  those  of  the  Eastern  red  oak.  It  has  also  stout 
twigs  and  rough  dark-coloured  bark,  and  the  reddish  coarse- 
grained wood  strengthens  still  farther  the  resemblance  of  the  two 
trees.  The  acorns  of  the  V/estern  tree,  however,  sit  in  deep  cups 
that  half  conceal  them;  the  red  oak  holds  its  nuts  in  shallow 
saucers. 

The  uplands  only  satisfy  this  Western  black  oak.  It  holds 
aloof  from  the  plains  and  keeps  back  from  the  sea.     Sunny  open 

210 


fhe  thin,  deeply  cut  leaves  vary  fro 
resemble  neither  of  these.     Whe 


THE    PIN    OAK  (^V 


palu. 


I  till-  delicacy  of  the  scarlet  oak  to  the  lustiness  of  the  n 
ripe  the  nuts  are  brown,  daintilv  striped  with  black.     The 


.1  oak. 
kernels 


little  acorn 
id  bitter 


The   Oaks 

groves  of  it,  mingled  with  white  oaks,  are  comrnon  among  conifers 
on  mountain  slopes  and  high  valleys  throughout  California  and 
north  to  the  middle  of  Oregon. 

The  black  bark  of  this  oak  is  twice  as  rich  in  tannin  as  hem- 
lock bark.  The  wood  is  rich  in  colour  and  wavy  grained,  but 
lumbermen  dislike  it.  It  dries  very  slowly,  and  is  likely  to  be 
perforated  with  "pin  knots,"  which  mar  and  weaken  it. 

Pin  Oak,  Swamp  Spanish  Oak  (Quercus  palustris,  Linn.) 
— A  graceful,  pyramidal  tree  when  young,  becoming  oblong  and 
irregular,  at  length;  50  to  120  feet  high;  branches  horizontal, 
short.  Bark  grey-brown,  shining,  smooth,  becoming  scaly  on 
trunk;  twigs  red,  tomentose.  Wood  hard,  tough,  strong,  heavy, 
coarse  grained,  light  brown,  variegated.  Buds  small,  acute, 
brown.  Leaves  alternate,  4  to  6  inches  long,  deeply  5  to  7-lobed 
with  wide  sinuses  almost  to  the  midrib,  shining  above,  dull  and 
pale  beneath,  scarlet  in  autumn.  Flowers  in  May,  with  half- 
grown  leaves;  staminate,  in  hairy  catkins,  2  to  3  inches  long;  pis- 
tillate on  short  hairy  peduncles,  with  bright  red  stigmas.  Acorns 
ripe  in  autumn  of  second  year,  J  to  ^  inch  long,  pale  brown, 
streaked,  broader  than  long  and  set  in  a  shallow  saucer-like  cup, 
of  close,  reddish  scales,  which  is  lined  with  hair;  kernel  white, 
bitter.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  moist  soil.  Distribution,  Massa- 
chusetts to  Delaware;  west  to  Wisconsin  and  Arkansas.  Uses: 
Handsome  rapid-growing  tree  for  avenues  or  lawns.  It  has 
fibrous  roots  and  so  transplants  easily.  Wood  used  in  construc- 
tion, cooperage,  for  interior  finish  of  houses,  and  for  shingles  and 
clapboards. 

The  tourist  who  visits  Washington  and  takes  the  trolley  rides 
recommended  by  the  guide  book  must  have  noted  the  superb 
avenues  of  native  trees  that  give  character  and  dignity  to  the 
whole  city.  For  long  stretches  a  single  species  holds  uninterrupted 
sway,  and  the  distinctive  traits  of  the  various  kinds  are  thus 
impressed  upon  the  observer,  even  as  he  flies  by  them  on  the  car. 
I  remember  the  beautiful  pin  oaks  on  the  way  from  the  capitol  to 
the  navy  yard.  Only  a  few  years  ago  they  were  little  striplings 
from  the  nurseries.  Now  they  are  goodly  shade  trees,  and  the 
beauty  of  youth  is  still  upon  them.  Each  tree  is  a  glistening 
pyramid  of  leaves,  that  dance  as  the  breeze  plays  among  them; 
for  the  leaf  stems  and  the  twigs  are  slender  and  flexible,  and  the 
blades,  catching  the  wind,  keep  the  treetop  in  a  continual  flutter. 

211 


The  Oaks 

The  leaves  are  deeply  cut  into  five  or  seven  spiny-toothed 
blades  that  point  forward.  The  leaves  of  scarlet  oak,  cut  with 
about  the  same  "waste  of  cloth,"  point  outward  and  have  more 
rounded  sinuses  than  those  of  the  pin  oak. 

The  leaf  might  confuse  us,  but  the  pin-oak  tree  tells  its  name 
before  one  is  near  enough  to  see  the  leaf  distinctly.  The  tree  has 
a  broad  pyramidal  form,  with  slender  branches  stretched  out  hori- 
zontally as  far  as  they  can  reach.  The  spur-like  little  twigs  that 
cluster  on  the  branches  throughout  the  treetop  are  choked  to 
death  by  being  crowded,  but  they  remain,  the  "pins"  that  char- 
acterise this  species  of  oak.  When  it  gets  old  the  pin  oak  loses 
some  of  its  symmetry  and  beauty.  1 1  holds  on  to  its  dead  branches, 
but  there  is  a  dignity  in  its  bearing  that  is  admirable,  even  in  its 
decline. 

The.  village  of  Flushing,  Long  Island,  has  proved  through 
many  years  that  the  pin  oak  is  an  admirable  street  and  shade  tree. 
It  is  as  easily  transplanted  as  a  box  elder,  so  there  is  scarcely  an 
excuse  for  not  planting  it.  The  flush  on  its  opening  leaves,  the 
red  flame  that  lights  the  tree  in  the  autumn,  and  the  dainty  striped 
acorns  in  their  scaly  saucers — all  combine  to  make  an  ornamental 
tree  with  scarcely  a  fault  to  set  off  its  many  horticultural  virtues. 
The  Europeans  have  cherished  this  tree  for  over  a  century.  We 
Americans  are  just  discovering  it,  and  should  make  up  for  lost 
time. 

Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra,  Linn.) — A  large,  stately  tree,  50  to 
1 50  feet  high,  with  columnar  trunk  and  round,  symmetrical  head 
of  stout,  spreading  branches.  Bark  greyish  brown  with  red  tinge, 
with  wide  furrows  between  ridges;  twigs  reddish.  fVood  red- 
brown,  with  darker  sap  wood,  coarse  grained,  with  well-marked 
annual  rings  and  medullary  rays;  heavy,  hard,  strong.  Buds 
reddish,  pointed,  I  inch  long.  Leaves  alternate,  7  to  9-lobed, 
5  to  9  inches  long,  4  to  6  inches  wide;  lobes  and  sinuses  both 
triangular  in  form;  second  pair  from  apex  always  largest;  lobes 
irregularly  toothed  and  bristly  pointed;  leaves  variable  in  size 
and  form;  lining  paler  green,  smooth  at  maturity;  autumn  colour 
deep  red.  Flowers,  May,  with  half-grown  leaves;  staminate 
catkins,  yellow,  hairy,  4  to  5  inches  long;  pistillate,  on  short 
2  to  3-flowered  stems;  stigmas,  long,  bright  green.  Acorns  ripe 
second  autumn;  large,  f  to  i  J  inches  long;  broad  at  base,  in  close- 
scaled,  shallow  saucer;  kernel  white,  extremely  bitter.     Preferred 

213 


THE    RED    (MK   {i^iuercus   rubra) 

This  tree  is  lusty  and  beautiful  throughout.  The  pointed  buds  promise  what  sunn 
triangular  lobes  and  sinuses.  The  lubes  point  forward  more  than  outward.  They  are  i.ftc 
The  second  leaf  shows  the  paler  lining.  The  large  acorns  sit  in  saucers,  much  shallowe 
bark  has  a  reddish-brown  colour 


er  fulfils.  The  broad  leaves  have 
1  q  inches  long  and  six  inches  broad. 
than  in  other  oaks.     The  furrowed 


The  Oaks 

hahiiat,  rich,  well-drained  stream  borders.  Disirihuiion,  Nova 
Scotia  to  Minnesota;  south  to  Georgia,  Tennessee  and  Kansas. 
Uses:  A  handsome,  quick-growing  shade  and  ornamental  tree, 
easily  transplanted  and  free  from  insect  pests.  Wood  used  in 
cooperage,  cheap  furniture,  in  construction  and  finish  of  buildings 
and  for  fuel.  It  is  inferior  to  white  oak.  Bark  rich  in  tannic 
acid,  used  in  tanning  leather. 

There  is  no  American  oak  more  highly  prized  in  Europe  than 
the  common  red  oak.  It  has  been  cultivated  there  for  two  cen- 
turies, and  splendid  specimens  are  pointed  out  with  pride,  espe- 
cially in  Belgium,  Germany  and  England,  It  is  the  "champion 
oak"  which  flames  in  English  parks  when  the  foliage  of  native 
species  falls  without  a  hint  of  the  brilliant  colouring  which  we 
always  expect  in  autumn  woods. 

The  red  oak  is  so  common  in  our  Eastern  forests  that  we  have 
not  realised  its  worthiness  as  a  street  and  ornamental  tree.  Surely 
it  is  a  stately  tree  in  the  forest,  and  as  noble  and  benignant  a  figure 
as  the  white  oak  where  it  has  ample  room  to  develop  its  round 
dome.  It  grows  faster  than  any  other  native  oak  and  in  a  greater 
variety  of  soils.  It  can  be  transplanted,  even  when  15  feet  high, 
from  the  woods  to  a  lawn,  and  not  notice  the  change.  After  it 
becomes  established  a  growth  of  a  foot  or  more  in  height  may  be 
expected  yearly,  and  an  increase  in  diameter  of  an  inch  of  wood  in 
five  years. 

The  shining  leaves  of  red  oak,  though  they  are  variable  in 
form,  are  always  cut  oval  and  into  triangular  lobes  which  point 
forward,  rather  than  outward.  The  sinuses  are  angled  or  rounded, 
but  are  not  so  broad  as  those  of  the  black  oak.  These  leaves  are 
leathery  and  smooth,  those  of  black  oak  are  rougher.  The 
bloom  of  red  oak  is  more  luxuriant  than  that  of  other  oaks. 
The  tree  is  fairly  draped  with  its  long  yellow  catkins,  and 
the  red  stigmas  shine  out  against  the  silvery  pink  of  opening 
leaves. 

The  acorns  of  the  red  oak  are  unique.  They  are  large,  in 
pairs,  on  very  short  stalks,  and  the  nut  sits  in  a  broad,  shallow 
saucer  covered  with  small,  close-fitting  scales.  The  acorn  crop 
is  two  years  in  ripening,  but  the  tree  is  so  vigorous  that  there  are 
usually  nuts,  or  at  least  saucers,  in  evidence  to  identify  the  tree, 
if  the  leaves  do  not  determine  it  with  certainty.  The  under  bark 
is  red,  while  that  of  black  oak  is  orange-yellow.     This  is  another 

213 


The  Oaks 

way  to  tell  the  two  species  apart  at  any  time  of  year  by  the  aid  of  a 
pocket  knife. 

Scarlet  Oak  (Quercus  coccinea,  Muench.) — Slender,  sym- 
metrical tree,  70  to  160  feet  high,  with  graceful,  curving  branches 
and  twigs,  tapering  trunk  and  round  head.  Eark  brown  or  grey, 
rough,  scaly,  shallowly  fissured;  inner  layers  reddish;  twigs 
green,  scurfy,  becoming  red  and  smooth.  Wood  pale  brownish  red, 
hard,  coarse  grained,  strong,  heavy,  of  rapid  growth.  Buds 
pointed,  hairy  at  tip,  small,  reddish.  Leaves  oval  or  obovate, 
thin,  smooth,  shining  above,  paler  beneath,  sometimes  hairy 
tufted  on  veins,  3  to  6  inches  long,  2  to  5  inches  broad,  with  5  to 
7  spreading  bristly  pointed  and  subdivided  lobes,  with  deep, 
rounded  sinuses  between;  autumn  colour  scarlet;  petioles  slender, 
long.  Flowers  staminate  catkins  slender,  reddish  before  maturity; 
pistillate  with  long  stigmas  bright  red.  Acorns  biennial,  ^  to  J 
inch  long,  half  covered  by  short-stalked  cup,  smooth,  triangular, 
close-pressed  scales,  rounding  in  at  the  top;  kernel  white,  moder- 
ately bitter.  Preferred  habitat,  dry,  fertile  loam.  Distribution, 
Maine  to  Florida,  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska  and  Missouri. 
Best  development  in  lower  valley  of  Ohio  River.  Uses:  A 
favourite  ornamental  oak  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  Lumber 
used  for  same  purposes  as  that  of  Q.  rubra. 

The  splendour  of  our  autumnal  forests  owes  much  to  the 
foliage  of  the  scarlet  oak.  The  tree  blazes  like  a  torch  against  the 
duller  reds  and  browns  in  the  woods,  and  often  keeps  its  brilliancy 
until  after  snow  covers  the  ground. 

There  is  no  reason  for  confusing  the  black,  red  and  pin  oaks 
with  this  species.  They  are  all  heavy  and  coarse  beside  it. 
Their  leaves  are  leathery  compared  with  the  papery  thinness  of 
these.  In  summer  the  scarlet  oak  lifts  its  young  shoots,  delicately 
pink  above  the  last  year's  growth,  and  waves  them  like  long, 
tapering  plumes,  set  with  skeleton  leaves.  Break  a  twig,  and  the 
smoothness  and  delicacy  of  the  leaves  strike  you.  Just  a  pale 
trace  of  fuzziness  remains  along  the  veins  on  the  under 
side.  The  wide,  rounded  sinuses  are  cut  nearly  to  the 
midrib,  and  the  leaf  flutters  airily  on  a  long  petiole.  The 
acorn  differs  from  the  black  oak's  in  having  its  cup  drawn 
tightly  in  at  the  top. 

Though  we  have  planted  this  tree  less  often  than  the  red 
oak  and  pin  oak  in  this  country,  it  is  coming  to  be  recognised  as 

214 


THE    SCARLET    OAK  {iiluercus  cocci.. ^a) 

oak    leaf   is   mori-    exquisite  in  form  and  finish  than  this  one.     The  tree  becomes  a  torch   of   scarlet   in   the   late  autumn. 
Ihe   wood  and  the  furrowed  bark   are  tinged  with  red.     The  broad  leaf  on  the  budded  twig  is  a  freak 


The  Oaks 

superior  to  both,  while  in  hardiness  and  rapidity  of  growth  it  is 
the  equal  of  either. 

The  Texan  Red  Oak  (Quercus  Texana,  Buckl.),  tallest  of 
American  oaks,  and  one  of  the  handsomest,  grows  from  Iowa  to 
Indiana  and  south  to  Texas  and  Florida.  It  is  closely  related 
to  the  red  and  scarlet  oaks,  showing  the  characteristic  acorns  of 
the  former  and  the  leaves  of  the  latter. 

Possibly  the  giant  red  oak  that  stood  on  the  borders  of  the 
Bayou  St.  Barb  in  Louisiana,  fifty  years  ago,  "44  feet  in  girth 
and  tall  according,"  was  of  this  Texan  species.  Quercus  rubra 
does  not  grow  so  far  south. 

Black  Oak,  Yellow  Oak  {Quercus  velutina,  Lam.) — A  tree 
70  to  90  feet,  rarely  150  feet  high,  with  narrow,  open  head  of 
slender  branches,  occasionally  wide  spreading  and  short  trunked. 
Bark  usually  very  dark  grey  or  brown,  thick,  with  rough  broken 
ridges  and  deep  furrows;  inner  layers  orange  yellow,  rich  in  tannin. 
fVood  light  reddish  brown,  coarse  grained,  with  annual  layers 
strongly  marked  and  thin  medullary  rays,  hard,  strong,  heavy, 
not  tough.  Buds  large,  pointed,  angled,  downy.  Leaves  alternate, 
4  to  10  inches  long,  2  to  6  inches  wide,  deeply  cut  into  7  to  9 
broad,  bristly  toothed  lobes  with  rounded  sinuses,  thick,  almost 
leathery  texture,  lustrous,  dark  green  above,  smooth,  or  somewhat 
hairy,  brownish  beneath;  petioles  long,  yellow,  flattened;  autumnal 
colour  brownish  yellow,  rarely  reddish.  Flowers,  May,  with  half- 
open  leaves;  hairy,  reddish,  stigmas  bent  back.  Acorns  biennial, 
solitary  or  in  pairs,  short  stalked;  nut  ovoid,  smooth,  in  cup  of 
loose  scales;  rim  fringed,  not  incurved;  kernel  yellow,  bitter. 
Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  soil.  Distribution,  Maine  to  Florida; 
west  to  Minnesota,  Kansas  and  eastern  Texas.  Uses:  Rarely 
planted  for  ornament  and  shade.  Wood  used  in  cooperage,  for 
furniture  and  in  general  construction;  bark  in  tanning  and  dyeing. 

Since  early  spring  I  have  been  watching  life  kindle  and  glow 
in  the  top  of  a  grim  old  black  oak.  I  knew  the  tree  then  by  its 
black  bark  and  its  large,  downy  winter  buds,  and  the  velvety 
scurf  on  its  young  shoots.  Still  another  sign,  constant  the  year 
round,  proclaimed  this  tree  a  black  oak  beyond  question.  Under 
the  rough  outer  bark  is  an  orange-yellow  inner  layer,  easily 
reached  by  a  little  digging  in  one  of  the  furrows.  No  other  oak 
need  be  confused  with  this  species  if  the  observer  carries  a  pocket 
knife. 

215 


The  Oaks 

This  tree,  though  it  was  late  March,  was  still  holding  some  of 
its  old  leaves.  On  twigs  destitute  of  leaves  I  found  a  leaf  stem, 
here  and  there,  frayed  into  many  threads,  showing  how  tough  its 
fibres  are. 

My  black  oak  leans  up  against  a  bluff,  and  thrusts  its  giant 
arms  out  over  the  wide  roadway.  One  sided  as  the  situation 
compelled  it  to  grow,  it  is  yet  a  majestic  tree,  "framed  in  the 
prodigality  of  Nature."  From  the  path  below  I  can  just  touch 
its  lower  limb  with  the  ten-foot  pruning  shears;  but  by  climbing 
the  bluff  I  walk  right  into  the  treetop.  Here  I  go  to  see  things 
happen  in  the  spring  days. 

The  buds  open  and  the  shoots  set  with  leaves  push  rapidly 
out.  The  whole  treetop  flushes  crimson  in  the  morning  sunshine, 
and  there  is  a  "pale  moonbeam's  light"  gleaming  through  it. 
Can  it  be  dewdrops  pearling  the  young  leaves?  I  ask  the  question, 
and  the  tree  answers  it  as  soon  as  I  get  near  enough  to  examine  a 
spray.  The  red  glow  is  from  crinkly,  half-awake,  baby  leaves, 
and  their  brilliance  is  softened  by  a  silky  covering  of  white  hairs. 
This  is  especially  thick  on  the  under  side,  but  the  silvery  mist 
over  the  treetop  lasts  only  a  day,  or  until  the  leaves  are  grown 
large  and  self-reliant  enough  to  get  on  without  such  protection. 
Then  the  fuzz  is  suddenly  shed  from  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves, 
but  the  under  surfaces  are  more  or  less  coated  throughout  the 
summer  with  a  dull  scurfy  down. 

The  coarseness  of  the  leaves  is  one  trait  that  distinguishes  the 
species  from  the  red  and  scarlet  oaks,  whose  leaves  it  often  imitates 
in  form.  Crumple  a  leaf  of  each  in  your  hands.  The  red  oak 
is  intermediate  between  the  leathery,  harsh  texture  of  the  black, 
and  the  thinness  and  delicacy  of  the  scarlet.  The  incisions  in 
black  oak  leaves  are  rounded  and  deep,  their  bristly  lobes  point 
outward  as  often  as  they  incline  forward. 

The  bloom  of  black  oak  may  be  profuse  or  scant;  the  tree 
has  its  "off  years."  As  the  leaves  lose  their  red  the  flowers 
take  up  the  theme,  and  glow  with  ruddy  stigmas  and  fringed 
tassels  of  stamens  among  the  half-grown  foliage.  The  lustiest 
shoots  set  acorns — sometimes  a  pair  under  each  leaf.  While 
the  new  ones  are  swelling  and  forming  their  little  basal  cups,  on 
twigs  a  year  older  ambitious  acorns  of  a  larger  growth  are  hurrying 
through  their  second  summer  to  be  ready  to  fall  in  October. 

1  his  species  is  the  type  of  the  black  or  biennial-fruited  oaks — 
216 


THE    BLACK   OAK  {^uercu 


The  leaves  have  squarish  lobes,  coarse,  rough  texture  aiul  often  brownish  linings,  with  tufts  of  rusty  hairs  in  the  angles 
of  the  veins.  They  turn  to  dull  red  or  hrownisli  orange.  The  under  bark  is  orange-coloured.  The  acorns  sit  in  cups  cf  loosely 
shingled  scales  which  form  a  fringe  at  the  margin.     The  buds  are  large,  ovate,  with  a  hoary  covering  of  fine  hairs 


THE    PLACK   OAK  {^uercus  velutina) 

•'he  opening  leaves  are  crimson,  with  silvery  velvet  linings  and  long  white  hairs  above.     Half-grown  acorns  are  seen  below 
fringe  of  stanninate  catkins.     The  pistillate  flowers  are  in  the  leaf  angles 


The  Oaks 

a  large  group  which  takes  two  years  to  ripen  an  acorn  crop.  As  a 
rule,  these  trees  always  show  half-formed  acorns  on  their  terminal 
twigs  in  winter.  The  white  or  annual-fruited  oaks  never  carry 
any  over;  they  ripen  their  fruits  and  cast  them  in  the  autumn. 
Black  oaks  have  bristly  pointed  leaves;  white  oaks  have  only 
curved  lines  on  their  leaf  margins.  These  facts  are  well  worth 
remembering. 

Most  people  know  an  oak  "just  by  the  looks  of  it."  Ask 
them  which  oak  it  is,  and  they  can't  be  sure.  The  bark  of  the 
black  oak,  with  its  orange  lining,  is  the  key  to  its  name.  The 
woodsman  knows  that  this  oak  leads  the  country  as  the  source 
of  tan  bark.  Only  the  chestnut  oak  comes  near  it  in  percentage 
of  tannin.  Beside  tannin,  there  is  in  the  inner  bark  the  yellow 
dyestuflf  called  quercitron,  which,  before  the  discovery  of  aniline 
dyes,  was  largely  used  in  the  printing  of  calicoes.  The  yellow 
bark  was  dried,  then  ground,  and  the  powdery  citron-yellow 
colouring  matter  sifted  out  of  it.  Besides  the  yellow  tints  and 
shades,  it  gave,  with  the  addition  of  salts  of  iron,  various  shades 
of  grey,  brown  and  drab. 

Black  oaks  would  doubtless  be  planted  oftener  for  shade  and 
ornament  but  that  there  are  so  many  other  beautiful  oaks  to 
choose  from.  In  the  wild  they  are  noble  ornaments  to  the  natural 
landscape. 

For  my  giant  black  oak  on  the  hillside  I  have  developed 
a  kind  of  personal  regard  that  surprises  me.  It  is  the  result  of 
getting  acquainted  with  the  tree  at  successive  seasons  of  the 
year.  It  has  taken  on  individuality.  It  ought  to  have  a  personal 
name,  not  merely  its  tribal  cognomen.  I  have  learned  to  read 
the  answers  to  my  questions.  I  have  acquired,  therefore,  the 
rudiments  of  a  new  language — for  tree  language  is  a  code  of  signs 
which  anybody  can  learn.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  of  inter- 
esting personal  and  family  history  a  tree  will  freely  give  in  one 
year  of  friendly  intercourse. 

The  Turkey  Oak  (Quercus  CatesbcFi,  Michx.)  grows  most 
abundantly,  and  reaches  60  feet  in  height,  in  the  high  lands 
bordering  bays  and  river  mouths,  along  the  coasts  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  It  follows  the  Gulf  coast  to  Louisiana,  but 
is  rare  west  of  Florida.  It  is  an  important  fuel  in  the  regions 
it  inhabits,  but  is  little  known  to  lumbermen.  Generally  a 
small  tree,  20  to  35  feet  high,  it  may  be  distinguished  from  tlu' 

217 


The  Oaks 

Spanish  oak  by  the  greater  size  and  breadth  of  its  leaves,  and 
by  the  teeth  that  generally  adorn  the  tapering,  triangular  lobes. 
The  leaves  are  thick  and  stiff;  those  of  Spanish  oak  are  thin  and 
flexible. 

The  Spanish  Oak  (Quercus  digitaia,  Sudw.),  of  the  Southern 
States,  is  a  distinguished-looking  tree,  with  tall  trunk  and  broad, 
open  head  covered  with  downy-lined  leaves  of  peculiar  forms. 
The  lobes  are  elongated,  often  curved,  sickle-like,  rarely  toothed, 
and  separated  by  deep,  wide  sinuses.  From  this  extreme  they 
often  vary  widely,  showing  broadly  obovate  blades,  often  with 
no  lobes  at  all.  The  leaves  droop  from  the  twigs,  giving  the  tree 
an  unique  expression. 

It  is  a  pity  that  this  tree  is  not  hardy  north  of  lower  New 
Jersey  and  Missouri.  It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  shade  trees. 
The  old  plantations  of  the  South  are  likely  to  show  a  few  aged 
Spanish  oaks.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  tree.  Beside  the 
upland  type,  a  white-barked  one  abounds  in  swampy  land. 
This  tree  has  leaves  very  deeply  cut,  which  turn  a  splendid  yellow 
in  autumn.  Lumbermen  count  its  wood  nearly  equal  to  white 
oak.    The  upland  form  yields  far  less  durable  timber. 

The  range  of  the  Spanish  oak  is  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas.  It  is  most  common  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  on  the  hills  back  from  the  coast. 

The  Bear,  or  Scrub  Oak  {Q.  nana,  Sarg.),  is  a  shrubby 
tree  that  creeps  in  thickets  over  rocky  barren  ledges  from  Maine 
to  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  Its  downy-lined  leaves  vary  greatly 
in  their  size  and  lobing.  They  are  obovate,  with  the  three  largest 
lobes  at  apex,  and  tapering  to  the  base,  with  at  least  one  pair  of 
lesser  lobes  below  the  broad  middle  sinuses.  There  is  a  resem- 
blance between  these  and  the  leaves  of  the  post  oak,  although  the 
sharp,  holly-like  spines  that  tip  each  lobe  and  the  two  sizes  of 
acorns  each  tree  shows  in  summer  prove  this  species  to  belong 
in  the  black-oak  class.  The  little  acorns,  which  are  bitter  and 
set  in  shallow  saucers,  are  abundantly  produced,  and  bears  fatten 
on  them.  The  species  is  often  eifectively  planted  to  adorn 
rocky  areas  in  parks. 

The  Black  Jack,  or  Barren  Oak  {Q.  Marilandica,  Muench.), 
is  a  black-trunked,  contorted,  spreading  shrub,  or  a  tree  reaching 
the  height  of  50  feet.  Its  leaves  are  leathery,  with  brown  fuzzy 
linings,  and  the  upper  surfaces  are  set  with  rough,  stellate  hairs. 

2!S 


The  Oaks 

The  leaf  broadens  to  its  apex  and  ends  in  three  indistinct  lobes 
of  variable  size  and  form,  whose  ribs  protrude  into  the  bristly 
points  that  characterise  the  black  oak  group.  The  obovate  or 
pear-shaped  outline  is  constant,  however  the  lobing  may  vary. 

The  function  of  this  ragged  little  tree  is  to  clothe  sterile 
ground  from  New  York  to  Nebraska,  and  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas.  What  it  lacks  in  beauty  it  makes  up  for  in  a  certain 
admirable  ruggedness  of  character.  The  leaves  are  not  as  other 
oak  leaves,  and  the  tree's  habit  is  as  handsome  as  one  could 
expect  considering  the  worthless  ground  assigned  it  by  Nature. 

The  Water  Oak  (Quercus  nigra,  Linn.)  is  a  good-sized  tree, 
with  a  leaf  of  somewhat  similar  outline,  but  thinner  texture  than 
those  of  the  black  jack.  It  is  a  favourite  shade  tree  in  the  Southern 
States.  It  grows  naturally  along  the  borders  of  streams  and 
swamps,  but  is  easily  transplanted,  grows  rapidly  and  thrives 
in  cultivation.  Its  shining  leaves,  blue-green  above,  paler  below, 
vary  from  entire  margins  to  lobing  as  deep  as  the  average  red 
oak  shows.  The  acorn  is  a  squat  little  nut  in  a  shallow  cup,  set 
with  fine  scales. 

Willow  Oak  (Quercus  Phellos,  Linn.)— A  graceful,  quick- 
growing  tree,  60  to  80  feet  high,  with  slender  branches  that  form 
a  conical,  round-topped  head.  Bark  rather  rough,  reddish  brown, 
with  scaly  surface;  young  trees,  smooth.  JVood  pale,  red-brown, 
coarse  grained,  strong,  soft,  heavy;  sap  wood  lighter  in  colour. 
Buds  small,  acute,  brown.  Leaves  alternate,  leathery,  short 
petioled,  2  to  5  inches  long,  linear  like  willow  leaves,  but  obtuse 
at  apex  and  base;  upper  surface  bright  green  and  glossy;  lower 
pale  green,  dull,  smooth;  autumn  colour  yellow.  /I corns  biennial, 
not  numerous,  solitary  or  paired  on  short  stalks;  nut  J  inch  across, 
hemispherical,  downy,  yellowish  brown,  set  in  shallow  saucer- 
shaped  cup;  scales  thin,  ovate,  dark  reddish  brown,  hairy;  kernel 
orange,  bitter.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  wet  borders  of  swamps. 
Distribution,  New  York  to  northeastern  Florida  (in  the  low 
maritime  region  just  back  from  the  coast);  along  the  Gulf  into 
Texas;  north  in  low  ground  into  Missouri,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
Uses:  A  fine  shade  and  ornamental  tree  for  Southern  cities. 
Wood  used  in  construction. 

We  think  of  oaks  as  being  sturdy  and  rugged  in  their  eA- 
pression,  leaving  grace  and  delicacy  to  willows  and  birches,  and 
such.     Here  is  an  oak  whose  leaves  are  willow-like  in  form,  size 

219 


The  Oaks 

and  texture;  and  they  hang  on  supple,  pendant  branches,  like  a 
willow's.  The  dainty  acorns  in  their  saucers  are  often  needed  to 
convince  observers  that  the  tree  is  truly  an  oak.  But  only  the 
young  trees  are  willowy  in  habit.  The  oak  characters  soon  assert 
themselves. 

Naturally,  willow  oaks  grow  on  the  margins  of  swamps,  but 
they  thrive  as  a  street  and  shade  tree,  and  are  especially  beautiful 
in  the  autumnal  yellow  of  their  foliage.  A  large  tree  grows  in 
John  Bartram's  garden  in  Philadelphia;  a  small  one  seems  to  be 
holding  its  own  without  protection  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum  at 
Boston,  though  its  shoots  are  often  nipped  by  frost. 

The  Shingle  Oak,  or  Laurel  Oak  (Q.  imhricaria,  Michx.) — 
A  tree  60  to  100  feet  high,  pyramidal,  becoming  round  headed  at 
length;  branches  slender.  Barlz  pale  brown,  scaly;  twigs  smooth. 
Wood  reddish  brown,  heavy,  hard,  coarse  grained.  Buds 
small,  acute,  brownish.  Leaves  deciduous,  alternate,  oblong, 
usually  entire,  4  to  6  inches  long,  i  to  2  inches  wide,  shining,  dark 
green  above,  paler  and  pubescent  beneath;  petioles  short.  Flowers 
in  May,  with  opening  leaves,  tomentose,  greenish.  Acorns 
biennial,  ^  to  §  inch  long,  stalked,  solitary  or  paired;  nut  broad, 
short,  pointed;  cup  shallow,  scaly,  reddish;  kernel  bitter. 
Preferred  habitat,  rich  bottom  lands.  Distribution,  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Georgia;  west  to  Nebraska  and  Arkansas.  Uses: 
Lumber  for  clapboards  and  shingles.  A  hardy  and  beautiful 
park  tree. 

The  pyramidal  shape  of  the  young  shingle  oak  and  the  hori- 
zontal and  drooping  postures  of  its  slender  branches  remind  us 
strongly  of  the  pin  oak.  The  "pins,"  however,  are  missing,  as 
we  will  observe  when  the  tree  is  bare;  and  the  foliage  in  summer 
quickly  corrects  any  talse  impressions.  Even  from  a  distance  the 
foliage  masses  of  the  two  trees  differ  distinctly.  The  clefts  and 
angles  that  make  so  large  a  part  of  pin-oak  leaves  are  all  missing 
in  those  of  the  shingle  oak.  Willow  or  peach  leaves  are  more  like 
these  plain-margined  ones.  The  wayfaring  man  will  never  imagine 
this  tree  to  be  an  oak  until  he  sees  the  acorns. 

The  shingle  oak  grows  quickly,  as  the  long,  leafy  shoots  in 
early  summer  prove.  The  star-shaped  arrangement  of  the  leaves 
on  the  short  branches  is  most  interesting,  and  there  is  a  wavy  curl 
in  the  margins,  as  if  they  would  each  turn  aside  to  let  the  sunlight 
in  to  the  branches  less  favourably  situated.     So  little  interference 

220 


O,'     c   'i 


THE    SHINGLE    OAK  {i)uercus  imbricaria) 

.Che  glossy,  elliptical  leaves  are  unlike  tiie  typical  oak  leaf.     The  plump  little  acorns  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  family  name  of 
the  tree.     Half-grown  acorns  appear  above  the  mature  ones 


The  Oaks 

is  there  that  the  tree  is  leafy  to  its  central  shaft,  but  the  head  is 
still  open. 

The  shingle  oak  has  a  fashion  of  crossing  with  related  species, 
and  Ihus  producing  hybrids  from  seed.  The  black  oak  and  this 
one  are  believed  to  be  the  parents  of  a  rather  widely  distributed 
form,  now  called  Quercus  Leana.  Crosses  with  the  pin  oak  and 
the  jack  oak  also  occur. 

The  summer  beauty  of  this  tree  is  quite  sufficient  to  commend 
it  to  all  planters.  It  is  covered  in  spring  with  pink  and  silver,  the 
leaves  before  they  expand  are  curled  in  tight  little  tubes.  In  sum- 
mer they  are  leathery  and  shining.  In  autumn  they  change  to 
rich  reds,  and  the  veins  and  midrib  are  touched  with  a  more  fiery 
hue.  Truly,  there  is  no  season  when  the  shingle  oak  is  not  hand- 
some in  any  congregation  of  trees. 

Another  Laurel  Oak  (Quercus  laurijolia,  Michx.),  with 
leathery  leaves  like  laurel,  grows  to  large  size  in  swamp  borders, 
and  along  streams  in  the  coast  regions,  from  Virginia  to  Louisiana. 
It  is  the  common  "water  oak"  of  streets  and  yards,  adorning  them 
with  its  grpxeful  columnar  trunks  and  lustrous  dark  green,  almost 
evergreen,  foliage.  Only  the  live  oak,  its  near  associate,  exceeds 
it  in  beauty.  It  is  commonest  in  eastern  Florida,  and  here  it 
reaches  its  greatest  height.  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  hardy  in  the 
North. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  OAKS 

The  oak  was  held  sacred  by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Teutons 
and  Celts.  They  venerated  the  living  tree  for  its  fruit  which  fed 
them,  and  for  its  lumber  which  housed  them  and  served  as  their 
defence  against  their  enemies.  "  Hearts  of  oak  "  were  built  into  the 
Norsemen's  ships  that  storms  could  not  wrench  apart.  The 
triremes  of  the  great  navies  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  of  oak  tim- 
ber. So  were  their  great  bridges,  aqueducts  and  buildings — 
triumphs  of  architectural  art  and  engineering  skill.  The  very 
columns,  with  their  flaring  bases  and  capitals,  were  modelled 
from  the  trunks  of  oaks.  The  curves  of  the  branches  suggested 
their  arches,  and  the  leaves  and  acorns  gave  them  designs  for 
ornamentation. 

The  Druids  held  their  most  solemn  rites  under  the  sacred 
shade  of  their  oak  groves.     The  mistletoe  was  gathered  on  the 

221 


The  Oaks 

coming  in  of  the  new  year,  and  only  a  hook  of  gold  was  fit  for  this 
ceremony.  Their  Yule  log  was  an  oak  tree  cut  down,  drawn  home 
and  offered  on  the  rude  hearth  as  a  sacrifice  to  Yaioul,  the  Celtic 
god  of  fire,  in  the  feast  of  midwinter,  it  was  through  his  favour 
that  winter's  icy  grasp  loosened,  and  the  days  began  to  lengthen. 
Sleeping  under  the  shade  of  an  oak  was  counted  a  sovereign 
cure  for  paralytics.  The  benefits  of  such  treatment  must  have 
depended  upon  the  weather,  for  oaks  in  thunderstorms  seem  very 
prone  to  "draw  the  stroke."  Shakespeare's  famous  apostrophe 
in  "Measure  for  Measure"  seconds  the  popular  belief  in  his  time; 
the  opinion  prevails  among  woodsmen  to-day: 

"Merciful  heaven! 
Thou  rather  with  thy  sharp  and  sulphurous  bolt 
Split'st  the  unwedgeable  and  gnarled  oak 
Than  the  soft  myrtle." 

There  is  a  whole  thunderstorm  crowded  into  these  lines. 

Durability  is  a  prime  merit  in  oak  timber.  The  oldest  houses 
in  England  show  their  oak  beams  and  panelling  as  sound  to-day 
as  ever.  Shrines  of  the  early  kings  carved  in  oak  have  not  yet 
begun  to  show  signs  of  age.  "Antique  oak  "  is  imitated  by  staining 
to  very  dark  colour  the  stock  used  in  furniture  manufactories. 
Genuine  "antique  oak"  is  a  priceless  treasure. 
"^"^  Bog  Oak. — This  oak,  a  favourite  wood  in  the  decorative 
arts,  is  obtained  from  trunks  which  have  lain  and  blackened  in 
the  peat  bogs  of  Ireland  and  England  for  untold  centuries.  These 
logs,  exhumed,  seasoned,  and  sawed  into  lumber,  bring  extrava- 
gant prices.  Wholesale  inundation  of  forests,  due  possibly  to 
earthquakes,  produced  some  of  this  bog  oak.  Tradition  has  it 
that,  in  55  B.  C.,  Caesar's  army,  wintering  in  the  land  of  the  Britons, 
was  set  to  cutting  down  the  forests  and  dragging  the  logs  into 
boggy  districts.  This  was  to  keep  the  army  under  strict  discipline, 
and  to  spite  the  unfriendly  Britons.  The  camps  and  bridges  the 
Romans  built  consumed  many  of  the  sacred  oak  groves,  and  the 
surplus,  maliciously  buried  in  the  swamps,  has  been  discovered 
and  dug  up  centuries  later.  This  wood  is  described  by  Evelyn 
as  taking  on  a  colour  and  hardness  "emulating  the  politest  ebony." 

Structure  of  Oak  Wood — Oak  wood  shows  distinct  annual 
rings,  each  made  of  a  band  of  close  grained,  pale  summer  wood,  and 
dark,  open,  porous  layer  of  spring  wood.     Broad,  shining  bands  of 


The  Oaks 

fibres  extend  in  vertical  plates  from  centre  to  bark  in  the  tree. 
When  the  wood  is  properly  sawed  these  shining  medullary,  or 
pith  rays,  show  as  irregular  patches  on  the  surface.  Much  of  the 
beauty  of  polished  oak  depends  upon  these  "mirrors,"  which  are 
the  largest  when  the  wood  is  "quarter  sawed" — that  is,  when 
sawed  toward  the  centre  of  the  log.  Gnarled  roots  and  tortuous 
branches  of  old  oak  trees  furnish  wood  of  curly  grain  which  is 
highly  prized  for  veneering. 

Uses  of  Acorns. — Acorns  vary  in  sweetness  and  edibility. 
They  all  contain  food  elements,  and  primitive  peoples  have  used 
them  as  food.  The  Californian  white  oak  (Quercus  lohaid)  has  a 
sweet  acorn  which  the  Indians  bake,  shell,  and  then  grind  into  a 
coarse  meal  out  of  which  bread  is  made.  The  New  England  Indian 
tribes  ate  the  acorns  of  white  oaks  of  various  species,  as  did  the 
tribes  farther  south.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  have  species  with 
edible  acorns.  In  Europe  the  acorn  crop  is  watched  with  great 
solicitude.     The  ancients  believed  that 

".     .     .     men  fed  with  oaken  mast 
The  aged  trees  themselves  in  years  surpassed." 

Quercus  esculus  was  especially  esteemed  for  food.  The  mast 
was  also  depended  upon  for  the  fattening  of  swine.  English 
villagers  still  enjoy  in  many  places  the  ancient  "right  of  pannage," 
the  privilege,  granted  them  by  some  early  king,  of  turning  their 
hogs  in  autumn  into  the  royal  forests. 

The  acorn  cups  of  Quercus  Valonia  are  exceptionally  rich  in 
tannin,  and  are  sifted  out  from  the  nuts  and  sold  under  the  trade 
name,  Valonia,  to  the  best  tanneries  in  Europe. 

Oak  bark  is  a  staple  tan  bark  the  world  over.  The  black 
and  chestnut  oaks  in  this  country  and  the  English  oak  in  Europe 
are  richest  in  tannin.  Spent  bark  from  the  pits  holds  heat.  It 
was  formerly  used  in  private  greenhouses  under  the  soil  to  force 
exotic  fruits,  especially  pineapples,  in  England.  It  is  now  spread 
on  race  tracks,  roadways,  paths  and  sidewalks. 

Insect  Enemies. — Numerous  insects  and  fungi  prey  upon 
oaks.  Great  caterpillars  of  our  most  beautiful  night-flying  moths 
devour  the  young  foliage.  Weevils  infest  the  acorns,  gall  insects 
distort  the  leaves  and  twigs,  scale  insects  suck  the  juices  from  the 
young  branches.  Certain  of  these  enemies  of  the  oaks  have  been 
turned  to  good  account  by  man.     The  scale,  Kermes,  is  a  soft- 

223 


The  Oaks 

bodied  creature,  diminutive  in  size,  but  infinite  in  numbers.  Its 
eggs  are  gathered  and  dried,  much  as  the  cochineal  insects  are, 
and  a  valuable  scarlet  dye  is  made  of  them.  This  industry 
belongs  to  the  countries  of  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa, 
where  the  Kermes  is  used  for  dyeing  leather  and  wool.  In  France 
cosmetics  are  tinted  with  it. 

Oak  Galls. — "Oak  apples"  are  abnormal  growths  on  the 
leaves  or  twigs  of  oaks  due  to  the  presence  of  the  larvae  of  certain 
insects  whose  eating  seems  to  poison  the  tissues  and  distort  their 
development.  An  entomologist  knows  by  the  form  of  the  gall 
what  insect  produces  it.  In  ancient  times  people  knew  little  of 
their  causes — the  "apples  of  Sodom"  and  "Dead  Sea  fruit"  of 
history,  sacred  and  profane,  were  galls  of  oaks.  The  "flea  seed" 
of  California  oaks  contain  the  young  of  a  species  of  the  genus 
Cynips.  A  glance  into  almost  any  oak  tree  just  as  the  buds  are 
opening  will  show  delicate,  wasp-like  insects  resting  lightly  for 
a  moment  on  one  leaf  cluster  after  another,  depositing  eggs,  one  in 
a  place,  within  the  leaf  substance.  The  beginnings  of  oak  apples 
may  be  found  as  large  as  peas  on  leaves  scarcely  an  inch  long. 
John  Gerard,  the  herbalist,  writing  in  1 597,  naively  expresses  the 
misconceptions  and  superstitious  beliefs  of  his  day  in  England. 

"The  gall  tree,"  he  explains  at  the  outset,  "is  a  kinde  of  oke." 
Then  proceeding: 

"The  oke  apples  being  broken  in  sunder  about  the  time  of 
their  withering  doe  foreshew  the  sequell  of  the  yeare,  as  the 
expert  Kentish  husbandmen  have  observed,  by  the  living  things 
found  in  them:  as,  if  they  fmde  an  ant,  they  foretell  plenty  of 
graine  to  ensue;  if  a  white  worm  like  a  gentill  or  maggot,  then  they 
prognosticate  murren  of  beasts  and  cattell;  if  a  spider,  then  (say 
they)  we  shall  have  a  pestilence  or  some  such  like  sickness  to 
follow  amongst  men;  these  things  the  learned  also  have  observed, 
and  noted  that  before  they  have  an  hole  through  them  they  contain 
in  them  either  a  flie,  a  spider,  or  a  worme;  if  a  flie,  then  warre 
ensueth;  if  a  creeping  worme,  then  scarcities  of  victuals;  if  a 
running  spider,  then  followeth  great  sicknesse  or  mortalitie." 

Oak  galls  are  rich  in  tannin,  sometimes  yielding  as  high  as 
77  per  cent.  They  have  always  been  used  in  various  countries  in 
tanning  the  finest  skins,  and  in  making  inks  and  dyes.  The 
Aleppo  galls  from  northern  Italy  rank  highest.  The  oldest  docu- 
ments in  America  show  the  ink  still  bright  on  the  yellowing  parch- 
ment, for  it  was  made  of  oak  galls  and  is  practically  permanent. 

224 


The  Oaks 

Dyes  are  equally  lasting,  in  distinct  contrast  to  the  cheap  aniline 
dyes  in  use  nowadays,  and  the  inks  that  fade  in  a  year  or  two. 
Here  is  something  startling.  A  writer  in  England  three  centuries 
ago  thus  recommends  these  galls  to  horse  jockeys:  "A  handful  or 
two  of  small  Oak  buttons,  mingled  with  Oats  given  to  Horses, 
which  are  black  of  colour,  will  in  a  few  days  eating  alter  it  to  a  fine 
Dapple  grey." 

Truffles. — The  truffles  of  commerce,  famous  in  the  French 
cuisine  and  well  known  to  the  gourmands  in  Rome's  palmiest 
days,  are  edible  fungi,  somewhat  like  puff  balls  in  texture  and 
mode  of  growth.  They  grow  as  parasites  upon  the  roots  of 
various  trees,  including  the  Holm  oak  and  the  English  oak. 
Limy  soil  is  required  by  these  fungi.  They  are  produced  in 
southern  England  and  on  the  Continent,  reaching  their  highest 
perfection  in  France  and  Italy.  "The  reputation  of  the  truffle  of 
Perigord  is  as  old  as  the  world!"  In  an  impassioned  ode  to  this 
delicacy,  a  famous  Frenchman  uttered  this  apostrophe: 

"Noir  diamant,  perle  de  la  Gascogne, 
Tous  les  gourmets  venerent  ton  pays!" 

Truffles  bring  astonishing  prices  in  the  markets  of  Europe. 
This  fact  alone  quite  justifies  the  planting  of  chalky  lands  to  oaks. 
Yield  of  truffles  is  expected  when  the  trees  are  a  dozen  years  old, 
and  it  continues  without  abatement  for  twenty-five  years  if  con- 
ditions remain  favourable. 

The  truffle  hunter,  often  a  peasant  woman,  goes  into  the 
woods  with  a  basket,  a  spading  fork,  and  a  dog  or  a  pig,  trained 
to  help  her.  The  truffle  has  a  rich,  strong  odour  which  these 
animals  detect  by  their  keen  sense  of  smell.  The  hunter  keeps 
close  to  the  animal,  which  soon  begins  a  vigorous  digging  or 
rooting.  It  is  at  once  interrupted.  The  eager  quadruped  is 
sorely  disappointed,  for  he  is  a  truffle  connoisseur  and  a  gourmand. 
His  duty  is  to  "point"  the  truffle  only;  the  spading  fork  carefully 
unearths  the  precious  tuber  and  it  goes  into  the  basket.  Unless 
carefully  tied  or  penned  at  night,  these  ill-used  servants  fare  forth, 
and  help  themselves  to  these  subterranean  delicacies  by  the  light 
of  the  moon. 

Truffles  are  doubtless  present  on  roots  of  beech  and  oak  in 
our  own  woods.  We  have  not  yet  taken  time  to  discover  and 
exploit  them.    Our  epicures  are  satisfied  with  the  canned  and 

225 


The  Oaks 

imported  article.  The  delectable  "beefsteak"  fungus,  which  grows 
on  the  trunks  of  certain  of  our  native  oaks,  is  highly  esteemed 
by  those  who  know  it,  but  most  people  cautiously  despise  all 
"toadstools,"  great  and  small. 

The  Cork  Oak  (Quercus  Suber),  native  to  the  peninsulas  of 
southern  Europe,  and  to  northern  Africa,  is  a  small  evergreen  oak, 
rarely  over  30  feet  high  and  2  feet  in  diameter,  which  grows  in 
forests  on  broken,  unproductive  land.  The  importance  of  these 
forests  has  never  waned,  because  nobody  has  discovered  or  in- 
vented a  satisfactory  substitute  for  cork.  In  France  and  all  other 
vine-growing  countries  the  importation  of  cork  is  a  great  business. 
What  wonder  then  that  the  people  in  the  grape  and  wine  belt  of 
California  rejoiced  to  fmd  that  the  cork  oak  can  be  successfully 
grown  on  the  otherwise  unproductive  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  It  is  a  vast  saving  to  raise  their  own  bottle  stoppers 
instead  of  importing  them  from  the  other  side  of  the  globe. 

What  a  novel  experience  it  would  be  to  visit  at  harvest  time 
one  of  those  forests  in  Spain  or  Algeria  which  have  for  centuries 
furnished  cork  to  the  world!  We  should  not  say  the  business  was 
carried  on  in  a  very  economical  or  economic  way,  as  we  Americans 
count  those  things.  There  is  not  the  rush  and  bustle  of  the 
Western  World  in  those  sleepy  countries.  Haste  makes  waste 
in  growing  cork  and  stripping  it.  The  slowest-growing  trees  pro- 
duce the  best  grade  of  cork,  and  they  are  not  at  their  best  till  fifty 
years  old.  For  the  next  fifty  years  they  yield  a  thick  coat  of  cork 
every  ten  years.  Then  the  quality  deteriorates,  and  the  trees 
are  cut  down,  the  bark  sent  to  the  tan  pit,  and  the  charcoal  burner 
takes  the  wood. 

When  the  age  of  twenty-five  years  is  reached  it  is  time  to 
strip  off  from  the  trunk  the  "virgin  bark,"  a  thin,  hard,  outer 
layer,  which  is  rich  in  tannin,  but  bears  no  resemblance  to  cork. 
The  removal  of  this  layer  sets  the  tree  to  forming  a  spongy  layer, 
thick  and  entirely  different  from  the  first.  This  grows  eight  or 
ten  years,  when  it  is  removed,  and  a  second  layer  produced.  The 
first  is  practically  useless.  The  second  stripping  gives  cork  used 
by  fishermen  to  float  their  nets  with.  The  stripping  goes  on,  each 
decade  showing  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  cork  until  the 
fiftieth  year  brings  it  to  its  best  state. 

The  stripping  of  cork  is  a  particular  job.  Two  opposite 
vertical  cuts  are  made  the  full  length  of  the  trunk;  then  circular 

226 


The  Oaks 

cuts  at  top  and  bottom  are  made,  and  the  two  rectangular  plates 
of  bark,  each  covering  one-half  of  the  whole  trunk,  are  attached 
to  it  only  by  the  alburnum,  or  "mother  bark."  It  is  a  delicate 
matter  to  get  the  cork  off  and  yet  leave  this  under  layer  uninjured. 
Cork  never  grows  again  on  spots  that  are  bruised.  Very  carefully 
the  wedge-shaped  handle  of  the  hatchet  creeps  along  the  edge  of 
the  plate  and  lifts  it  gradually  off.  The  skill  and  patience  required 
to  do  this  must  challenge  our  admiration.  The  harvest  time 
comes  in  July  or  August.  The  curved  plates  of  cork  are  scraped 
smooth,  heated  and  flattened  for  transportation. 

The  flowering  period  of  cork  oaks  is  practically  continuous 
in  the  warmer  sections  of  Portugal.  The  acorns  are  annual  from 
the  early  flowers,  but  the  later  ones  are  carried  over,  ripening  in 
the  second  season.  There  are  no  less  than  three  distinct  crops  of 
acorns,  as  the  farmer  folk  well  know.  The  fattening  of  hogs 
depends  largely  upon  these  acorns.  There  seems  to  be  no  distinct 
line  drawn  between  annual  and  biennial  cork  oaks. 

There  is  only  one  tree  in  the  world  whose  bark  ranks  commer- 
cially with  the  cork  oak,  and  it  takes  second  place.  It  is  the 
Cinchona,  or  Peruvian-bark  tree,  which  is  the  source  of  quinine 
and  related  drugs. 

Exotic  Oaks  in  American  Gardens. — The  English  oak 
(Quercus  Robur)  is  the  only  oak  native  to  the  British  Isles.  It  is 
the  patriarch  of  the  forest,  noblest  in  any  company  of  trees, 
fostered  in  its  youth,  cherished  and  revered  in  its  old  age,  depended 
upon  in  its  prime  for  its  valuable  products.  The  Briton  to-day 
is  as  fervent  a  tree  worshipper  as  his  Druid  ancestors  were,  but 
his  love  for  the  oak  is  stripped  of  superstition  and  tempered  by 
intelligence.  He  is  a  practical  man,  and  while  he  cherishes  the 
gnarled  oaks  that  adorn  his  private  grounds  and  public  parks,  he 
has  his  oak  forests  for  timber  as  his  grain  fields  for  bread.  Sense 
and  sentiment  are  both  strong  in  him,  but  there  is  a  proper 
balance  between  them. 

The  English  oak  is  by  no  means  confined  to  England.  It 
is  found  all  over  Europe,  where  in  earlier  times  it  formed  extensi\e 
forests.  It  is  known  in  two  forms,  sessili flora  and  pediinadaia, 
varieties  dependent  upon  the  absence  or  presence  of  stalks  of 
flower  and  fruit.  With  age  these  trees  increase  in  breadth, 
more  than  in  height,  grow  stout  in  trunk  and.  limb,  and  the 
branches    become    extravagantly    gnarled     and    twisted.      The 

227 


The  Oaks 

prevailing  belief  as  to  the  age  of  these   oaks  is  expressed    in 
Dryden's  lines: 

"Three  centuries  he  grows,  and  three  he  stays 
Supreme  in  state;  and  in  three  more  decays." 

There  are  trees  still  hale  in  England  to-day  which  were  old 
enough  to  cut  for  their  lumber  when  William  the  Conqueror 
landed  in  1066.  Scientists  estimate  the  limit  of  longevity  among 
oaks  at  about  2,000  years. 

The  British  oak  grows  indifferently  in  the  United  States 
except  in  California.  Here  it  finds  conditions  most  favourable  and 
grows  with  great  rapidity  and  vigour.  Acorns  planted  in  1878  were 
grown  into  large  trees  in  1890 — to  the  amazement  of  everybody. 

The  Holm  Oak  (Quercus  Ilex),  which  skirts  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Europe,  and  seems  to  thrive  best,  even  in  England, 
when  exposed  to  sea  breezes,  is  the  Ilex,  famous  in  classical 
literature.  Its  evergreen  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  holly, 
whose  generic  name  is  Ilex.  This  is  one  of  the  most  ornamental 
of  the  oaks,  compact  and  regular  in  form,  and  beautiful  in  its 
glossy  foliage  the  year  round.  Its  acorns  form  one  of  the  im- 
portant edible  sorts  in  Europe.  The  value  of  its  mast  alone  would 
justify  the  planting  of  the  Holm  oak.  It  is  also  one  of  the  truffle 
oaks,  and  its  bark  and  the  galls  of  one  of  its  varieties  are  of  the 
highest  value  in  dyeing  and  tanning. 

Turkey  Oak  (Quercus  cerris),  of  Europe,  is  planted  in  our 
Southern  States.  It  has  somewhat  the  form  and  symmetry  of 
the  beech  in  its  lusty  youth.  Its  foliage  is  dark,  with  greyish 
linings;  the  acorn  i^  inches  long,  with  a  large  mossy  cup  that  half- 
way swallows  it.    This  is  the  "wainscot  oak"  of  English  builders. 

Japanese  and  Chinese  oaks  feel  at  home  in  the  Eastern 
States  of  America,  and  are  now  coming  in,  to  the  enrichment  of 
our  horticulture  and  the  delight  of  landscape  gardeners.  The 
crispness  and  vigour  of  the  foliage  make  these  trees  strikingly 
handsome.  Quercus  variabilis  has  leathery,  dark  green  chestnut- 
like leaves,  with  white  woolly  linings.  Quercus  dentaia,  with 
toothed  margins,  in  one  variety  ciit  into  narrow  fingers  almost 
to  the  midrib,  is  notable  for  the  size  of  its  leathery,  lustrous 
leaves.  They  are  often  a  foot  in  length.  Another  Japanese 
favourite  is  Quercus  glandulijera,  a  half-evergreen  shrub,  whose 
chestnut-like  leaves  are  set  with  glandular  teeth.  This  is  half 
hardy  when  planted  in  New  England. 

228 


THh    LANCASTKK    KLM   {I  hni.s  Americana) 

This  noble  specimen  of  our  common  white  elm  grows  in  a  field  near  Lancaster,  Massachusetts.  The  objects  around  it 
-mphasise  its  great  size.  It  shows  what  a  roadside  tree  may  become  if  it  is  let  alone  and  given  time  and  elbow  room.  It  is  the 
pride  of  the  state  it  grows  in.     May  the  insects  spare  it  long! 


CHAPTER   XXVIII:     THE   ELMS  AND  THE 
HACKBERRIES 

Family  ULMACE/ii 

1.  Genus  ULMUS,  Linn. 

Trees  of  horticultural  and  lumber  value.  Leaves  alternate 
serrate,  unequal  at  base,  with  strong  ribs  and  short  petioles 
Flowers  greenish,  inconspicuous,  perfect.  Fruit  a  dry  nutlet 
with  thin  encircling  wing,  bearing  two  hooks  at  apex. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Blooming  before  the  leaves  in  spring. 
B.  Twigs  smooth. 

C.  Branches  corky  winged. 

{U.  alaia)  wahoo  or  winged  elm 
CC.  Branches  not  corky  winged. 

{U.  Americana)  American  or  water  elm 
BB.  Twigs  pubescent. 

C.  Branches  corky.  {U.  Thomasi)  cork  elm 

CC.  Branches  not  corky;  leaves  rough  above;  twigs  and 
buds  with  coarse,  rusty  hairs. 

{U.  julva)  slippery  elm 
AA.  Blooming  late  in  summer  or  autumn. 

B.  Leaves  over  2  inches  long,  thin.      {U.  seroiina)  red  elm 
BB.  Leaves  i  to  2  inches  long,  thick. 

{U.  crassijolia)  cedar  elm 

2.  Genus  CELTIS,   Linn. 

Valuable  shade  trees.  Leaves  simple,  3-nerved,  serrate. 
Flowers  polygamo-monoecious,  axillary,  small.  Fruit  sweet, 
succulent  berry. 

A.  Leaves  coarsely  and  sharply  serrate;  fruit  large. 

(C.  occidenialis)  hackberry 
AA.  Leaves  entire  or  obscurely  serrate;  fruit  small. 

(C.  Mississippiensis)  sugarberry 
229 


The  Elms  and  the   Hackberries 

3.  Genus  PLANERA,  Gmel. 

Water-loving  trees  of  small  size.  Leaves  elm-like,  small, 
unsymmetrical.  Flowers  polygamo-monoecious,  axillary,  small. 
Fruit  a  dry  drupe  in  crustaceous  husk.    {P.  aquaiica)  planer  tree 

I.  Genus  Ulmus,  Linn. 

The  genus  Ulmus  has  sixteen  known  species,  distributed  in 
all  north  temperate  countries  except  western  North  America. 
Five  species  are  native  to  our  Eastern  States  and  one  to  the 
Southwest;  Europe  has  three,  two  of  which  extend  to  eastern 
Asia  and  northern  Africa.  Southern  and  central  Asia  have 
representatives.  Elms  are  valuable  timber  trees,  and  have 
always  been  planted  for  shade  and  ornament.  Many  varieties 
have  arisen  in  cultivation  among  the  European  species.  So  far 
the  American  species  have,  shown  few  horticultural  forms.  The 
elms  are  distinguished  by  their  simple,  unsymmetrical,  2-ranked 
leaves,  and  their  thin,  circular,  winged  samaras.  Their  wood 
is  tough,  heavy  and  hard,  with  interlacing  fibres  which  make  it 
difficult  to  split. 

White  Elm,  American  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana,  Linn.) — 
A  tall,  graceful,  wide-spreading  tree,  75  to  125  feet  high,  usually 
of  symmetrical,  vase  shape,  with  slender  limbs  and  pendulous 
twigs.  Bark  dark  or  light  grey,  rough,  coarsely  ridged ;  branches 
grey;  twigs  reddish  brown.  Wood  reddish  brown,  with  pale 
sap  wood;  coarse,  hard,  heavy,  strong,  cross  grained,  difficult  to 
split,  durable  in  water  and  soil.  Buds  acute,  flattened,  smooth; 
flower  buds  lateral,  large.  Leaves  alternate,  2  to  6  inches  long, 
obovate,  doubly  serrate,  acuminate,  unequal  at  base;  smopth 
above  when  mature;  ribs  parallel.  Flowers,  March,  before  leaves, 
on  slender,  drooping  pedicels  in  umbel-like  clusters,  perfect, 
greenish  red,  inconspicuous.  Fruit,  May,  sm.ooth,  oval  with  thin 
ciliated  circular  wing,  notched  above  to  the  nutlet.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich,  moist  soil.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Florida; 
west  to  Rocky  Mountains.  Uses:  Favourite  shade  and  orna- 
mental tree.  Wood  used  for  hubs,  saddle  trees,  barrels  and  kegs, 
flooring,  in  boat  and  shipbuilding,  flumes  and  piles.  Indians  used 
bark  for  canoes  and  ropes. 

Up  and  down  New  England  the  trolley  cars  ply  in  a  maze 
230 


The  Elms  and  the   Hackberries 

of  systems  that  becomes  more  complex  every  year.  Buzzing 
like  msistent  and  inquisitive  bumblebees,  they  awaken  the 
sleepiest  hamlet,  haling  its  inhabitants  to  the  cities  and  unloading 
weary,  city-bound  mortals  in  the  green  country.  They  stir  the 
torpid,  stagnant  pool  of  existence;  they  wake  the  old  nomadic 
cravings  of  the  primitive  race.  The  most  indignant  farmer  or 
villager,  once  he  gets  thoroughly  awake,  ceases  to  grumble;  for 
his  feet  of  clay  the  trolley  gives  him  the  wings  of  a  bird. 

1  am  not  an  idolater,  I  hope,  and  I  would  chiefly  scorn  to 
worship  the  almighty  dollar.  But  the  vast  extent  of  picturesque 
country  one  can  see  for  this  sum  by  trolley  in  New  England  fills 
me  with  a  surprise  akin  to  awe. 

The  striking  ornament  of  New  England  landscapes  is  the 
American  elm.  The  countryside  abounds  with  splendid  speci- 
mens. They  are  the  pride  of  cities  and  villages.  Down  fine  old 
avenues  arched  over  with  their  mighty  arms  the  trolley  cars 
take  their  noisy  way.  The  Westerner, stands  astonished  at  the 
giant  size  of  these  trees,  and  wonders  why  he  cannot  match  them 
at  home.  It  is  largely  a  matter  of  time.  In  the  early  days  our 
ancestors  took  up  the  trees  from  the  woods  and  planted  them  by 
their  roadsides  and  about  their  dwellings.  Memories  of  elm.s 
at  homes — the  beautiful  Ulmus  campestris  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent — guided  their  choice.  Trees  twenty  years  old  were 
transplanted  with  safety,  for  this  elm  has  fibrous  roots  that  keep 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Then  the  busy  home-makers 
let  the  trees  alone.  They  had  no  time  to  prune  and  cultivate. 
The  trees  needed  no  such  attention.  The  roots  ranged  freely  in 
the  virgin  soil.  The  spreading  tops  were  self-pruning — the 
strong  limbs  choked  the  weak  ones,  keeping  an  open,  symmetrical 
head.  Every  year  added  to  the  tree's  stature.  It  is  a  race 
of  giants  now,  against  whom  insect  hosts  have  come — the  tussock 
moths,  the  elm-leaf  beetle  and  the  brown  tail.  No  wonder  the 
people  have  made  the  fight  their  own. 

The  elm  is  familiar  to  everybody — its  vase-like  form  is  in 
sight  whenever  we  look  out  of  a  window.  It  grows  everywhere 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  ignorance  of  it  is  a  mark  of 
indifference  or  stupidity.  No  village  of  any  pride  but  plants  it 
freely  as  a  street  tree. 

The  Etruscan  vase  form — a  base  gradually  flaring  to  a 
round  dome — is    most    common.     The    trunk  soon  divides  into 

231 


The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries 

three  or  four  main  limbs  with  sHght  but  constant  divergence  as 
they  rise.  Their  branches  follow  their  example.  The  divisions 
are  drawn  downward  by  their  increasing  weight,  and  the  extremi- 
ties are  pendulous,  sweeping  out  and  down  with  loads  of  foliage, 
luxuriant,  but  never  heavy  looking  or  ungraceful. 

There  are  narrower  elm  forms:  tall  trunks  whose  limbs 
form  a. brush  at  the  top,  not  unlike  a  feather  duster.  Such  trees 
often  replace  lost  outer  limbs  by  a  multitude  of  short  leafy 
twigs,  covering  the  trunks  with  foliage,  thus  forming  what  are 
known  as  "feathered  elms." 

The  "oak-tree  form" — wider  and  broader  than  the  vase 
form — reminds  one  of  the  ample  crown  of  an  oak.  But  only  the 
outline  is  suggestive.  The  limbs  are  curved,  never  angular  and 
tortuous  like  the  oak.  Grace  rather  than  strength  is  invariably 
the  expression  of  the  American  elm.  In  good  soil  the  terminal 
shoots  attain  great  length,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  an  elm 
of  vase  shape  with  the  droop  of  a  weeping  willow. 

The  leaves  of  the  elm  are  two-ranked,  the  twigs  plume-like. 
Every  chink  is  filled  with  a  leaf.  Break  off  a  branch  that  faces 
the  sun,  and  you  will  be  astonished  at  the  twisting  and  contriving 
of  the  leaves,  to  present  an  unbroken  surface  of  green.  This  is 
known  as  a  "leaf  mosaic,"  and  is  by  no  means  confined  to  elms. 
Any  roadside  thicket  shows  the  same  habit  in  all  its  species. 

I  think,  with  all  due  regard  for  its  summer  luxuriance,  and  the 
grace  of  its  framework  in  winter,  the  greatest  charm  invests  the 
elm  of  the  roadside  in  the  first  warm  days  of  spring.  The  swelling 
buds  are  full  of  promise.  A  flush  of  purple  overspreads  the  tree, 
while  snow  yet  covers  the  ground.  A  tremendous  "fall  of  leaves" 
ensues — for  the  tiny  leaf  scales  that  enclose  the  elm  flowers  are 
but  leaves  in  miniature.  The  elms  are  in  blossom;  they  are  among 
the  first  in  the  flower  procession  that  silently  passes  till  the  witch 
hazel  brings  up  the  rear  in  October.  Then  come  the  little  green 
seeds,  winged  for  flight.  These  ripen  and  are  scattered  before 
the  leaves  are  open,  and  the  growth  of  the  season's  shoots  really 
begins.  How  much  they  miss  who  never  see  the  elms  in  flower 
and  fruit! 

The  English  elm  {U.  campestris)  is  a  strikingly  different 
tree  from  its  American  cousin.  Boston  Common  gives  ample 
opportunity  to  contrast  large  specimens  of  the  two  species. 
Dignity   is   a   characteristic   of   each.     Each   bears   a   luxuriant 

232 


-^  ^§ 


The  leaf 


AMERICAN    ELM   (,(  imus  Americana) 

nd  has  strong  parallel  ribs.     The  winter  twigs    show  plum_p,_  blunt   flower  buds, 


xiic  icii   ■:>    uii=ymmetrical  at  the  base, ^  ,  ^-  „  -        ,•  ,       i  r^,  i 

larger  than  the  slim,  pointed  leaf  buds.    In  March  the  flowers  appear,  giving  the  bare  tree  lop  a  warm,  purplish  colour.    The  pale- 
Preen  seeds  dangle  in  rrofuse  cluster,  in  May,  falling  before  the  leaves  are  full  grown.     Each  seed  has  a  c.rcular  wing  with  two 


green  „  ,  .  - 

incurving  hooks  at  the  top.     Elm  lumber  is  hard,  tough,  heavy  and 
into  scaly  ridges 


-grained 


livide-i  by  deep  furrows 


The  Elms  and  the   HackberrieS 

burden  of  leaves.  The  Briton  is  stocky;  the  American,  airily 
graceful.  One  stands  heavily  "upon  its  heels,"  the  other  on 
tiptoe.  One  has  a  compact  crown,  the  other  an  open,  loose  one. 
In  October  the  English  elm  is  still  bright,  dark  green;  the  Amer- 
ican elm  has  passed  into  the  sere  and  yellow  leaf. 

The  elm  is  the  favourite  tree  of  the  hang  bird,  or  Baltimore 
oriole,  in  America.  In  winter  the  deserted  nests  swing  from  the 
high  outer  limbs,  where  the  leaves  concealed  them  in  nesting 
time.  The  English  elm  at  home  is  the  red-breast's  tree.  These 
birds  build,  not  in  the  upper  limbs,  but  in  those  that  grow  down 
near  the  trunk,  and  come  earliest  into  leaf. 

Classical  literature  proves  the  antiquity  and  the  great  im- 
portance of  the  elms  of  southern  Europe.  The  Romans  used 
elm  leaves  as  forage  for  cattle,  In  the  vineyards  elms  were 
planted  to  support  the  vines.  The  trees  were  well  pruned  so 
they  should  not  overshadow  the  grapes.  It  was  counted  danger- 
ous to  give  bees  freedom  to  visit  blooming  elms,  lest  they  become 
surfeited,  and  sicken  as  a  result.  In  this  opinion  the  early 
observers  were  evidently  mistaken.  Virgil  discourses  upon  the 
successful  grafting  of  oak  upon  elm,  and  describes  swine  eating 
acorns  that  dropp'ed  from  the  fruiting  branches  of  this  wonderful 
tree.  Experiment  long  ago  proved  the  fallacy  of  this  report. 
In  England  the  rustic  still  watches  the  elm  for  signal  to  sow  his 
grain,  relying  on  the  old  saw: 

"When  the  elme  leaf  is  as  big  as  a  mouse's  ear, 
Then  to  sow  barley  never  fear." 

The  witch  hazel  (Hamamelis  Virginiana)  does  not  grow  in 
England,  but  the  wych  elm  was  known  in  some  regions  by  this 
name,  because  its  leaf  is  hazel-like.  Long  bows  were  anciently 
made  of  its  wood,  and  it  was  mentioned  in  the  "Statutes  of 
England." 

Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm  {U.  julva,  Michx.) — Fast-growing 
tree,  60  to  70  feet  high,  with  erect,  spreading  branches,  forming 
a  broad,  open  head.  Twigs  stout,  rusty,  downy.  Bark  brown- 
ish, rough,  scaly.  PVood  strong,  hard,  heavy,  coarse,  reddish 
brown,  durable  in  soil.  Duds  densely  rusty,  pubescent;  large, 
blunt.  Leaves  alternate,  deciduous,  2-ranked,  broadly  oval,  4  to 
7  inches  long,  irregularly  heart  shaped  at  base,  acuminate  at 
apex,  doubly  serrate,  strongly  ribbed;   on  short,  stout  petiole; 

233 


The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries 

surface  rough  both  ways,  stiff,  harsh.  Flowers,  April,  before 
leaves,  fascicled,  numerous.  Fruits,  May,  rounded,  hairy,  only 
on  seed,  wing  not  ciliate,  margined.  Preferred  habitat,  fertile 
soil  along  streams.  Distribution,  lower  St.  Lawrence  River, 
through  Ontario  to  Dakota  and  Nebraska;  south  to  Florida; 
west  to  Texas.  Uses:  Wood  used  as  fence  posts  and  railroad 
ties;  for  wheel  hubs,  sills  and  agricultural  implements.  Mucila- 
ginous inner  bark  used  to  allay  fever  and  inflammation. 

The  slippery  elm  disregards  the  laws  of  symmetry.  Each 
limb  strikes  out  for  itself.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  tree  quite 
one  sided  in  form.  Shoots  6  feet  in  length  are  often  seen  as  the 
growth  of  a  single  season,  where  a  broken  limb  gives  an  ambitious 
bud  a  chance.  The  roughness  of  its  foliage  to  the  touch  is  one 
of  the  striking  characteristics  of  this  tree.  The  leaves  are  covered 
with  harsh,  tubercular  hairs,  and  the  crumbling  of  a  leaf  grates 
most  unpleasantly  on  the  ear.  Then,  there  is  a  tawny  pubescence 
on  young  shoots,  and  especially  on  the  bud  scales  of  this  elm. 
In  winter  this  is  the  best  distinguishing  mark  of  the  red  elm. 
The  large  flower  buds  are  below  the  pointed  leaf  buds  on  the 
youngest  shoots. 

The  bark  is  brownish  grey,  and  rough  alike  on  trunk  and 
branches.  Everything,  in  fact,  about  the  slippery  elm  seems 
coarser  than  in  its  relatives.  The  leaves  are  often  8  to  lo  inches 
long  on  vigorous  shoots. 

Under  the  bark  is  a  mucilaginous,  sweet  substance  that  gives 
this  elm  its  common  name.  What  man  lives  who  in  the  heydey 
of  youth  has  not  had  the  spring  craze  for  slippery-elm  bark,  as 
surely  as  he  had  the  chicken  pox  and  the  measles!  The  trees 
in  every  fence  row  show  the  wounds  of  many  a  jack-knife,  for  in 
the  spring  its  cambium  waxes  thick  and  sweet  and  fragrant — to 
growing  boys,  a  delectable  substance  that  allayed  both  hunger 
and  thirst.  Fortunate  for  the  longevity  of  the  individual  trees, 
the  bark  of  the  limbs  is  most  easily  stripped  off,  so  many  a  veteran 
supplies  boys  to-day,  which  served  as  well  a  former  generation. 
The  bark,  dried  and  ground,  mixed  with  milk,  forms  a  valuable 
food  for  invalids.  Poultices  are  made  of  it  to  relieve  throat  and 
chest  troubles.  It  is  also  useful  in  allaying  fevers  and  acute 
inflammatory  disorders.  This  bark,  first  used  as  a  home  remedy, 
has  now  an  established  place  on  the  apothecary's  shelf,  and  is 
used  by  physicians  of  both  schools.     The  problem  of  the  supply 

234 


THE    SLIPPERY    ELM  {ri„„,s  fuh,i) 

Note  the  huJ  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  twig.  Its  scales  are  coated  with  tawnv  hairs.  The  ohovate  or  circular  samaras  are 
ripe  in  May.  They  are  liairy  only  on  the  seed  body;  the  wing  is  smooth.  The  belated  buds  produce  leafv  shoots.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  very  harsh  when  crumpled  or  stroked  with  the  finger.  They  have  the  characteristic  shape,  straight  ribs  and  saw- 
toothed  margm  of  all  elms.     The  bark  is  reddish  brown  and  cleft  into  narrow,  loose  flakes  bv  shallow  fissures 


The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries 

is  a  serious  one.  The  tree  grows  fast  and  vigorously  if  only  the 
boys  give  it  a  chance.     The  trees  are  becoming  scarcer  each  year. 

The  Rock  or  Cork  Elm  (Ulmus  Thomasi,  Sarg.)  has 
shaggy  stout  limbs  like  a  bur  oak's,  and  a  rugged,  stiff  expression 
quite  unusual  in  an  elm.  A  look  at  the  foliage  is  reassuring,  for 
elm  leaves  vary  but  slightly  in  the  different  species.  In  spring 
the  type  of  inflorescence  is  the  best  botanical  character  to  depend 
upon. 

The  cork  elm  was  discovered  in  the  woods  of  western  New 
York  by  David  Thomas,  who  noted  its  corky  bark  and  habit  of 
bearing  its  flowers  and  fruit  in  racemes.  He  named  the  species 
Ulmus  racemosa,  as  was  most  reasonable.  It  was  discovered 
later  that  this  name  had  previously  been  applied  to  a  European 
corky  elm;  whereupon  the  name  of  its  discoverer  was  substituted. 

"Rock  elm"  and  "hickory  elm"  refer  to  the  hardness  of 
its  wood.  It  has  in  greater  degree  the  good  qualities  of  white 
elm  lumber,  and  is  counted  the  best  of  all  elms  by  the  wheelwright. 
Compact,  with  interlacing  fibres,  there  is  spring,  strength  and 
toughness  in  this  wood  which  adapts  it  for  bridge  timbers,  heavy 
agricultural  implements,  wheel  stocks,  sills,  railroad  ties  and  axe 
handles. 

The  best  trees,  60  to  90  feet  high,  with  trunks  2  to  3  feet 
through,  grow  in  dry  soil  in  lower  Ontario  and  Michigan.  The 
species  occurs  also  in  scattered  localities  west  to  Nebraska  and 
Tennessee,  and  east  as  far  as  Vermont. 

The  Winged  Elm,  or  Wahoo  {U.  alata,  Michx.),  is  not 
an  important  timber  tree,  though  its  wood  is  used  in  the  localities 
where  it  grows.  Its  leaves  and  the  two  thin,  corky  blades  that 
arise  on  the  branches  are  dainty,  as  befits  the  smallest  of  the 
elm  trees.  There  is  none  of  the  ruggedness  of  the  cork  elm  in  the 
appearance  of  this  pretty,  round-headed  tree.  It  rarely  grows 
over  40  feet  high,  and  is  distributed  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  and 
west  to  Illinois  and  Texas.  Its  small,  winged  samaras  are  each 
prolonged  into  two  prominent  incurving  hooks  at  the  apex. 
They  hang  in  pendulous  racemes.  The  tree  is  occasionally 
planted  for  shade  in  Southern  cities,  but  it  is  not  hardy  in  the 
North.  "Wahoo"  seems  to  be  a  term  rather  indiscriminately 
applied  to  elm  trees  in  sections  of  the  South.  "Mountain  elm" 
and  "small-leaved  elm"  are  significant  popular  names. 

Two    elms    have    leathery,    almost    evergreen    leaves,    and 

235 


The  Elms  and  the  HackberrieS 

bloom  very  late  in  the  summer.  One,  found  in  Georgia  and 
Tennessee,  was  confused  with  U.  Thomasi  until  its' flowers  were 
found  opening  in  the  axils  of  the  season's  leaves  in  the  month  of 
September!  This  discovery  set  it  apart  as  a  separate  species, 
and  it  was  named  from  its  red-brown  wood,  the  Red  Elm  (JJ. 
seroiina),  by  Professor  Sargent.     The  specific  name  means  late. 

The  Cedar  Elm  (JJ.  crassijolia,  Nutt.),  of  Arkansas,  Texas 
and  Mississippi,  blooms  in  August.  Occasionally  this  tree  reaches 
a  height  of  80  feet,  with  broad,  spreading  limbs  and  slender, 
pendulous  branches.  It  is  a  beautiful,  graceful  tree;  its  tiny 
leaves,  close  set  on  the  winged  twigs,  form  a  dense  head  of  lustrous 
foliage.     Occasionally  a  second  crop  of  flowers  appears  in  October. 

There  seems  to  be  no  better  reason  for  its  common  name  than 
that  it  grows  with  cedars  on  the  dry  limestone  hills  of  Texas.  It 
is  the  common  elm  tree  of  that  great  state,  and  is  sometimes 
planted  as  a  shade  tree.  Its  lumber  is  used  for  fencing  and  for 
wheel  hubs,  the  better  qualities  being  cut  in  the  moist  lowlands. 
In  dryer  situations  it  is  scarcely  worth  cutting  even  for  fuel. 


2.  Genus  CELTIS,  Linn. 

The  hackberries  include  fifty  or  sixty  tropical  and  temperate 
zone  species.  Two  are  trees  in  North  America,  but  future  inves- 
tigations may  still  further  divide  the  group.  They  are  trees  of 
considerable  value  for  shade  and  ornamental  planting.  Beside 
the  two  natives,  three  exotic  species  are  in  cultivation  in  the  south, 
and  a  hardy  Japanese  species  farther  north.  Of  the  former,  one 
is  from  South  Africa,  one  from  the  Mediterranean  basin,  and  the 
third  from  China  and  Japan. 

Hackberry,  Nettle  Tree,  Sugar  Berry  {Celiis  occidenialis, 
Linn.) — Tree,  50  to  125  feet,  with  slender  trunk  and  round  head, 
of  very  slender,  bushy  twigs  and  pendulous  branches.  Bark  light 
brown  or  pale  grey,  broken  into  thick  warts  or  scales  by  deep  fur< 
rows;  branches  often  corrugated  and  warty.  Wood  light  yellow^ 
heavy,  soft,  coarse,  weak.  Buds  axillary,  never  terminal;  acute, 
ovate,  small.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  ovate,  2%  to  4  inches  long, 
often  fulcate,  oblique  at  base,  serrate  above  widest  part,  entire 
below  it;  thin,  deep  green,  with  downy  lining;  3-nerved,  from 
slim  petiole;   autumn  colour  yellow.     Flowers,  May,  monoecious, 

236 


The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries 

or  mixed,  greenish,  axillary  staminate,  clustered  at  base  of  sea- 
son's shoot;  pistillate  solitary,  in  axils  of  leaves,  green,  with 
spreading,  2-horned  stigma.  Fruits,  September,  oblong,  thin, 
fleshed  berry,  i  to  ^  inch  long,  purple,  sweet;  hangs  all  winter. 
Preferred  habitat,  moist  soil  along  streams  or  marshes.  Distribu- 
tion, Southern  Canada  west  to  Puget  Sound;  south  to  Florida, 
Tennessee,  Missouri,  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  Uses:  Planted  for 
shade  and  ornament.     Wood  used  for  cheap  furniture  and  fencing. 

It  is  easy  to  mistake  the  hackberry  for  an  elm.  The  habit 
of  the  two  trees  leads  the  casual  observer  astray.  It  takes  a 
second  look  to  note  the  finer  spray  of  the  hackberry  twigs,  its 
more  horizontal,  less  drooping  branches.  The  warty  bark  is 
characteristic.  The  little  axillary  sugar  berries  are  very  different 
from  elm  samaras.  There  are  few  months  in  the  year  when  fruits 
are  not  to  be  found,  green  or  ripe,  on  the  tree.  They  are  the 
delight  of  birds  throughout  hard  winters.  A  peculiarity  of  the 
foliage  is  the  apparent  division  of  the  petiole  into  three  ribs 
instead  of  a  single  midrib.  Otherwise  the  leaf  is  elm-like,  though 
smaller  and  brighter  green  than  that  of  the  American  elm. 

The  hackberry  is  not  familiarly  known  by  people  in  the 
regions  where  it  grows.  Else  it  would  be  transplanted  more  com- 
monly to  adorn  private  premises  and  to  shade  village  streets. 
There  is  no  danger  in  digging  up  well-grown  trees,  for  the  roots  are 
fibrous  and  shallow,  and  carry  an  abundance  of  soil  with  them. 

The  beauty  of  the  hackberry's  graceful  crown  is  sometimes 
marred  by  a  fungus  which  produces  a  thick  tufting  of  twigs 
at  the  ends  of  branches.  These  are  called  "witches'  brooms." 
Growths  of  similar  appearance  are  produced  by  insects  on  other 
trees. 

Celtis  Mississippiensis,  Bosc,  is  the  warty-barked,  round- 
topped  hackberry  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys;  a  graceful 
tree,  and  much  like  C.  occidentalis,  but  smaller.  Its  leaves  are 
narrow  and  entire  on  the  margins.  The  warts  of  its  bark  are 
very  noticeable.  The  berries  are  orange  red.  This  tree  is  quite 
as  worthy  of  cultivation  as  its  larger  relative,  and  the  people  of 
Texas  know  it.  The  chief  virtue  of  this  species  as  a  shade  tree  is 
that  its  foliage  hangs  on,  with  little  dimming  of  its  brightness,  to 
the  very  edge  of  winter. 

The  European  nettle  tree  (C  Australis)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  famous  lotus  of  classical  literature.     Homer  tells  of  the 

237 


The  Elms  and  the  Hackberries 

lotus  eaters,  who,  when  they  tasted  the  sweet  fruit,  straightway 
forgot  their  native  land,  or  could  not  be  persuaded  to  return. 

This  innocent  little  tree,  against  which  this  charge  has  never 
been  proved,  bears  a  better  reputation  for  the  qualities  of  its  wood. 
It  is  as  hard  as  box  or  holly,  and  looks  like  satinwood  when  pol- 
ished. Figures  of  saints  and  other  images  are  carved  out  of  it. 
Hay  forks  are  made  of  its  supple  limbs.  Rocky,  worthless  land 
is  set  apart  by  law  for  the  growing  of  these  trees.  A  seven-acre 
tract  in  the  south  of  France  yielded,  according  to  Landon,  60,000 
hay  forks  per  annum,  worth  $5,000!  Suckers  from  the  roots,  cut 
while  small,  make  admirable  ramrods,  coach  whip  stocks,  and 
walking  sticks.  Shafts  and  axle  trees  of  carriages  are  made  of  the 
larger  sticks;  oars  and  hoops  from  these  coppiced  trees.  This 
tree  is  widely  scattered,  from  northern  Africa  through  Europe, 
and  on  to  India,  where  it  is  a  shade  tree  and  is  planted  for  its 
leaves,  which  furnish  fodder  for  cattle. 


3.  Genus  PLANERA,  Gmel. 

Planer  Tree,  Water  Elm  (Planera  aquaUca,  Gmel.) — Small 
tree,  30  to  40  feet  high,  with  short  trunk  and  slender,  crooked 
branches  forming  a  low,  round  crown.  Twigs  reddish.  Bark 
thin,  scaly,  grey;  inner  layers  red.  ^ooi  light,  soft,  fine  grained, 
brown.  Buds  small,  ovoid,  scaly.  Leaves,  February  to  March; 
dull  green,  paler  beneath,  2-ranked,  elm-like,  2  to  2^  inches  long, 
unilateral.  Flowers  with  leaves,  monoecious  or  polygamous, 
axillary,  in  fascicles,  small.  Fruit  i -seeded  drupe  in  dry,  thin, 
horny,  pericarp;  seed  shiny,  black.  Preferred  habitat,  inundated 
swamps.  Distribution,  North  Carolina  to  Florida;  west  to 
Missouri  and  Texas.     Rare. 

This  tree  is  interesting  chiefly  as  a  botanical  remnant  of  its 
family.  Several  species  of  this  genus  once  grew  in  Alaska  and  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Closely  related  forms  are  preserved  in  the 
tertiary  rocks  in  Europe. 


238 


THE    HACKBKRRY   (Ccliis  ocruienialis) 


The  loaf  ha 


three  midribs   instead   of  one,  and   many  swollen,  reticulated   veins 
the  solitary  axillary  fertile  flowers.     The  staminate  flowers  cluster  at  the  base  of  tlie  twii; 
dark  purple  in  late  September  and   hang  all  winter,  to  the  delight  of  the  birds.     Strange. 
trunks  and  limbs.   The  second  trunk  is  of  the  smaller  species,  Cellos  Mississippiensi'.    The  tl 


Xnte    tlie    wide-spreading    stigmas  •( 

Tlie  sweet,  i-seeded  berries  ripen  lo 

warty  excrescences  are  on  the  bark  of 

ird  is  var.  reticulata  of  the  latter  species 


THE    RED   MULBERRY  (Morus  rubra) 
The  --.hort  trunk  .ustains    a    broad  crown  of  ascending  limbs  with  zigzag   twigs.     The  leaves  are  bluish  green  and   thin 
A  complex  system  of  nbs  and  veinlets  make  a  prominent  network  of  the  leaf  linings,  and  roughen  the  upper  surfaces.    Thi 
berries  are  purple  and  pleasantly  sweet 


CHAPTER   XXIX:     THE   MULBERRIES,   THE 
OSAGE  ORANGE   AND   THE   FIGS 

Family  Morace/^ 

Trees  of  small  or  medium  size,  with  milky  sap.  Leaves  sim- 
ple^  alternate,  deciduous,  variable.  Flowers  minute,  in  axillary 
spikes  or  heads,  dioecious  or  monoecious.  Fruit  compound,  of 
many  small  fleshy  drupes. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  toothed  or  lobed,  with  swollen,  netted  veins;  fruit 
an  edible,  oblong  berry. 

I.  Genus  MORUS,  Linn. 
B.  Fruit  purple;  leaves  3  to  5  inches  long. 

(A/,  nibra)  red  mulberry 
BB.  Fruit  black;  leaves  i  to  2  inches  long. 

(M.  celtidijolia)  Mexican  mulberry 
AA.  Leaves  entire;  fruit  globular. 

B.  Fruit  4  to  5  inches  in  diameter,  inedible. 
2.  Genus  TOXYLON,  Raf. 

(7.  pomijerum)  osage  orange 
BB.  Fruit  size  of  pea,  ovate;  tree  habit  parasitic. 
3.  Genus  FICUS,  Linn. 
C.  Leaves  thick,  yellow-green;  fruit  short  stemmed. 

(F.  aurea)  golden  fig 
CC.  Leaves  thin,  dark  green,  fruit  long-stemmed. 

(F.  populnea)  poplar-leaf  fig 

The  mulberry  family  comprises  55  genera  and  925  species  of 
temperate  zone  and  tropical  plants,  of  which  the  fig,  genus  Ficus, 
includes  600  species.  The  hemp,  important  for  its  fibrous  inner 
bark,  and  the  hop,  are  well  known  herbaceous  members  of  the 
mulberry  family.  Hemp  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  has 
run  wild  here,  and  is  now  in  cultivation  throughout  both  tem- 
perate zones.  Hops  are  used  in  the  brewing  of  beer,  and  in  the 
Old  World  as  well  as  the  New  are  raised  as  a  staple  field  crop.  The 
plant  is  native  to  both  hemispheres. 

239 


The  Mulberries,  the  Osage  Orange  and  the  Figs 

Botanically,  the  mulberry  family  lies  between  the  elms  and 
nettles — strange  company,  but  justified  by  fundamental  charac- 
teristics. Three  genera  of  this  family  have  tree  forms  in  America: 
Morus,  the  mulberry;  Toxylon,  the  osage  orange;  and  Ficus,  the 
fig.  Two  native  species  of  mulberry  and  three  exotic  species  are 
generally  cultivated  for  their  fruit,  their  wood,  and  as  ornamental 
trees.     Weeping  forms  are  much  planted. 


I.  Genus   MORUS,  Linn. 

Red  Mulberry  (Morus  rubra,  Linn.) — Large  tree,  60  to  70 
feet  high,  with  dense,  round  head,  fibrous  roots  and  milky  juice. 
Bark  light  brown,  reddish,  dividing  into  scaly  plates;  branches 
reddish;  twigs  grey,  downy.  IVood  orange  yellow,  light,  coarse 
grained,  soft,  weak,  very  durable  in  soil.  Buds  ovate,  blunt, 
small.  Leaves  alternate,  variable  in  form,  3  to  5  inches  long,  broad, 
acuminate,  serrate,  very  veiny,  often  lobed  and  palmately  veined; 
usually  rough,  blue-green  above,  pale  and  pubescent  beneath, 
yellow  in  early  autumn;  petioles  stout,  long.  Flowers  monoecious 
or  dioecious,  variable,  in  stalked,  axillary  spikes,  staminate  flowers 
with  flat,  4-lobed  calyx  and  4  incurved  stamens  that  spread  sud- 
denly and  lie  flat  on  calyx,  forming  a  cross  as  they  mature;  pis- 
tillate flower,  a  vase-shaped,  4-lobed  calyx,  with  two  stigmas 
protruding.  Fruit  fleshy  calyx  lobes,  surrounding  single  seed; 
whole  spike  unites  to  form  an  aggregate  fruit,  sweet,  juicy,  dark 
purplish  red.  Preferred  habitat,  rich  well-drained  soil.  Dis- 
tribution, western  Massachusetts  to  southern  Ontario,  Michigan, 
Nebraska,  Kansas;  south  to  Florida  and  Texas,  Uses:  Wood 
used  in  cooperage  and  for  fencing.  A  worthy  tree  for  ornament, 
but  rarely  planted. 

The  Chinese  mulberry  (Morus  alba),  with  white  fruit,  holds  a 
unique  economic  position,  as  its  leaves  are  the  chosen  food  of  silk- 
worms. No  substitute  has  ever  robbed  this  tree  of  its  pre-eminence 
maintained  for  centuries,  in  its  own  field  of  usefulness.  The  hardy 
Russian  mulberries  are  derived  from  Morus  alba. 

The  red  mulberry,  discovered  in  Virginia  in  great  abundance, 
inflamed  the  minds  of  early  colonists  who  counted  it  one  of  the 
chief  resources  of  the  colony.  A  tree  "apt  to  feede  Silke-worms 
to  make  silke"  promised  truly  "a  commoditie  not  meanely  profit- 

240 


The  Mulberries  the  Osage  Orange  and  the  Figs 

able"  in  a  new  colony — made  up  of  gentlemen.  A  Frenchman, 
reporting  the  abundance  of  these  trees,  mentions  "some  so  large 
that  one  tree  contains  as  many  leaves  as  will  feed  Silke-wormes 
that  will  make  as  much  silk  as  may  be  worth  five  pounds  sterling 
money."  But  their  sanguine  hopes  were  not  realised.  The  red 
mulberry  is  no  substitute  for  the  white  species.  Silk  culture  is 
still  an  Old  World  industry,  even  though  white  mulberries  grow 
in  this  country. 

Indians  discovered  that  ropes  and  a  coarse  cloth  could  be 
woven  out  of  the  bast  fibre  of  mulberry  bark.  The  berries  have 
some  medicinal  properties,  and  are  eagerly  devoured  by  hogs  and 
poultry.  The  chief  value  of  the  tree  lies  in  the  durability  of  its 
wood,  which  commends  it  to  the  boatbuilder,  the  cooper,  and  to 
the  man  with  fences  to  build. 

One  of  the  mulberry's  chief  characteristics  is  its  tenacity  to 
life.  Its  seeds  readily  germinate,  and  cuttings  strike  quickly, 
whether  from  roots  or  stems.  Evelyn's  instructions  for  propa- 
gating the  European  mulberry  by  cuttings  are  quaint  and  worth 
hearing.  "They  will  root  infallibly,  especially  if  you  twist  the 
old  wood  a  little  or  at  least  hack  it;  though  some  slit  the  foot, 
inserting  a  stone  or  grain  of  an  oat  to  suckle  and  entertain  the 
plant  with  moisture." 

The  Mexican  Mulberry  (M.celtidi folia,  H.B.K.),  with  small, 
ovate  leaves,  somewhat  like  the  hackberry's,  and  small  black  fruit, 
is  found  from  western  Texas  to  Arizona,  and  follows  the  moun- 
tains to  Peru  and  Ecuador.  It  is  a  small  tree  whose  wood  fur- 
nished the  early  Indians  with  bows;  and  the  Mexican  often  sets  it 
out  in  his  garden,  for  the  inferior  fruit  is  grateful  in  the  hot,  dry 
sections  where  berries  are  scarce. 

The  Black  Mulberry  (M.  nigra),  native  of  Persia,  is  the 
one  cultivated  in  Europe  for  its  fruit.  It  is  occasionally  grown 
in  California  and  the  Southern  States,  but  is  not  hardy  in  the  North. 
It  has  its  name  from  its  dark  red,  fleshy  fruit,  as  well  as  its  sombre 
foliage. 

No  mulberry  is  ranked  among  profitable  fruit  trees.  The 
berries  rarely  appear  in  the  markets,  though  the  trees  are  common 
in  gardens.  The  fruits  are  too  sweet,  and  they  lack  piquancy  of 
flavour.  They  ripen  a  few  at  a  time,  and  may  be  gathered  on 
sheets  by  shaking  the  trees.  Planted  in  hog  pastures,  the  fruit  is 
highly  appreciated  as  it  falls.     As  an  attraction  for  birds  the  tree 

241 


The  Mulberries,   the   Osage  Orange  and  the  Figs 

justifies  planting  in  towns,  and  in  country  yards  and  gardens. 
Some  of  our  most  desirable  sOng  birds  build  near  mulberry  trees 
which  promise  summer  fruit  for  their  families.  When  a  bird 
basin  is  added  with  promise  of  water  supply  for  drink  and  bath, 
the  place  will  be  chosen  by  many  birds. 

The  Paper  Mulberry  {Broussonetia  papyrifera,  Vent.)  is  one 
of  two  or  three  oriental  species  of  its  genus.  Its  inner  bark  has 
long  furnished  a  good  grade  of  paper  in  its  own  country,  Japan. 
In  the  United  States  it  has  a  southern  range,  and  is  an  ornamental 
of  considerable  popularity  owing  to  the  luxuriance  of  its  foliage. 
But  as  a  street  tree  it  is  less  planted  than  formerly,  for  its  habit 
of  throwing  up  suckers  makes  it  troublesome.  It  has  escaped  from 
cultivation  in  many  places.  In  sheltered  situations  it  is  hardy 
to  the  citv  of  New  York. 


2.  Genus  TOXYLON,  Raf. 

Osage  Orange  (Toxylon  pomijerum,  Raf.) — Handsome, 
round-headed  tree,  40  to  60  feet  high,  with  short  trunk,  sharp 
spines,  fleshy  roots  and  milky,  bitter  sap.  Bark  dark,  scaly 
deeply  furrowed;  branches  orange  brown;  twigs  pubescent, 
Wood  orange-yellow,  hard,  heavy,  flexible,  strong,  durable  in  soil, 
takes  fine  polish.  Buds  sunk  deep  in  twigs,  blunt,  all  lateral; 
Leaves  alternate,  simple,  3  to  5  inches  long,  ovate,  entire,  taper, 
pointed,  thick,  dark  green,  polished  above,  paler  and  dull  beneath, 
yellow  in  autumn;  petioles  slim,  hairy,  grooved;  thorns  axillary. 
Flowers  dicEcious,  in  June;  staminate  small,  in  peduncled  racemes, 
terminal  on  leafy  spur  of  previous  season;  greenish;  pistillate  in 
globular,  many-flowered  heads,  axillary.  Fruit  globular,  4  to  5 
inches  in  diameter,  green,  compound  by  union  of  i -seeded  drupes, 
which  are  filled  with  milky  juice;  seed  oblong.  Preferred  habitat, 
deep,  rich  soil.  Distribution,  southern  Arkansas,  southeastern 
Indian  Territory  and  southern  Texas.  Naturalised  widely. 
Uses:  Indians  used  wood  for  bows  and  clubs.  Now  used  for  posts, 
piles,  telegraph  poles,  paving  blocks,  railroad  ties;  sometimes  for 
interior  woodwork  of  houses.  Trees  planted  in  parks  and  grounds 
for  shade  and  ornament,  also  for  hedges.  Roots  and  bark  yield 
yellow  dye  and  tannic  acid. 

The  Osage  orange  hedge  marked  one  period  in  the  pioneer's 
242 


The  Mulberries,  the  Osage   Orange  and  the   Figs 

work  of  taming  the  wilds  of  the  Middle  West.  Farms  had  to  be 
enclosed.  Board  fences  were  too  costly,  and  were  continually 
needing  repairs.  Fencing  with  wire  was  new  and  ineffectual,  for 
barbed  wire  had  not  yet  come  into  use;  so  hedges  were  planted 
far  and  wide.  The  nurserymen  reaped  a  harvest,  for  this  tree 
grows  from  cuttings  of  root  or  branch.  All  that  is  needed  is  to 
hack  a  tree  to  bits  and  put  them  into  the  ground;  each  fragment 
takes  root  and  sends  up  a  flourishing  shoot. 

It  is  a  pity  that  this  stock  mostly  came  direct  from  Arkansas 
and  Texas.  A  cold  winter  with  little  snow  killed  miles  of  thrifty 
hedge,  just  as  it  reached  the  useful  stage.  Sometimes  the  roots 
sent  up  new  shoots,  sometimes  they  didn't,  and  gaps  of  varying 
widths  spoiled  the  appearance  and  the  effectiveness  of  hedges 
throughout  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri  and  Kansas.  Then  barbed 
wire  was  introduced,  and  wicked  as  it  was,  it  defended  the  growing 
crops  from  free-ranging  cattle  as  no  other  fencing  had  done.  In 
most  places  the  hedges  were  let  alone  on  farm  boundaries.  These 
old  hedgerows  have  become  an  important  source  of  fence  posts. 
No  timber  furnishes  better  ones.  A  row  often  produces  twenty- 
five  posts  to  the  rod.  These  bring  from  lo  cents  to  20  cents  each 
in  local  markets,  a  fact  which  makes  them  a  very  profitable  crop. 
The  native  Osage  orange  timber  is  all  exhausted  now;  and  as  the 
old  hedgerows  are  passing,  systematically  maintained  plantations 
of  Osage  orange,  grown  for  posts,  promise  to  pay  increasingly 
well.  They  ought  to  be  largely  planted  in  the  tree's  natural  range. 
Occasionally  a  remnant  of  the  first  planting  is  met  with  as  a  fine 
roadside  tree,  glorious  in  its  lustrous  foliage,  formidable  thorns, 
and  the  remarkable  green  oranges  that  hang  on  the  fruiting  trees. 
It  is  a  tree  well  worth  planting  for  both  ornam.ent  and  shade,  for 
it  harbours  few  insects  and  has  witha!  a  unique  character.  It  is  a 
"foreign-looking"  tree. 

I  had  a  personal  experience  with  the  Osage  orange.  "The 
leaves  are  food  for  silkworms" — so  the  nurseryman  had  told  us— 
and  we  could  have  silkworms'  eggs  from  Washington  for  the 
asking.  Now,  gingham  aprons  were  the  prevailing  fashion  for 
little  girls  on  the  Iowa  prairies— princesses  in  fairy  tales  seemed  to 
wear  silks  and  satins  with  no  particular  care  as  to  where  they  came 
from.  Silkworms  and  Osage  orange  offered  a  combination,  and 
suggested  possibilities,  which  set  our  imaginations  on  fire.  Lettuce 
leaves  sufficed  for  the  young  caterpillars — then  the  little  mulberry 

243 


The  Mulberries,  the  Osage  Orange  and  the  Figs 

bushes,  but  the  lusty  white  worms  so  ghastly  naked  and  dreadful 
to  see,  and  so  ravenous,  we  fed  with  Osage  orange  leaves,  cut  at 
the  risk  of  much  damage  from  ugly  thorns  and  with  much  weari- 
ness. But  what  were  present  discomforts  compared  with  the 
excellency  of  the  hope  set  before  us!  Not  Solomon  in  all  his  glory 
was  arrayed  as  we  expected  to  be.  And  the  worms — while 
we  loathed  them,  we  counted  them,  and  ministered  to  their 
needs. 

At  last  our  labours  ended.  They  began  to  spin,  and  soon  the 
denuded  twigs  were  thickly  studded  with  the  yellow  cerements  of 
the  translated  larvae,  to  the  relief  and  wonder  of  all  concerned. 
But  even  as  we  wondered,  the  dead  twigs  blossomed  with  white 
moths  whose  beauty  and  tremulous  motion  passed  description. 
We  were  lifted  into  a  state  of  exaltation  by  the  spectacle, 

"Whom  the  gods  would  destroy  they  first  make  mad."  A 
hard-hearted  but  well-informed  neighbour  told  us  that  the  broken 
cocoons  were  worthless  for  silk.  "You'd  ought  to  have  scalded 
'em  as  soon  as  they  spun  up."  Clouds  and  thick  darkness  shut 
out  the  day.     We  refused  to  be  comforted. 

This  explains  why  the  mere  mention  of  the  Osage  orange  tree, 
or  the  sight  of  a  hedge,  however  thrifty,  brings  to  my  mind  a 
haunting  suggestion  "of  old  unhappy  far-off  things." 


3.  Genus  FICUS,  Linn. 

Figs  belong  to  a  genus  of  600  species  scattered  over  all  tropical 
countries.  The  trees  have  peculiar  flowers  lining  the  inside  of  a 
fleshy  receptacle  so  that  the  "fig  wasps"  that  fertilise  them  have 
to  crawl  in  through  a  small  opening. 

Dried  figs  are  an  important  commercial  fruit.  These  are 
from  varieties  of  Ftcus  Carica,  an  Asiatic  species.  Smyrna  figs 
are  best  for  drying.  They  are  extensively  raised  in  California, 
and  cured  for  market.  Other  varieties,  better  adapted  for  use  as 
a  fresh  fruit,  are  grown  in  many  Southern  States.  The  figs  we 
buy  are  mostly  from  Asia  Minor.  The  dependence  of  the  fig  upon 
the  ministrations  of  the  little  wasp  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  baffling  chapters  in  the  romance  of  science. 

The  rubber  plant,  vastly  popular  in  this  country  as  a  pot 
plant,  is  a  Ficus.    So  is  the  famous  banyan  tree  of  India,  and  the 

244 


THE    OSAGE    ORANGE  {Toxylon  pomtferum) 
Iceme^s''  ^ThlTn^f^' '""'"  '"'  "'"""l  [J^^"^  and  foliage  of  unusual  lustre.     The  stannnate  flowers  are  home  u>  loose,  heaJ-l.ke 

'^.  Truit  ili  to  c      t         T  '"  ""  '^  M  "'"  '^'■"'^;   ^'^'■^'  -^'^'""^  '"  J""'-'  ^'f'"  '^'  ''•^^■"'  °"  -P-=''^  ^---  The  green,  aranf- 
fru.t  .s  4  to  5  .nches  m  <l,an.eter,  w,h  n^any  seeds  .nd  h.tter,  nnlUv  i.nce.     The  wood  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  svU 


The  Mulberries,   the  Osage   Orange  and  the  Figs 

sacred  peepul  tree  of  the  Hindoos.  Our  native  fig  trees  are  sprawl- 
ing parasitic  forms,  unable  to  stand  alone. 

The  Golden  Fig  (F.  aurea,  Nutt.)  climbs  up  another  tree, 
which  it  strangles  with  its  coiling  stems  and  aerial  roots.  There  is 
a  famous  specimen  tree  on  one  of  the  islands  of  southern  Florida, 
which  has  spread  by  striking  root  with  its  drooping  branches  until 
it  now  covers  with  its  secondary  trunks  an  area  of  a  quarter  of  an 
acre.  It  looks  much  like  a  banyan  tree.  More  often  in  South 
Florida  one  sees  this  tree  with  a  sturdy  sin'gle  trunk  which  has 
swallowed  up  the  parasite  that  supported  it  in  youth.  Smooth  as 
a  beech  trunk,  with  a  crown  of  foliage  more  glossy  than  the  live 
oak,  this  is  a  large  and  beautiful  tree.  The  little  yellow  figs 
snuggle  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  and  turn  purple  when  ripe. 
They  are  succulent  and  sweet,  and  are  sometimes  used  for  jams 
and  preserves. 

Another  interesting  thing  about  Ficus  aurea  is  that  its  wood 
is  lighter  than  that  of  any  other  native  tree.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  0.26,  which  means  that,  bulk  for  bulk,  this  substance  is  only 
one-fourth  as  heavy  as  water.  Most  of  our  woods  range  between 
0.40  and  0.80.  The  heaviest  wood  belongs  also  to  a  Florida  tree, 
Krugiodendron  jerreum,  Urb.,  whose  specific  gravity,  when  sea- 
soned, is  1.302. 

The  Poplar-leaf  Fig  (F.  populnea,  Willd.)  is  a  rare  parasite 
clambering  up  other  trees  on  coral  islands  and  reefs  off  the  south- 
ernmost coast  of  Florida.  Its  thin,  dark  green  leaves  and  long- 
stemmed  fruits  distinguish  it  from  its  near  relative. 


345 


CHAPTER  XXX:  THE  MAGNOLIAS  AND  THE 
TULIP  TREE 

Family  Magnoliace^ 

Trees  with  soft,  light  wood,  and  fleshy  roots.  Leaves 
large,  simple,  alternate,  entire.  Flowers  large,  showy,  perfect, 
solitary,  terminal,  all  parts  distinct.  Fruit  cone-like,  com- 
pound, of  many  i  to  2  celled  follicles  or  keys  imbricated  upon  a 
central  spike. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  pointed  at  apex;  seeds  scarlet,  berry-like. 
I.  Genus  MAGNOLIA,  Linn. 
B.  Foliage  evergreen  or  nearly  so, 

C.  Leaf  linings  rusty  pubescent.    (M.  jodida)  magnolia 
CC.  Leaf  linings  silvery,  smooth. 

(M.  glauca)  swamp  magnolia 
BB,  Foliage  deciduous. 

C.  Leaves  scattered  along  branchlets. 

D.  Flowers  large,  white;  leaves  1 5  to  30  inches  long. 
{M.  macrophylla)  large-leaved  cucumber  tree 
DD.  Flowers  small,  yellowish  green;  leaves  6  to  10 

inches  long.     (M.  acuminata)  cucumber  tree 
CC.  Leaves  in  whorls  on  ends  of  branchlets. 

D.  Bases  of  leaves  tapering;  calyx  turned  back. 

(M.  tripetala)  umbrella  tree 
DD.  Bases  of  leaves  broadened  into  ear-like  lobes; 
calyx  not   turned  back, 

(M.  Fraseri)  mountain  magnolia 
AA.  Leaves  cut  off  square  at  apex;  seeds  dry,  in  winged  samaras. 

2.  Genus  LIRIODENDRON,  Linn. 

(L.  Tulipifera)  tulip  tree 

I.  Genus  MAGNOLIA,  Linn. 

The  magnolias  include  twenty  species;  twelve  are  found  in 
eastern  and  southern  Asia,  two  in  Mexico,  six  in  eastern  North 

746 


The  Magnolias  and  the   Tulip   Tree 

America.  Splendid  as  they  are,  tropical  in  foliage  and  magnifi- 
cent in  flower  compared  with  everyday  forest  trees,  the  family 
is  to-day  but  a  shadow  of  its  preglacial  greatness.  Forests  of 
magnolias  flourished  in  the  midcontinental  plains  of  Europe  and 
America,  extending  northward  even  to  within  the  Arctic  circle. 
Fossil  forests,  uncovered  by  erosion  and  by  volcanic  forces  that 
seam  and  split  mountains  apart,  reveal  the  trunks  and  even  the 
leaves  and  seed  cones  of  these  ancient  trees.  Amethyst  Mountain, 
in  Yellowstone  Park,  has  such  a  story  to  tell,  and  European 
geologists  can  match  it.  Even  in  its  decline,  the  magnolia 
family  holds  first  rank  among  the  ornamental  trees  of  the  North 
Temperate  zone. 

Magnolias  are  of  peculiar  interest  because  they  have  'the 
largest  flowers  of  any  trees  in  cultivation.  This  is  not  saying  that 
they  are  the  showiest  trees  when  in  blossom,  for  an  apple  tree 
or  a  flowering  dogwood  may  completely  cover  itself  with  blossoms. 
But  the  individual  flowers  of  such  trees  are  relatively  small,  while 
a  magnolia  blossom  is  often  6  inches,  and  sometimes  a  foot  in 
diameter.  Magnolias  have  several  other  points  which  make 
them  a  most  attractive  group;  certain  kinds  bloom  before  the 
leaves  in  early  spring;  the  flowers  of  most  sorts  are  deliciously 
fragrant;  the  texture  of  the  petals  is  notable,  being  thick,  waxy 
and  lustrous,  and  the  colouring  is  exquisite.  In  many  species 
the  leaves  are  of  extraordinary  size,  some  exceeding  a  yard  in 
length.  In  all,  the  foliage  mass  is  luxuriant  and  tropical  looking. 
Some  have  shining,  leathery  evergreen  leaves — just  the  thing 
for  Christmas  decorations.  Last,  but  not  least,  there  are 
the  curious  cone-like  fruits  which  make  the  trees  so  attract- 
ive in  midsummer  and  autumn.  As  they  ripen  they  take 
on  rosy  tints,  and  later  they  open  in  a  peculiarly  interesting 
fashion,  and  hang  out  their  scarlet  seeds  on  slender,  elastic 
threads. 

Magnolias  are  not  hard  to  grow.  The  essential  thing  is  to 
choose  the  .right  kinds  and  to  put  them  in  the  best  locations. 
As  they  are,  first  and  last,  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  they  are 
usually  grown  as  single  specimens  on  lawns,  and  the  placing 
of  them  is  important.  Such  a  tree  should  have  room  enough  to 
attain  its  full  development.  A  solid  mass  of  evergreens  is  the 
most  effective  background  for  a  fine  symmetrical  specimen, 
especially  when  it  is  in  bloom.     The  soil  should  be  rich  and  well 

247 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

drained,  with  good  supply  of  moisture,  for  these  trees  are  heavy 
feeders. 

Magnolias  can  be  obtained  from  nurserymen  as  lusty  young 
trees  ready  for  transplanting.  They  cost  from  75  cents  to 
$1.50.  There  are  both  native  and  exotic  kinds  for  North  and 
South.  1  would  strongly  urge  everyone  to  refrain  from  taking 
young  magnolias  from  the  woods.  They  are  scarce  enough 
there,  and  transplanting  such  trees  requires  more  than  a  general 
knowledge  of  such  work.  It  is  much  better  to  leave  them  where 
they  are. 

Magnolia,  Great  Laurel  Magnolia  (Magnolia  fceiida,  Sarg.) 
— A  regular,  conical  tree,  50  to  80  feet  high;  trunk  2  to  4  feet 
in  diameter;  branches,  strict,  ascending.  Bark  thin,  scaly,  light 
brown  or  grey;  on  branches,  smooth,  pale  grey.  IVood  hard, 
close  grained,  heavy,  cream  coloured  turning  to  brown.  Buds 
rusty  pubescent,  scaly;  terminal,  i  to  i^  inches  long.  Leaves 
alternate,  oval,  5  to  8  inches  long,  leathery,  shining  above,  lined 
with  rusty  down,  or  smooth  and  dull  green;  persistent  until 
second  spring.  Flowers,  April  to  August;  white,  cup  shaped,  6  to 
8  inches  across  when  spread;  fragrant;  solitary  on  end  of  twig; 
sepals  three,  petal-Hke;  petals  thick,  waxen,  6  to  9;  stamens, 
many,  purple  at  base;  pistils,  many,  crowded.  Fruit,  a  rusty 
brown,  oval  cone,  3  to  4  inches  long,  pubescent;  seeds  flat,  red, 
two  in  each  cell,  hung  out  on  threads;  ripe  in  November.  Pre- 
ferred habitat,  rich,  moist  soil;  swamp  borders  or  river  banks; 
sometimes  on  uplands.  Distribution,  North  Carolina  coast  to 
Florida  (Mosquito  Inlet  and  Tampa  Bay),  west  along  Gulf  coast 
to  Brazos  River  Valley  in  Texas;  north  along  Mississippi  bluffs  and 
bayous  into  northern  Louisiana  and  southern  Arkansas.  Uses: 
Superb  ornamental  tree,  hardy  to  Philadelphia.  Branches  cut  for 
Christmas  decorations.     Wood  used  for  fuel. 

The  magnolia  that  Linnaeus  named  grandiflora  is  a  kingly 
tree.  It  is  not  graceful,  for  its  limbs  are  stiffly  erect.  Even  the 
twigs  and  leaves  are  stiff,  and  in  blossom  the  tree  is  like  a  great 
system  of  candelabra,  each  terminal  bud  containing  a  single 
flower.  But  look  at  a  fine  specimen  tree  as  it  stands  in  a  Southern 
garden  new-washed  by  a  night  rain.  Each  leaf  of  the  dark 
pyramid  of  green  reflects  the  sunlight  like  a  blade  of  polished 
metal.  This  lustrous  foliage  mass  is  just  the  foil  to  set  off  the 
purity  of  the  white  flowers.     Each  is  like  a  great  camellia  or  a 

248 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

water  lily,  with  waxen  petals,  enclosing  the  purple  heart.  William 
Bartram  likened  them  to  great  white  roses,  and  declared  that 
he  could  see  them  distinctly  a  mile  away.  The  blossoms,  when 
fully  open,  are  from  7  to  8  inches  across,  as  a  rule.  There  is  a 
horticultural  variety  called  gloriosa,  the  flowers  of  which  Mr. 
Berckmanns  says  are  14  inches  in  diameter.  In  southern  Cali- 
fornia there  are  double  and  ever-blooming  varieties  exploited  by 
nurserymen,  and  there  are  no  more  popular  ornamental  trees 
than  these.  Unfortunately,  this  magnolia  has  one  drawback — its 
flowers  have  a  heavy  odour  which  is  disagreeable  to  many  people. 
Another  is  this:  They  cannot  be  shipped  as  cut  flowers,  for  the 
slightest  bruise  of  the  waxy  petals  produces  a  brownish  discoloura- 
tion. This  is  the  species  that  furnishes  the  splendid  evergreen 
foliage  that  is  shipped  North  for  Christmas  decoration,  and  is 
used  for  similar  purposes  in  the  South.  The  upper  surface  of 
each  leaf  is  a  dark,  lustrous  green;  the  lining  of  rusty-red  fuzz  is 
shed  when  the  leaf  is  old.  Negroes  go  into  the  woods  and 
cut  down  large  trees  and  small  to  strip  them  of  their  leafy 
branches. 

The  comparative  uselessness  of  its  wood  has  until  now  been 
the  saving  of  the  species.  This  new  industry  already  threatens  its 
extermination  in  many  sections  of  the  South. 

In  cultivation  this  magnolia  is  oftenest  seen  as  a  small  tree, 
from  20  to  50  feet  high,  planted  on  lawns  and  in  parks  or  lining 
avenues.  In  the  forests  of  Louisiana,  where  it  reaches  its  greatest 
perfection,  it  stands  80  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  4  feet  thick. 
Professor  Sargent  calls  it  "the  most  splendid  ornamental  tree  in 
the  American  forests." 

The  Swamp  Bay  {Magnolia  glauca,  Linn.) — A  splendid  tree 
50  to  75  feet  high,  or  a  shrub  of  many  stems.  Bark  grey  or 
ijrown,  smooth.  IVood  soft,  pale  reddish  brown,  weak.  Buds 
silky,  i  to  f  inch  long.  Leaves  persistent  in  the  South,  deciduous 
in  the  North;  smooth,  lustrous,  bright  green,  with  silvery  lining 
minutely  hairy;  blades  oblong-lanceolate  or  ovate,  4  to  6  inches 
long,  blunt  at  apex  and  base,  margin  entire,  petiole  short,  stout. 
Flowers  globular,  2  to  3  inches  across  when  spread,  creamy  white, 
fragrant,  of  9  to  12  broad  concave  petals.  Fruit  oval,  dark  red, 
smooth,  U  to  2  inches  long;  seeds  ^  inch  long,  flattened.  Pre- 
ferred hahiiat,  swamps  and  pine-barren  ponds.  Distribution, 
Florida  to  Texas  and  Arkansas;  north  along  Atlantic  coast  to 
249 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

New  York;  isolated  stations  in  Suffolk  County,  Long  Island,  and 
near  Gloucester,  Massachusetts.  Uses:  Valuable  ornamental 
tree  or  shrub  in  American  and  European  gardens.  Branches 
sold  for  decoration  of  houses  and  churches.  Cut  flowers  hawked 
on  city  streets.  Wood  used  for  broom  handles  and  for  small 
wooden    utensils. 

The  swamp  bay  is  remarkable  for  its  range,  which  extends 
from  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  to  Florida,  and  westward  to  lower 
Arkansas  and  the  Trinity  River  in  Texas.  On  the  rich  "ham- 
mocks" elevated  above  the  cypress  swamps  and  pine  forests  of 
middle  Florida  this  magnolia  is  a  tree  of  slender  trunk  but  often 
50  to  75  feet  high.  Leaves,  flowers  and  fruit  proclaim  it  a  mag- 
nolia. The  smooth,  silvery  linings  distinguish  the  leaves  from 
those  of  the  other  evergreen  magnolia.  The  small  globular 
flowers  and  the  smooth,  diminutive  fruits  further  identify  it. 
From  Bay  Biscayne  northward  along  the  coast,  following  the  pine 
barrens  and  swamp  borders,  this  fugitive  species  becomes  gradually 
dwarfed  and  its  leaves  become  deciduous.  In  New  Jersey  it  is 
a  shrub,  vigorous  and  tropical  looking,  for  the  region,  but  very 
unlike  the  sub-tropical  representatives  of  the  species.  On  Long 
Island  there  is  a  station  of  this  bay  in  Suffolk  County.  A  few 
remaining  plants  are  known  still  to  exist  in  a  swamp  near  Glouces- 
ter, Massachusetts,  the  only  place  north  of  the  latitude  of  New 
York  which  has  any  recollection  of  native  magnolias  growing 
wild  near  by.  I  wandered  through  that  Gloucester  swamp,  just 
east  of  the  station  named  Magnolia,  in  a  vain  quest  for  the  remnant 
of  the  colony.  I  was  told  that  the  only  person  who  knew  where 
the  survivors  grew  was  "the  Hermit,"  who  formerly  made  his 
living  by  digging  up  young  plants  and  selling  them.  Thrifty 
garden  specimens  in  Gloucester  and  other  points  on  Cape  Ann 
came  origiually  out  of  this  swamp.  The  colony  is  now  practically 
extinct. 

Swamp  bay  flowers  are  globular  and  small  for  a  magnolia — 
only  two  or  three  inches  across — but  delightfully  fragrant. 

One  of  the  sights  on  the  streets  of  Philadelphia  and  New 
York  in  May  is  the  street  Arab  hawking  the  blossom  clusters.  A 
flower  with  a  half-open  bud  in  its  whorl  of  leaves  costs  ten  cents. 
An  absurd  custom  prevails  among  these  flower  venders.  They 
"open"  the  globular  blossoms  by  springing  back  the  curved 
petals.      The   finest   flowers    are    produced    by    cutting   back 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Conuany 


SWAMP    MAGNOLIA     {Magnolia  glauca) 
Upper  one  ir  the  seed  pod  and  seed 


The   Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

the  tree  and  letting  the  suckers  grow  up  thickly  around  the 
stump.  These  bear  flowers  of  unusual  size,  and  clean,  hand- 
some  leaves. 

Professor  GiflFord  recommends  the  systematic  planting  of 
swamp  lands  in  New  Jersey  to  this  species  of  magnolia  as  a  profit- 
able enterprise.  He  would  prune  with  care,  so  as  to  produce  the 
finest  leaves  and  flowers.  The  blooming  period  covers  several 
weeks.  Cut  flowers  and  leafy  branches  command  good  prices  in 
the  markets.  Waste  land  near  large  cities  can  be  transformed 
and  beautified  by  this  means,  and  become  a  source  of  income  to 
the  owners  at  small  outlay.  The  prunings  are  salable  for  house 
decoration  at  holiday  time. 

The  swamp  bay  is  also  called  white  bay,  sweet  bay  and 
beaver  tree.  Beavers  used  its  soft  wood  for  their  lodges  in 
earlier  times.     The  English  call  it  laurel  magnolia. 

Sweet  bay  it  is  called  because  its  foliage  is  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  bay  tree  of  the  Old  World,  which  is  commonly  grown 
in  tubs  by  florists  and  is  much  used  in  this  country  for  porch 
decoration.  This  is  Laurus  nohilis,  the  "laurel"  of  the  ancients. 
The  sweet  bay  of  the  swamps  grows  well  in  gardens  if  only  the  soil 
is  moist.  But  it  is  safer  and  in  every  way  more  desirable  to  get 
plants  of  it  from  nurserymen. 

Large-leaved  Cucumber  Tree  {Magnolia  macrophylla, 
Michx.) — A  broad,  round-headed  tree,  30  to  50  feet  high,  with 
slender  trunk  and  stout  branches.  Bark  thin,  smooth,  grey, 
minutely  scaly.  Wood  light,  close  textured,  pale  brown,  weak ;  sap 
wood  thick,  yellow.  Buds  terminal,  i^  to  2  inches  long,  blunt, 
covered  with  white  silky  hair;  axillary  small,  flat.  Leaves  16  to  30 
inches  long,  obovate,  rounded  or  acute  at  apex,  broadened  at  base 
into  ear-like  lobes,  or  deeply  cordate,  margin  entire;  upper  surface 
bright  green,  lining  silvery  white;  petioles  stout,  3  to  4  inches 
long,  veins  prominent.  Flowers  10  to  12  inches  across,  bowl 
shaped,  made  of  6  white  fleshy  petals  much  broader  than  the  3 
sepals.  Inner  petals  with  purple  spot  at  base.  Fruit  almost 
globular,  2  to  3  inches  long,  turning  red  at  maturity.  Seeds  § 
inch  long.  Preferred  habitat,  deep,  fertile  valleys,  protected  from 
wind.  Distribution,  foot  hills  of  Alleghany  Mountains  in  North 
Carolina,  south  to  middle  Florida,  and  west  to  southern  Alabama, 
to  northern  Mississippi  and  Louisiana,  and  in  central  Arkansas; 
range  not   continuous,   trees  occur  in   small,   detached  groups. 

251 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

Uses:  Cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  Europe  and  America. 
Hardy  to  Boston. 

This  species  excels  all  other  magnolias  in  the  size  of  its  leaves 
and  flowers.  The  leaves  are  almost  a  yard  long.  In  fact,  no 
tree  of  simple  leaf  approaches  it  outside  of  the  tropics.  It  is 
the  remarkable  size  of  its  leaves  and  flowers  that  commends  this 
tree  to  planters.  Of  beauty  we  cannot  credit  it  with  quality  to 
match  its  size.  A  flower  as  big  as  a  man's  head  is  sure  to  be 
lacking  in  delicacy.  There  is  a  dash  of  purple  at  the  base  of  the 
inner  row  of  petals.  The  wind  lashes  the  broad  leaves  into 
ribbons  early  in  summer,  and  every  twig  or  leaf  that  touches  a 
petal  mars  it  with  a  brown  bruise.  So  the  flowers  soon  spread 
wide  open  and  become  discoloured.  Two  fine  young  specimens 
stand  in  front  of  the  Museum  of  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  Boston. 
The  protection  of  the  building  and  the  border  planting  are  not 
sufficient  to  defend  these  trees  from  the  common  fate  of  all  plants 
which  offer  an  unusual  expanse  of  leaf  surface  in  a  region  where 
winds  are  frequent  and  strong.  Though  but  a  dozen  feet  high 
these  trees  have  already  bloomed  freely.  The  silvery  leaf  linings 
tend  to  obscure  the  white  flowers  in  spite  of  their  extraordinary 
size. 

People  who  desire  to  plant  this  magnolia  do  well  to  shelter 
it  from  wind  and  cold.  At  best  it  is  but  half  hardy  in  the  North. 
It  is  a  curiosity.  Prominent  situations  are  better  filled  by  species 
of  tried  hardiness,  whose  beauty  is  admitted  to  be  a  joy  at  any 
season. 

Cucumber  Tree  {Magnolia  acuminata,  Linn.) — Pyramidal 
tree  of  spreading  habit,  60  to  100  feet  high,  with  trunk  3  to  4 
feet  in  diameter.  Bark  furrowed,  thick,  coated  with  brown 
scales.  JVood  weak,  light,  yellowish  brown,  close  grained.  Buds 
silky,  pointed,  terminal  ones  longer,  larger.  Leaves  longer  than 
wide,  entire,  heart-shaped  base,  acute  apex,  6  to  10  inches  long, 
thin,  yellow  green,  sparsely  hairy  below;  yellow  in  autumn; 
petioles  i  to  2  inches  long.  Flowers  inconspicuous  because 
yellowish  green,  bell  shaped,  terminal,  erect,  sepals  3,  short, 
reflexed;  petals  6  with  long,  tapering  bases;  stamens  numerous, 
pistils  numerous  on  central  receptacle.  Fruit  compound,  of 
many  coalesced  follicles,  distorted  by  abortion  of  many;  seed 
scarlet,  berry-like,  hangs  out  of  2-valved  follicle  on  elastic  thread 
when  ripe.     Preferred  habitat,  rocky  uplands  near  streams;  low 

252 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

mountain  ranges.  Distribution,  western  New  York  and  southern 
Ontario  to  Illinois,  Kentucky  and  Arkansas;  mountain  slopes  of 
Pennsylvania  south  to  Tennessee,  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
Uses:  Ornamental  tree  planted  in  Europe  and  America  to  a 
limited  extent.  Wood  is  used  for  flooring  and  other  general 
purposes.     Good  stock  upon  which  to  graft  less  hardy  magnolias. 

The  cucumber  tree  is  the  hardiest  species  of  native  magnolias. 
Its  great  leaves  betray  its  sub-tropical  affiliations.  No  tree  but 
the  catalpa  can  match  it  in  the  North,  and  this  does  not  venture 
by  itself  farther  than  the  latitude  of  southern  Indiana.  Against 
the  foliage  mass  of  oaks  and  elms  and  maples  the  great  clean 
leaves  of  the  cucumber  tree  form  a  striking  contrast.  They  are 
silky  at  first,  but  when  mature  keep  only  a  fringe  of  hairs  on  the 
veins  beneath.  In  autumn  the  tree  turns  yellow  before  the  leaves 
drop.  The  elevated  leaf  scars  almost  encircle  the  silky  winter 
buds. 

Cucumber  trees  make  less  show  in  the  period  of  blossoming 
than  other  magnolias.  The  yellowish-green  tulip-like  flowers, 
though  large,  are  scarcely  distinguishable  at  a  little  distance  from 
the  new  leaves  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  They  are  neither 
beautiful  nor  pleasantly  fragrant.  The  elongated  fruits  look 
like  pale  green  cucumbers  at  first,  but  are  soon  distorted  in  form 
by  the  failure  of  many  of  the  carpels  to  set  seed.  The  fleshy  green 
cone  flushes  pink,  and  later  turns  red  as  autumn  approaches. 
In  September  each  mature  carpel  splits  open  and  two  scarlet 
seeds  hang  out,  each  on  an  elastic  thread.  The  wind  buffets  them 
until  they  dangle  several  inches  below  the  conical  fruit.  Then  a 
gust  tears  them  off,  and  if  they  fall  in  moist  leaf  mould  or  on  the 
damp  border  of  a  stream,  young  cucumber  trees  spring  up  from 
this  planting. 

The  cucumber  tree  is  not  yet  appreciated  as  a  shade  and 
avenue  tree  in  the  Northern  States.  It  has  few  faults  and  many 
virtues.  It  grows  vigorously  from  seed  and  after  transplanting. 
The  digging  and  planting  must  be  carefully  managed,  as  the 
fleshy  roots  of  all  magnolias  are  brittle.  Since  the  tree  is  com- 
paratively rare  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range,  nursery  stock 
or  seed  should  be  planted  rather  than  stripling  trees  from  the 
woods. 

The  Yellow  Cucumber  Tree  has  been  cultivated  in  gardens 
for  over  a  century.     It  has  bright  yellow  blossoms,  and  dark, 

253 


The   Magnolias  and  the  Tulip   Tree 

almost  evergreen  leaves.  In  the  wilds  of  central  Alabama  and 
the  Blue  Ridge  of  South  Carolina  has  been  found  the  yellow- 
flowered  prototype  of  this  garden  form.  It  is  named  for  its 
broad,  heart-shaped  leaves,  var.  cordaia,  of  Magnolia  acuminata. 
In  cultivation  the  variety  has  been  considerably  modified. 

Umbrella  Tree  {Magnolia  tripetala,  Linn.) — A  round- 
topped  or  conical  tree  30  to  40  feet  high,  of  irregular  habit,  with 
stout  contorted  branches  and  twigs.  Bark  thin,  grey,  smooth, 
with  bristly  warts.  IVood  close,  soft,  pale  brown,  weak;  sap 
wood  yellow.  Buds:  terminal,  purplish  with  pale  bloom,  pointed, 
I  inch  long;  lateral,  round,  short,  reddish  brown.  Leaves  16  to 
20  inches  long,  obovate,  acute,  entire,  tapering  narrowly  to  the 
stout  petiole,  smooth,  thin,  bright  green.  Flowers  white,  cup 
shaped,  of  unpleasant  odour,  4  to  5  inches  deep,  soon  spreading 
open,  the  3  sepals  recurved.  Fruit  elongated,  smooth,  2  to  4 
inches  long,  rose  coloured  when  ripe;  seeds  ^  inch  long.  Preferred 
habitat,  swamp  borders  and  banks  of  mountain  streams.  Distri- 
bution, Pennsylvania  to  southern  Alabama,  northeastern  Missis- 
sippi and  southwestern  Arkansas.  Nearly  to  the  coast  in  South 
Atlantic  States.  Uses:  An  ornamental  tree  in  temperate  regions 
of  Eastern  States  and  Europe. 

The  flower  of  this  magnolia  is  surrounded  by  an  umbrella-like 
whorl  of  leaves.  The  whole  tree,  indeed,  suggests  an  umbrella,  so 
closely  thatched  is  its  dome  with  the  glossy  leaves.  The  twigs 
have  a  peculiar  habit  of  striking  out  at  right  angles  from  an  erect 
branch,  then  turning  up  into  a  position  parallel  with  the  parent 
branch.  This  feature,  combined  with  the  inevitable  forking  of 
each  twig  that  bears  a  flower,  gives  the  branches  angularity  and 
tends  to  destroy  the  symmetry  of  the  dome. 

The  three  recurved  sepals  are  the  distinctive  feature  of  the 
flower.  The  whole  tree  is  smooth,  except  when  its  young  shoots 
unfold.  The  silky  hairs  are  soon  shed.  Altogether,  this  is  one 
of  the  trimmest  and  handsomest  of  our  native  magnolias.  It 
attains  large  size  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  proving  it  hardy  in 
southern  New  England. 

Ear-leaved  Magnolia,  Mountain  Magnolia  (Magnolia 
Fraseri,  Walt.) — Tree  30  to  40  feet  high,  with  small,  broad  crown 
above  slender,  often  leaning  trunk.  Branches  stout,  angular, 
erect.  Bark  thin,  brown,  smooth,  with  warty  patches.  IVood 
brownish  yellow,  weak,  soft.     Buds  smooth,  purplish;  terminal 

254 


The   Magnolias  and  the   Tulip  Tree 

I  to  2  inches  long;  axillary  very  small.  Leaves  obovate,  acute, 
with  ear-shaped  lobes  at  base,  lo  to  12  inches  long,  bright  green, 
smooth,  whorled  near  end  of  branchlet.  Flowers  creamy  white, 
fragrant,  spreading,  8  to  10  inches  across,  petals  narrowed  at 
base.  Fruit  oblong,  4  to  5  inches  long,  bright  rose  at  maturity; 
carpels  with  long  horny  tips,  seeds  |  inch  long.  Preferred  habitat, 
well-drained  soil  along  mountain  streams.  Distribution,  valleys 
of  Appalachian  Mountains  from  Virginia  and  Tennessee  to  Georgia, 
Alabama  and  northern  Mississippi;  abundant  in  South  Carolina 
along  headwaters  of  the  Savannah  River.  Uses:  Cultivated  in 
gardens  of  Eastern  States  and  in  Europe.  Hardy  to  New  England. 
The  eared  leaves  of  this  tree  and  the  prominent  horns  that 
decorate  its  brilliant  seed  cones  readily  distinguish  it  from  the 
preceding  species,  which  it  resembles  in  habit  and  in  the  whorled 
leaf  arrangement.  The  two  are  alike  in  their  adaptability  to 
culture  far  outside  of  their  natural  range.  Each  has  proved  suc- 
cessful as  a  hardy  stock  upon  which  to  graft  half-hardy  exotic 
varieties.  Planted  in  the  Northern  States,  these  trees  seem  to  hold 
their  own  even  with  M.  acuminata.  A  peculiarity  of  the  mountain 
magnolia,  umbrella  tree  and  large-leaved  cucumber  tree  is  that 
the  foliage  of  all  three  falls  without  any  perceptible  change  of 
colour.  The  leaves  are  pretty  much  frayed  and  blemished  before 
falling. 

The  Hardy  Exotic  Magnolias 

There  are  sixteen  species  of  magnolias  worth  cultivating  in 
this  country,  six  of  which  are  natives.  Two  of  these  natives  and 
five  exotics  have  proved  hardy  as  far  north  as  Boston.  The 
others  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  north  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
It  is  plain  that  they  reach  their  highest  development  in  the  South- 
ern States, 

Whenever  you  see  a  magnolia  in  the  North  blossoming 
before  the  leaves  you  may  be  sure  that  it  is  an  exotic  species; 
and  if  the  flowers  are  coloured  you  may  be  equally  sure  that  it  is  a 
hybrid  belonging  to  a  group  of  which  the  type  is  Magnolia  Sou- 
langeana.  This  hybrid  is  a  cross  between  Magnolia  Yulan  and 
Magnolia  obovata,  and  it  is  most  interesting  to  compare  these  two 
with  their  offspring.  Both  parents  came  from  China  and  Japan, 
where  they  grow  wild.    All  of  our  important  exotic  species  are 

255 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

natives  of  the  same  countries,  except  M.  Caniphelli,  which  comes 
from  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

The  Yulan  magnolia  (Magnolia  Yulan)  has  pure  white, 
fragrant  flowers,  which  are  bell  shaped  and  fully  6  inches  across. 
It  is  a  hardy  tree  which  grows  about  50  feet  high.  For  centuries 
it  has  been  a  favorite  in  Japanese  gardens.  The  purple  magnolia. 
Magnolia  obovata,  is  only  a  shrub,  and  it  cannot  endure  our 
northern  winters.  It  blooms  in  May  or  June — later  than  the 
Yulan — and  its  flowers  are  relatively  small  and  almost  scentless. 
The  outside  of  the  flowers  is  purple,  and  it  is  from  this  that  the 
hybrids  get  their  shades  of  pink  and  rose  and  crimson. 

It  can  be  readily  understood  what  a  triumph  it  was  to  cross 
these  two  species  successfully,  for  the  hybrids  are  hardy,  large- 
flowered  and  fragrant;  and  they  present  several  new  and  most 
desirable  colours.  In  this  group  are  the  following:  Alexandrina, 
grandis,  Lennei,  Norberttana  and  speciosa.  They  are  all  small 
trees,  excellent  for  setting  in  city  yards  and  in  other  prominent 
places,  for  after  the  blossoms  the  fruits  and  foliage  are  both 
decorative. 

The  starry  magnolia  (Magnolia  stellata)  is  also  a  very  fine 
species  for  home  grounds,  as  it  blooms  in  March  and  April 
and  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  flowering  shrubs.  Not  only  is 
it  the'  earliest  magnolia,  but  it  is  wonderfully  precocious, 
beginning  to  bloom  when  scarcely  2  feet  high.  Unlike  most 
magnolias,  its  flowers  are  star  shaped,  opening  out  flat  instead  of 
forming  cups  or  bells.  When  open  the  flowers  measure  3  inches 
across.  They  are  made  of  sixteen  to  eighteen  narrow  petals — 
twice  as  many  as  most  magnolias  have.  There  is  a  variety,  rosea, 
with  petals  flushed  with  pink  outside. 

Magnolia  Kobus,  a  large  tree  from  Japan,  is  at  present  of 
interest  only  to  connoisseurs.  Though  one  of  the  hardiest  o»f 
the  exotics,  it  does  not  yet  bloom  profusely.  Its  white  flowers 
are  star  shaped,  4  or  5  inches  across.    They  open  in  April  or  May. 

Tender  Exotic  Magnolias 

Magnolia  parviflora,  a  little  known  species  from  Japan,  is 
hardy  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  where  a  handsome  tree,  the 
largest  in  this  country,  blooms  freely.  Its  white  flowers  have 
few  petals,  but  in  form  and  texture  they  are  exquisite. 

256 


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THE   TULIP   TREE  {Liriodendron  Tulipijera) 

The  tree  frame  i?  one  of  unusual  symmetry  and  stateliness,  the  columnar  trunk  extending  far  into  the  crown.  The  winter 
twigs  end  in  flattened  buds,  enclosed  in  a  pair  of  stipules.  The  conical  fruits,  made  up  of  flat-winged  seed  cases  attached  to  a 
central  spike,  persist  over  winter,  and  are  gradually  loosened  bv  the  wind 


The   Magnolias  and  the   Tulip   Tree 

Campbell's  magnolia  {M.  Camphelli)  is  at  once  the  most 
beautiful  and  the  most  difficult  of  cultivation  of  all  our  tender 
exotic  species.  It  is  the  glory  of  the  high  mountain  valleys  of 
the  Himalayas,  where  at  very  high  altitudes  it  is  a  great  tree. 
But  in  this  country  it  cannot  endure  cold  winters,  and  even  in  the 
extreme  South  it  does  not  grow  as  it  does  at  home.  However, 
it  is  a  splendid  magnolia,  and  some  day  we  hope  to  see 
it — a  tree  80  to  100  feet  high — covered,  before  the  leaves 
appear,  with  its  rosy  bells.  It  is,  or  should  be,  to  the 
Southern  States  what  the  Soulangeana  group  is  to  the  North, 
for  its  petals  are  coloured  pink  or  crimson,  shading  from 
the  pale  interior  to  the  deeper  colouring  on  the  outside. 
The  flower  cups  are  from  6  to  10  inches  in  diameter  and 
sweet  scented. 

The  rest  of  the  tender  exotic  species  bloom  after  the  leaves 
appear.  Of  these,  the  best,  by  all  odds,  is  Magnolia  hypoleuca, 
a  tall  tree  which  is  notable  because  it  is  used  so  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  lacquered  wares  for  which  the  Japanese  are 
famous.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  all  the  species  so  far 
described  by  the  dash  of  scarlet  in  the  centre  of  its  white  blossoms. 
This  colour  is  on  the  filaments  of  the  stamens,  and  not  on  .the 
petals.  Another  strikingly  beautiful  feature  of  this  tree  is 
the  silvery  linings  of  the  leaves,  which  are  much  larger 
than  those  of  the  swamp  bay.  The  latter  species  shows 
far  less  brilliant  contrast  in  its  foliage  mass  than  does  this 
exotic. 

Another  species  with  crimson-centred  flowers  is  Watson's 
magnolia  {M.  iVatsoni),  a  small  tree,  with  blossoms  5  or  6  inches 
across.     These  have  a  decided  odour  of  allspice. 

The  dwarf  magnolia  {M.  pumila),  a  native  of  China,  grows 
only  4  or  5  feet  high,  as  a  rule,  and  has  white  flowers  which  exhale 
a  perfume  like  that  of  a  ripe  pineapple.  This  is  especially  strong 
at  night.  The  flowers  are  small — only  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter 
— but  the  shrub  is  widely  found  in  Southern  gardens,  probably 
because  of  its  fragrance  and  the  foliage,  which  is  evergreen.  Its 
period  of  bloom  is  long,  and  under  glass  it  becomes  everblooming. 
The  purple  magnolia  (M.  ohovata)  is  also  grown  in  the  South,  but 
I  see  no  reason  why  it  should  be.  Surely  it  is  inferior  to  its 
noted  offspring,  which  embody  all  its  good  traits  and  are,  besides, 
far  easier  to  grow. 

257 


Tb«  Magnolias  and  the   Tulip   Tree 

HOW  TO  TELL  MAGNOLIAS   WHEN    IN    FLOWER 

A  simple  key  for  the  tree  lover;  free  from  technicalities  and 
especially  designed  for  use  out-of-doors: 

Blooming  before  the  leaves. 

Colour  of  flowers  pure  white  or  nearly  so. 

Shape  of  flowers  bell-like yulan 

Shape  of  flowers  star-like. 

Petals  9  to  i8,  pink  streaked  outside,  .stellata 

Petals  6,  pure  white kobus 

Colour  of  flowers  pink  to  purple  outside. 
Size  of  flowers  large,  6  to  lo  inches. 

Hardy   soulangeana 

Tender campbelli 

Size  of  flowers  about  3^  inches obovata 

Blooming  after  the  leaves. 

Colour  of  flowers  greenish acuminata 

Colour  of  flowers  white,  with  conspicuous  colour 
in  centre. 

The  petals  purple-spotted  at  base macrophylla 

The  stamens  with  scarlet  filaments. 

Leaves  mostly  clustered  at  the  ends  of 

branches hypoleuca 

Leaves  scattered  along  the  branches,  .watsoni 
Colour  of  flowers,  pure  white. 

Size  of  flowers  small  (i  to  3  inches  across). 

Shrub  or  tree,  10  to  70  feet  high glauca 

Shrub,  usually  4  or  5  feet  high pumila 

Size  of  flowers  large,  6  to  9  inches  across. 

Foliage  evergreen fcetida 

Foliage  deciduous. 

Leaves  eared  at  base fraseri 

Leaves  not  eared  at  base tripetala 


2.  Genus  LIRIODENDRON,  Linn. 

Tulip  Tree,  Yellow  Poplar  (Liriodendron  Tulipijera,  Linn.) 
— A  stately  tall  tree,  80  to  200  feet  high,  with  trunk  5  to  10  feet  in 
diameter,  the  crown  conical  at  first,  spreading  in  old  age.  Bark 
close,  thick,  intricately  ^furrowed,  brown.  Wood  light,  soft, 
brittle,  weak,  easily  worked,  pale  brown  with  narrow,  white 
sap  wood.  Buds  reddish  with  pale  bloom,  elongated,  blunt. 
Leaves  5  to  6  inches  long  and  wide,  3  or  4  lobed  with  shallow 
258 


The   Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

sinuses,  apex  truncate  or  concave,  base  truncate  or  heart  shaped; 
margin  entire,  dark  green,  leathery,  smooth,  lustrous  above, 
paler  beneath;  autumn  colour,  yellow.  Flowers  tulip-like; 
\h  to  2^  inches  across,  sepals  3,  greenish,  recurved;  petals  6, 
yellow,  with  orange  splash  near  middle;  stamens  numerous  with 
large  yellow  anthers;  pistils  numerous,  imbricated  around  central 
receptacle.  Fruit  in  September,  seeds  in  dry,  winged  samaras 
that  fall  early  from  the  persistent  central  spike.  Few  seeds 
fertile.  Preferred  habitat  deep,  rich  soil.  Distribution,  Vermont 
to  Florida;  west  to  Illinois,  Arkansas,  Mississippi  and  Alabama; 
maximum  size  and  greatest  abundance  in  the  lower  Ohio  Valley 
and  on  mountain  slopes  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  Uses: 
A  valuable  shade  and  ornam.ental  tree.  Lumber  used  in  boat- 
building, construction  and  interior  finish  of  houses,  for  shingles 
brooms,  small  woodenwares,  and  wood  pulp.  Postal  cards  are 
made  of  "poplar"  pulp.     Bark  yields  an  important  tonic  drug. 

A  grove  of  young  tulip  trees  is  most  beautiful,  I  do  believe, 
in  the  dead  of  winter.  It  is  not  hard  to  find  the  old  seed  tree, 
whose  family  of  varying  ages  and  sizes  stand  in  close  ranks  all 
about.  A  young  tulip  is  singularly  straight  and  symmetrical, 
compared  with  the  young  of  chestnut,  dogwood  and  oak.  It 
takes  on  very  early  in  life  the  tree  habit  of  later  years.  The 
shaft  is  tall  and  grey  and  smooth,  crowned  with  an  oval  head  of 
ascending  branches,  clean  and  handsome  throughout. 

The  winter  twigs,  with  their  oblong  terminal  buds,  are  worth 
looking  at.  The  leaf  scars  are  prominent,  and  a  narrow  ridge 
encircles  the  twig  at  each  scar.  Spring  tells  the  meaning  of  these 
lines,  when  the  leafy  shoots  unfold.  Cut  across  the  terminal  bud, 
and  its  contents  exhibit  all  parts  of  a  flower — or,  if  the  tree  be  too 
young  to  bloom,  the  little  leaves  are  revealed,  packed  away  to 
wait  for  spring. 

Two  green  leaves  with  palms  fastened  together  form  a  flat 
bag  that  encloses  the  new  shoot  after  the  bud  scales  fall  in  spring. 
Hold  it  to  the  light  and  you  see  a  curved  petiole  and  leaf.  The 
bag  opens  along  its  edge  seam,  and  the  petiole  straightens  up, 
lifting  the  leaf,  which  has  its  halves  folded  on  the  midrib.  At 
the  base  of  the  petiole  stands  a  smaller  flat  green  bag.  The  leaf 
grows  and  takes  on  its  mature,  dark-green  colour,  while  the  basal 
palms  of  its  protecting  stipules  shrivel  and  fall  away.  Their 
work  is  done.     The  place  of  their  attachment  is  the  ring  scar. 

259 


The  Magnolias  and  the  Tulip  Tree 

Within  the  second  bag  is  the  second  leaf.  The  stem  lengthens, 
mounting  this  Httle  bag  far  above  the  first  leaf  before  it  opens 
to  let  out  the  second.  So  the  growing  point  conceals  itself,  but 
grows  on,  unfolding  a  new  leaf  and  expanding  the  shoot,  node  by 
node,  until  the  growth  of  a  whole  season  is  accomplished.  Suckers 
from  the  roots  of  a  tree  often  exhibit  unusual  exuberance  of 
growth,  and  hold  the  stipules  at  each  joint  as  two  broad,  leafy 
blades,  throughout  the  season. 

The  "  chopped-oflf "  ends  of  the  leaves  of  the  tulip  tree  set  it 
apart  from  others  at  any  season.  Sometimes  there  are  two 
shallow  basal  lobes,  like  those  the  maples  have.  Occasionally 
the  apex  is  concave.  Always  the  surface  is  shining,  and  turns 
to  gold  with  birch  and  chestnut  and  hickory  in  the  autumn. 

The  flowers  are  showy  and  handsome,  with  dashes  of  orange 
on  their  greenish-yellow  corollas  to  attract  the  bees.  The  plan 
of  the  flower  is  much  like  the  magnolias'  until  the  central  spike 
reveals  its  seeds.  Magnolia  seed  vessels  split  up  the  back  at 
maturity.  Tulip  capsules  are  dry  and  do  not  open.  A  flat 
wing  rises  above  the  angular,  2-celled  seed  box.  The  outer 
keys  loosen  and  fly  away  on  the  early  autumnal  breezes.  These 
seeds  are  rarely  fertile.  Before  winter  is  fairly  come  the  shingled 
seeds  that  formed  the  tulip  cone  have  all  been  carried  oflF,  and 
the  pencil-like  receptacle  remains  erect  on  the  end  of  the  twig. 

The  tulip  poplar  is  a  beautiful  lawn  and  shade  tree.  It  is 
a  favourite  in  Europe.  Only  far-away  China  has  a  sister  species 
in  the  genus  Liriodendron.  It  is  a  pity  that  this  stately  native 
tree  is  not  better  known  in  cultivation  in  its  own  country.  It 
needs  the  same  care  we  bestow  on  magnolias  in  transplanting, 
for  its  roots  are  fleshy  and  tender.  There  is  no  season  when 
the  tree  is  not  full  of  interest  and  beauty,  no  matter  what  its  age. 


36p 


CHAPTER   XXXI:     THE   PAPAW  AND   THE 
POND   APPLE 

Family  Anonace.'e 

The  custard  apple  family  contains  fifty  genera,  all  tropical 
and  mostly  confined  to  the  Old  World.  7  he  family  characteristics 
are  exemplified  by  the  two  genera  with  a  single  species  in  each, 
which  invade  the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States — vanguard 
of  the  West  Indian  host  of  many  species.  These  trees  have 
small  use  as  ornamentals  in  a  region  rich  in  handsomer  species. 
Their  fruits  have  small  horticultural  value. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND   SPECIES 

A.  Trees  with  straight   trunks;  fruit  simple,  banana-like. 
I.  Genus  ASIMINA,  Adans. 

(A.  triloba)  pa  paw 
AA.  Trees  with  trunks  bulging  at  base;  fruit  compound,  of  many 
united  pistils. 

2.  Genus  ANONA,  Linn. 

(A.  glabra)  pond  apple 


I.  Genus  ASIMINA,  Adans. 

Papaw  {Asimina  triloba,  Dunal.) — Slender,  spreading  trees 
or  shrubs,  20  to  30  feet  high.  Bark  thin,  fibrous,  dark  brown, 
blotched  with  pale  grey,  beset  with  warts  and  a  network  of 
shallow  grooves.  Branches  grooved,  reddish  brown.  Wood 
light,  coarse  grained,  weak,  soft.  Winter  buds  small,  flat,  pointed, 
densely  hairy,  red.  Leaves  alternate,  simple,  clustering  near 
ends  of  branches,  obovate,  tapering  slenderly  to  base;  8  to  12 
inches  long,  4  to  5  inches  broad,  thin  bright  green  above,  paler 
beneath,  on  short  petiole.  Flowers  in  April,  solitary  in  axils  of 
last   year's  leaves;   stamens    in    globular  mass;    pistils,    many, 

261 


The  Papaw  and  the  Pond  Apple 

on  disk;  sepals  3,  green,  downy;  petals,  6,  veiny,  purplish  red, 
ill-smelling.  Fruit,  3  to  5  inches  long,  like  a  thick,  shapeless 
banana,  skin  wrinkled  and  brown;  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  insipid. 
Ripe  in  September  and  October.  Seeds,  large,  hard.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich  bottom  lands.  Distribution,  Southern  States  and 
north  into  Kansas,  Michigan,  western  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
Uses:  Planted  for  ornament  and  for  a  curiosity.  Fruit,  in- 
different.    Wood,  inferior.     Bark,  used  for  fish  nets. 

This  dainty  little  "wild  banana  tree"  of  the  North  is  more 
interesting  than  it  is  useful,  I  am  bound  to  confess.  Its  great 
leaves  spread  in  umbrella  whorls  like  certain  magnolias,  covering 
the  upturned  branches  with  a  dense  thatch  of  green.  These 
leaves  give  the  tree  a  tropical  look,  hinting  at  the  fact  that  this 
is  a  fugitive  member  of  a  large  family  that  belongs  in  the  regions 
of  no  winter. 

The  papaw  is  not  devoid  of  beauty  in  its  blossoming  time, 
though  the  flower  resembles,  and  is  not  more  conspicuous  than 
that  of  the  wild  ginger  that  cowers  in  the  woods.  In  April,  the 
opening  leaf  buds  have  scarcely  cast  their  scales  when  the  wine- 
coloured  flowers  appear,  set  at  intervals  upon  the  twigs.  Then 
the  leaves  come  out  lined  with  a  red  fuzz,  which  intensifies  the 
rich  colour  of  the  whole  tree.  The  bees  find  the  flowers  worth 
visiting,  but  their  odour  is  unpleasant  to  most  people.  Twigs 
and  leaves  share  this  disagreeable  characteristic,  and  the  fruits 
repeat  it  in  autumn. 

The  papaw's  soft  pulp,  in  its  green  banana-like  envelope,  is 
delighted  in  by  the  Negro  of  the  South.  It  is  sold  in  the  markets, 
but  is  too  sweet  and  soft  to  be  really  enjoyed  by  more  fastidious 
people.  One  must  get  used  to  the  pungent  papaw  taste,  and 
then  only  the  yellow-fleshed  fruits  are  fit  to  eat.  These  are 
improved  by  hanging  on  the  tree  until  they  get  a  sharp  bite  of 
frost.  The  name,  Asimina,  means  "sleeve-shaped  fruit,"  and 
triloba  refers  to  the  three-parted  flower. 

The  Melon  Papaw  (Carica  Papaya,  L.),  which  has  had  its 
name  borrowed  by  the  species  just  described,  is  a  tropical  tree 
that  grows  wild  in  southern  Florida,  and  is  often  seen  in  green- 
houses farther  north.  It  grows  like  a  palm,  with  tall  stem  and 
leaves  rosetted  at  the  top.  The  bark  is  silvery  white,  the  leaves 
lustrous,  long  stalked,  deeply  cleft,  and  often  a  foot  across. 
The  flowers  are  waxen  and  yellow,  and  on  the  pistillate  trees  are 

263 


The  Papaw  and  the  Pond  Apple 

succeeded  by  melon-like  fruits,  sometimes  as  large  as  a  man's 
head,  clustered  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  rosette.  This  is  the  papaw 
exploited  in  certain  patent  medicines.  It  belongs  to  the  passion- 
flower family. 

The  botanical  explorer,  William  Bartram,  wrote  in  1790: 
"This  admirable  tree  is  certainly  the  most  beautiful  of  any 
vegetable  production  I  know  of."  The  fruits  are  eaten  raw, 
or  made  into  conserves.  The  leaves  are  used  by  the  Negroes  as 
a  substitute  for  soap  in  washing  clothes.  But  they  are  especially 
valued  as  a  means  of  making  tough  meat  tender.  The  fleshy 
leaves  are  bruised,  then  wrapped  up  with  the  meat  and  laid 
aside.  A  solvent  called  papain,  which  the  leaves  contain,  soon 
breaks  down  the  tough  connective  tissues. 


2.  Genus  ANONA,  Linn. 

The  Pond  Apple  {Anona  glabra,  Linn.)  is  our  only  other 
arboreal  representative  of  the  custard  apple  family.  It  grows  in 
the  swamps  of  southern  Florida,  and  in  the  West  Indies.  Its 
fruits  are  heart  shaped,  4  to  6  inches  long,  smooth,  and  when 
ripe  the  thick  stem  pulls  out,  leaving  the  creamy,  custard-like 
flesh  set  with  hard  seeds  next  to  the  large  central  cavity.  The 
fruit  is  fragrant  when  ripe,  but  not  of  such  quality  as  would  war- 
rant the  cultivation  of  the  little  tree.  The  West  Indian  Anona 
muricaia  is  the  Soursop  sold  on  Southern  fruit  stalls.  Some 
hopeful  horticulturists  believe  the  pond  apple  may  in  time  rival 
the  soursop  as  a  fruit. 


263 


CHAPTER   XXXII:    THE   LAURELS  AND  THE 

SASSAFRAS 

Family  Laurace/^ 

Aromatic  trees  with  handsome  wood.  Leaves  simple 
alternate,  punctate,  entire.  Flowers  small,  unconspicuous,  yel- 
lowish green,  clustered.     Fruit,  a  i -seeded  berry. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  evergreen,  entire. 

B.  Calyx  lobes  persistent  on  the  fruit. 

1.  Genus  PERSEA,  Linn. 

C.  Flower  stalks  short,  smooth;  bark  red. 

(P.  Borhonid)  red   bay 
CC.  Flower  stalks  long,  pubescent;  bark  dull  brown. 

(P.  puhescens)  swamp  bay 
BB.  Calyx  lobes  not  presistent  on  the  fruit. 

C.  Flowers    in    long-stemmed,    sub-terminal    panicles; 
berry  small,  blue-black. 

2.  Genus  OCOTEA,  Aubl. 

(0.  Cateshyana)  lancewood 
CC.  Flowers  in  short-stemmed  axillary  umbels;  berry 
large,  yellow-green. 

•  3.  Genus  UMBELLARIA,  Nutt. 

{U.  Calijornica)  California  laurel 
AA.  Leaves  deciduous,  entire  or  2-3  lobed. 

4.  Genus  SASSAFRAS,  Nees. 

(5.  Sassafras)  sassafras 

The  laurel  family  has  forty  genera,  most  of  them  tropical. 
Of  the  six  North  American  genera,  four  are  arbourescent.  Three 
of  these  have  broad  evergreen  leaves;  the  fourth  is  deciduous. 
All  have  i -seeded  berries,  following  inconspicuous,  yellowish- 
green  flowers.     Three  of  these  genera  are  monotypic;  one  has  two 

264 


The  Laurels  and  the  Sassafras 


species.     All   but  the  sassafras  produce  handsome,  ornamental 
wood,  used  in  inlay  work  and  for  interior  finish  of  houses. 


1.    Genus  PERSEA,  Linn. 

Red  Bay  (Persea  Borhonia,  Spreng.) — A  shapely,  narrow 
headed  tree,  50  to  70  feet  high,  with  numerous  stout,  erect  branches 
and  angled  branchlets.  Roots  yellow,  fleshy.  Bark  thick,  red, 
furrowed  and  cut  into  broad,  flat,  scaly  ridges;  branches  greenish. 
IVood  hard,  heavy,  strong,  bright  red.  Buds  woolly,  red,  small. 
Leaves  evergreen,  3  to  4  inches  long,  broad,  entire,  oblong  to 
lanceolate,  tapering  at  base  and  apex,  thick,  bright  green,  lustrous, 
gloucous  beneath,  turning  yellow;  petioles  stout,  short,  brown. 
Flowers  small,  white,  axillary,  in  few-flowered  clusters.  Fruit 
blue  or  black,  shiny  berries,  ^  inch  long,  i -seeded,  with  persistent 
calyx  lobes.  Preferred  habitat,  stream  and  swamp  borders. 
Distribution,  Virginia  to  Texas  near  coast;  north  to  Arkansas. 

The  red  bay  is  a  handsome  tree  deserving  more  extensive 
cultivation  for  its  clean,  leathery  foliage,  which  is  red  when  it 
opens  and  yellow  before  it  dies.  The  brilliant  dark  green  mass 
is  lightened  in  summer  by  the  pale  leaf  linings.  The  red  bark 
probably  gives  the  name  its  distinguishing  adjective.  The  leaf 
is  not  unlike  that  of  Laurus  nobilis,  the  familiar  tub  laurel  of 
hotel  verandas. 

This  lover  of  rich,  wet  soil  is  occasionally  discovered  growing 
wild  among  long-leaf  pines  in  dry,  sandy  loam — a  most  encourag- 
ing fact  for  anyone  who  wishes  to  grow  the  tree  in  ordinary  well- 
drained  soil.  The  berries  are  handsome  but  not  showy.  The 
wood,  was  once  used  for  boatbuilding,  but  is  now  devoted  to 
interior  house  finishing  and  fancy  articles  of  furniture.  It  is 
comparatively  rare  in  use. 

The  Swamp  Bay  (P.  pubescens,  Sarg.)  is  a  slender  tree, 
rarely  40  feet  high,  that  frequently  crowds  out  all  other  under- 
growth in  pine  barren  swamps  along  the  coast  from  North  Carolina 
to  Mississippi.  Its  densely  woolly  opening  shoots  and  leaf  veins, 
and  the  dull  brown  bark  distinguish  it  from  the  previous  species, 
as  do  also  the  long  stalks  on  which  the  flowers  and  berries  are 
borne. 

The  Avocado,  or  Alligator  Pear  (P.  gratissima,  Gaertn.), 
265 


The  Laurels  and  the  Sassafras 

grows  wild  in  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  Peru  and  Mexico.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Florida  and  southern  California.  The  berry  in 
this  species  has  the  size  and  the  shape  of  a  Kieffer  pear.  It  has 
smooth,  greenish-purple  skin,  and  a  yellow  pulp,  soft  and  oily 
like  marrow,  surrounds  the  single  giant  seed.  The  flavour  is 
peculiar,  and  strangers  to  it  have  to  acquire  a  liking  for  it.  When 
this  preliminary  step  is  taken,  they  often  become  extremely 
fond  of  it.  It  is  usually  cut  in  two  like  a  melon,  and  eaten  as  a 
salad,  dressed  with  vinegar,  salt  and  pepper. 

The  abundant  oil  expressed  from  these  pears  is  used  in 
soap  making  and  for  illumination.  The  seeds  yield  a  black 
dye  that  is  converted  into  an  indelible  ink.  The  growing  of 
the  trees  is  easy  and  profitable.  They  begin  to  fruit  in  about 
five  years  from  seed. 


2.  Genus  OCOTEA,  Aubl. 

The  Lancewood  (Ocotea  Cateshyana,  Sarg.)  is  a  little  ever- 
green laurel  tree  20  to  30  feet  high,  much  like  the  swamp  bay  in 
flower  and  fruit.  But  its  shoots  are  smooth,  its  leaves  thin  and 
lanceolate,  and  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  have  dried  away  under  the 
berry.  The  flower  stalks  are  bright  red.  The  reddish-brown 
bark  is  warty.  This  tree  is  common  on  the  shores  and  islands  of 
the  lower  end  of  Florida,  from  Cape  Canaveral  on  the  east  around 
to  Cape  Romano.  It  is  abundant  and  of  largest  size  near  Bay 
Biscayne. 


3.  Genus  UMBELLARIA,  Nutt. 

The  California  Laurel  (Umbellaria  Californica,  Nutt.)  is 
frequent  among  the  broad-leaved  maples  in  the  forests  of  south- 
western Oregon.  It  is  a  lover  of  wet  soil,  growing  80  to  90  feet 
high  in  rich  bottom  lands.  It  climbs  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  extends  to  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains 
in  southern  California,  reaching  altitudes  of  2,500  feet,  but 
keeping  generally  along  waterways. 

The  beauty  and  stateliness  of  this  tree  impress  all  those  who 
look  with  eyes  that  see  upon  the  varied  forest  flora  of  California. 
It  is  strikingly  handsome  in  a  land  full  of  handsome  trees.     Its 

266 


The   Laurels  and  the   Sassafras 

willow-like  leaves  are  lustrous  and  rich  in  an  aromatic  oil,  which 
causes  them  to  burn  even  when  piled  green  on  a  campfire.  The 
flowers,  small  but  fragrant,  bloom  in  December  and  January. 
The  plum-like  purple  fruits  which  fall  in  autumn  have  the  peculiar 
habit  of  keeping  their  integrity  long  after  the  pit  has  germinated 
in  the  leaf  mould  under  the  tree.  The  plantlet  has  the  distinction 
of  being  provided  with  a  fresh  fruit  lunch  which  does  not  decay 
and  disappear  until  well  into  the  following  summer. 

The  tree  is  planted  in  parks  and  gardens  of  California,  and  in 
southern  Europe.  Its  wood  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  valuable  in  the  forests  of  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  used  for 
interior  finish  of  houses  and  for  furniture.  It  is  close,  firm,  hard 
and  strong,  rich  brown,  with  pale  thick  sap  wood.  From  the 
leaves  an  aromatic  oil  is  extracted,  and  a  fatty  acid  from  the 
fruit. 

4.  Genus  SASSAFRAS,  Nees. 

Sassafras  (Sassafras  Sassafras,  Karst.) — Tree,  30  to  50 
feet  high;  rarely,  in  the  South,  100  feet  high  with  trunk  6  to  7  feet 
in  diameter;  top,  flat  or  round,  loose,  open,  irregular.  Roots 
fleshy,  aromatic,  deep,  throwing  up  suckers.  Bark  spicy  aro- 
matic, thick,  dark  brown,  reddish,  scaly  and  broken  by  shallow 
fissures  into  broad  flat  ridges;  twigs,  smooth,  striated,  green, 
mucilaginous.  IVood  dull  brownish  yellow,  soft,  weak,  coarse, 
brittle,  durable  in  the  soil.  Buds  ovate,  acute,  greenish,  aromatic. 
Leaves  alternate,  petiolate,  sometimes  opposite,  4  to  6  inches  long, 
dull  yellow-green,  pale  beneath,  with  entire  margin;  autumn 
colour  orange;  shapes  vary:  (a)  ovate,  (b)  mitten  shape,  with  one 
side  lobe  only,  (c)  3  lobed,  with  a  thumb  on  each  side — the  three 
shapes  all  on  the  same  tree.  Flowers  in  May,  dioecious,  pale 
yellow,  in  corymbose  racemes  on  separate  trees;  staminate,  with 
9  stamens  mounted  in  3  rows  on  the  6-lobed  calyx,  minute  glands, 
orange  coloured,  at  base  of  inner  whorl  of  3  stamens;  pistillate, 
with  6  abortive  stamens  in  one  row  about  single  erect  pistil. 
Fruit  soft,  oblong,  smooth,  dark  blue,  on  thickened  scarlet  calyx 
and  pedicel.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  sandy  loam,  borders  of 
woodlands  and  peaty  swamps.  Distribution,  southern  Vermont 
west  through  Michigan  and  Iowa  to  Kansas,  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas.     Uses:    Wood    makes    posts    and    rails,    boats    and    ox 

267 


The  Laurels  and  the  Sassafras 

yokes.  Bark  of  roots  used  as  medicinal  tea.  Oil  of  bark  used 
to  flavour  medicines.  Valuable  ornamental  for  its  berries  and 
brilliant  autumn  colouring.     Attracts  birds. 

Who  has  not  nibbled  the  dainty  green  buds  of  sassafras  in 
winter,  or  dug  at  the  roots  for  a  bit  of  their  aromatic  bark?  Or 
who  has  not  searched  among  the  leaves  for  "mittens"?  Surely 
they  are  people  whose  youth  was  spent  in  regions  that  knew  not 
this  little  tree  of  the  fence  corners  and  woodland  borders.  And 
they  have  missed  something  very  much  worth  while  out  of  their 
childhood. 

Then  there  is  the  great  green  caterpillar  with  the  Cyclopean 
black  eye  transfixing  the  culprit  who  dares  disturb  him  on  the 
soft  silk  mattress  he  has  spun  for  himself  on  a  sassafras  leaf. 
When  he  is  hung  up  like  a  mummy  we  have  dared  to  carry  him 
home,  to  learn  that  the  "eye"  is  only  a  big  black  spot  made  to 
scare  away  birds,  no  doubt,  which  are  looking  for  worms.  Did 
you  never  see  the  glorious  swallow-tail  butterfly  that  comes  out  of 
that  plump  chrysalis  in  a  day  or  two?  Then  you  have,  indeed, 
missed  another  joy,  for  no  tiger  of  the  jungle  is  more  richly 
banded  with  black  and  yellow  than  this  ranger  of  the  meadows; 
in  form  and  colouring  and  motions  he  is  as  beautiful  as  the  flowers 
that  supply  him  with  nectar. 

But  there  is  the  sassafras  tree.  When  the  butterfly  is  still 
in  its  tiny  green  eggshell,  hidden  by  a  provident  mother  in  plain 
sight  on  the  face  of  an  opening  leaf,  the  delicate  greenish  yellow 
flowers  come  out.  The  starry  calyxes  are  alike  on  all  the  trees. 
But  the  stamens  are  all  on  one  tree,  nine  in  each  flower,  prominent, 
with  bunchy  glands  at  the  bases  of  the  inner  ones.  Plainly 
these  flowers  have  pollen  making  for  their  duty.  The  pistillate 
flowers,  with  a  row  of  abortive  stamens  at  the  base  of  the  central 
style,  grow  in  numbers  on  another  tree.  Here  in  autumn  come 
the  birds,  even  before  the  blue  berries  have  softened  on  their 
coral  pedestals.  To  leave  them  till  they  ripen  would  be  to  lose 
them  to  some  other  bird. 

The  glory  of  the  autumn  foliage  of  the  sassafras  is  like  the 
glory  of  a  sunset — all  mingled  with  purple  and  red  and  gold. 
The  three  forms  of  leaves  that  fascinated  us  in  summer  time  are 
here  yet,  but  the  shining  treetop  is  the  unit  now,  and  we  do  not 
look  for  individual  leaves. 

The  wood  of  sassafras  is  light  and  tough,  and  makes  good 
268 


Tilt-  roiuisiiie   spfciiiu-n  is  often   sliruhln-,  Init 


rises  in  tavoralile  situations  into  a  stately  trc 


favorable 
srarlet  a 


situations 
^d   eold 


In  autumn  the  foliage  tu-ns 


THE    SASSAFRAS  {Sassafras    Sassafras) 

The  leaves  show  three  liifFerent  shapes,  all  on  the  same  twig.  The  yellow  flowers  are  home  on  separate  trees.  The 
blue  berries  are  handsome  on  their  coral-red  stems,  the  delight  of  birds  in  late  September.  The  plump  green  aromatic  bud* 
are  good  to  nibble  on  a  winter's  w  alk 


The  Laurels  and  the  Sassafras 

fishing  rods.  Durable  in  the  "^oil  and  in  water,  it  is  used  for  posts 
and  rails,  and  for  boats  and  barrels.  The  bark,  especially  of  the 
roots,  is  strong  in  a  volatile  oil  used  to  flavour  medicines.  The 
bark  itself  is  sold  in  drug  stores,  and  people  buy  it  in  spring  and 
make  sassafras  tea  "to  clear  the  blood."  The  leaves  and  twigs 
yield  a  mucilaginous  substance  which  is  used  in  the  South  to  give 
flavour  and  consistency  to  gumbo  soups.  The  useful  properties 
of  its  various  members  are  as  nothing  when  compared  with  the 
beauty  and  desirability  of  the  living  tree,  which  is  beautiful 
throughout  the  year — as  a  towering  tree  or  a  roadside  sapling. 


269 


CHAPTER   XXXIII:     THE  WITCH    HAZEL  AND 
THE   SWEET  GUM 

Family  Hamamelidace^ 

Trees  with  slender  twigs  and  fibrous  roots.  Leaves  simple, 
opposite,  deciduous.  Flowers  with  parts  in  four's,  perfect  or 
unisexual.     Fruits  woody  2-valved,  i ,  to  2-seeded  capsules. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  obovate,  unequal  at  base;  flowers  perfect,  autumnal. 
I.  Genus  HAMAMELIS,  Linn. 

{H.  Virginiana)  witch  hazel 
AA.  Leaves  star  shaped,  symmetrical  at  base;  flowers  monoe- 
cious,   staminate    in    terminal    racemes,    pistillate    in 
axillary  long-stalked  heads,  in  early  summer. 

2.  Genus  LIQUIDAMBAR,  Linn. 

(L.  Siyraciflua)  sweet  gum 

The  relationship  of  the  witch  hazel  and  sweet  gum  is  not 
obvious  to  the  general  observer.  In  fact,  the  common  characters 
are  such  as  only  the  keen  eye  of  the  botanist  detects.  The  2- 
horned  woody  capsules  joined  together  in  the  sweet  gum  seed 
ball  is  morphologically  the  same  type  as  the  solitary  woody  2- 
lipped  seed  capsule  of  the  witch  hazel. 

Eighteen  genera  compose  the  subtropical  family,  Hamame- 
lidaceas.  Two  genera,  each  with  a  single  species,  are  native  to 
North  America.  There  are  two  or  three  species  of  Hamamelis 
in  Eastern  Asia.  The  four  species  of  Liquidambar  include  one 
Mexican  and  two  Asiatic  species  beside  our  own  sweet  gum. 

I.  Genus  HAMAMELIS,  Linn. 

The  Witch  Hazel  (Hamamelis  Virginiana,  Linn.) — A 
small  tree,  or  usually  a  stout  shrub,  rarely  25  feet  high.     Dark 

270 


The   Witch  Hazel  and  the   Sweet   Gum 

light  brown,  scaly  or  smooth.  Pf^ood  close  grained,  hard,  heavy, 
brownish  red,  with  thick,  white  sap  wood.  Buds  sickle  shaped, 
pale  brown,  hairy,  enclosed  in  leafy  stipules.  Leaves  alternate, 
unsymmetrical,  strongly  veined,  oval  or  obovate,  wavy  margined, 
or  coarsely  serrate,  4  to  6  inches  long,  rusty-hairy  at  first,  yellow 
in  autumn,  often  hanging  all  winter.  Flowers  in  autumn,  clus- 
tered, greenish,  with  4  yellow  ribbon-like  petals.  Fniiis  ripe 
in  autumn,  a  2-beaked,  2-celled,  woody  capsule  that  opens  ex- 
plosively; seeds,  2,  black,  shiny.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  rich  soil 
or  rocky  stream  banks.  Distribution,  Nova  Scotia  to  Nebraska, 
south  to  Florida  and  Eastern  Texas.  Uses:  Valuable  orna- 
mental. Bark,  twigs  and  leaves  used  in  making  extract  for 
rubbing  bruises. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  forest  west  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
that  quite  compensates  the  Easterner  for  the  absence  of  the 
witch  hazel,  familiar  to  every  lover  of  the  woods  in  his  half  of 
the  continent.  Not  that  it  is  a  very  important  tree,  in  any 
practical  sense,  but  it  is  an  integral  and  familiar  part  of  the 
woods  it  frequents,  filling  in  the  bare  places  with  undergrowth 
and  exhibiting  interesting  and  unusual  habits.  It  is  the  most 
inconspicuous  tree  in  the  woods  in  spring.  Its  opening  leaves  are 
coated  with  rusty  hairs,  which  the  botanist  finds  interesting 
because  they  branch  into  star-shaped  tops.  But  to  the  casual 
observer  these  leaves  look  old  and  dingy,  compared  with  the  bright 
green  foliage  about.  And  no  sign  of  bloom  adorns  the  witch 
hazel  while  the  impressive  flower  pageant  is  passing.  Only  the 
curious,  lifting  a  branch  and  looking  in  the  axils  of  last  year's 
leaves,  will  see  little  curved  stems  each  capped  by  a  cluster  of 
green-grey  cups,  dull  from  their  winter's  contact  with  the  elements. 
On  the  newer  shoots,  and  at  the  bases  of  leafy  side  spurs  cluster 
tiny  green  balls  no  larger  than  pin  heads.  A  few  brown  pods,  dry 
and  empty,  drop  to  the  ground,  as  the  wind  shakes  the  tree. 

All  through  the  summer  the  witch  hazel  tells  its  secrets  only 
to  the  thoughtful  and  keen-eyed  observer.  The  side  branches 
send  out  twigs  of  varying  lengths.  The  longest  and  thriftiest 
of  these  are  near  the  extremity  of  the  limb,  where  the  best  light  is, 
and  the  most  room.  Here  the  broad  leaves  spread  their  faces 
toward  the  sun,  and  under  them  little  green  buttons  assert  them- 
selves, rending  apart  the  cups  that  easily  contained  them  in 
spring. 

271 


The  Witch  Hazel  and  the  Sweet  Gum 

Every  tree  has  its  supreme  moment  of  beauty.  This  usually 
comes  when  the  foliage  is  in  its  prime,  or  when  the  flower  buds 
burst  in  spring.  The  witch  hazel  is  an  exception  to  all  rules. 
When  the  crisp  autumnal  atmosphere  warns  all  plant  life  to  get 
ready  for  winter  the  witch  hazel  trees  put  a  new  construction  on 
the  message.  As  if  by  magic,  all  up  and  down  through  the  woods 
they  burst  into  bloom,  each  flower  bravely  flaunting  four  delicate 
petals  like  tiny  yellow  streamers.  The  woods  are  fairly  sprinkled 
with  these  starry,  gold-thread  blossoms,  and  a  rare  fragrance 
breathes  upon  the  languid  October  air.  The  ripening  leaves 
second  and  intensify  the  colour  of  the  flowers,  which  often  thickly 
fringe  the  outstretched  twigs,  and  cover  up  the  green  buttons. 

Ah!  here  is  another  surprise  the  witch  hazel  has  to  offer. 
These  buttons,  so  precious  to  the  tree,  contain  the  seeds  developed 
from  the  flowers  that  bloomed  last  year.  It  has  taken  a  full 
year  to  ripen  them.  Each  pod  has  two  cells,  with  a  shiny  black 
seed  prisoner  in  each.  The  frost  gives  the  signal,  and  the  pods 
fly  open  with  a  snap,  freeing  the  seeds,  and  ejecting  them  with 
surprising  force.  Dry,  cold  weather  will  discharge  the  whole 
seed  crop  in  a  few  days.  They  shoot  in  every  direction,  and  to  a 
distance  sometimes  of  twenty  feet  from  the  foot  of  the  tree.  But 
warm,  wet  weather  delays  their  game.  The  pods  are  close  and 
glum.    There  is  no  spring  in  them  till  they  are  dry  again. 

It  is  a  far  cry  from  March  to  October;  from  furry  tassels  of 
blossoming  aspens  and  willows  to  the  witch  hazel  in  its  yellow 
blossoms  bringing  up  the  rear  in  the  great  annual  procession  of 
the  flowers.  In  fact,  the  witch  hazel  practically  bridges  the 
chasm  of  winter,  for  at  no  time  does  the  cold  cause  all  the  flowers 
to  fall.  Their  yellow  petals  curl  up  like  shavings;  but  they  often 
stay  till  spring. 

A  witch  in  old  days  was  a  person  who  did  or  said  things  not 
conventional.  Our  witch  hazel  has  defied  the  ancient  laws  of 
the  calendar — a  very  dreadful  thing!  So  it  comes  honestly  by 
its  name;  and  one  is  inclined  to  ignore  the  accepted  etymology 
that  the  word  "witch,"  or  "wych,"  in  Old  English,  means  "weak," 
and  refers  to  the  sprawling  habit  of  the  tree.  Surely  the  observer 
cannot  miss  seeing  little  weazen  witch  faces  grinning  at  him  from 
all  possible  angles  of  the  tree,  their  yellow  cap  strings  flying  in  the 
wind,  as  if  in  defiance  of  the  rumour  that  the  days  of  witchcraft 
are  past. 


The  Witch  Hazel  and  the  Sweet   Gum 

The  English  "wych  hazel"  is  an  elm.  In  the  mining  regions 
it  would  be  counted  the  height  of  folly  to  sink  a  shaft  without 
first  determining  with  a  hazel  wand  where  the  rich  veins  of  coal 
or  metal  are.  No  more  would  one  think  of  digging  a  well  until 
the  same  divining  rod  pointed  to  the  hidden  springs.  Our 
American  witch  hazel  is  credited  with  all  the  occult  powers  of  the 
Old  World  tree  from  which  it  gets  its  name.  In  hamlets  and 
country  neighbourhoods  not  too  close  to  the  currents  of  modern 
life  we  may  still  meet  old  fellows  who  can  "water  witch,"  and  a 
goodly  number  of  neighbours  who  believe  in  his  powers. 

Billy  Thompson's  well  goes  dry  and  he  sends  in  haste  for 
Old  Andy.  Promptly,  but  with  no  undignified  haste,  the  old 
man  goes  out  into  the  woods  that  join  his  "clearin'."  He  chooses 
a  forked  twig  whose  Y  stands  north  and  south,  for  the  rising  and 
setting  suns  must  have  sent  their  rays  through  its  prongs  as  it 
grew.  Carefully  the  leaves  are  removed,  as  they  drive  to  Billy's 
place,  where  the  whole  family  and  a  neighbour  or  two  await  them. 
A  solemnity  settles  on  the  company  as  the  supple  twig  is  grasped 
by  its  two  forks,  thumbs  out,  knuckles  down,  and  the  stem  of 
the  Y  is  thrust  forward.  Holding  it  as  rigid  as  his  trembling  old 
hands  are  able,  Andy  paces  with  dignity  over  the  ground  that 
Billy  has  chosen  as  a  convenient  site  for  the  new  pump.  He 
shakes  his  head  as  the  stubborn  wand  keeps  its  position.  "There's 
no  use  diggin'  than"     Billy  is  disappointed,  but  convinced. 

Old  Andy  stumbles  along  and  the  wand  points  downward. 
It  is  most  emphatic.  Back  he  comes  across  the  same  spot,  and 
down  goes  the  wand  again.  He  moves  away — even  to  the  other 
side  of  the  barn — then  returns  and  the  sign  is  repeated  over  the 
exact  spot  indicated  before.  "D'ye  see  his  wrist  move?"  asks  a 
doubter,  nudging  his  neighbour,  and  speaking  under  his  breath. 
But  it  is  not  a  time  for  levity.  All  eyes  are  on  the  seer  who 
announces  with  proper  dignity:  "Thar's  the  place,  Billy.  The 
signs  is  plain.  You'll  git  a  good  spring-fed  well  if  you  go  deep 
enough."     And  nobody  has  the  hardihood  to  dispute  his  word. 

Hamamelis  water,  or  extract  of  witch  hazel,  in  a  variety  of 
brands,  is  for  sale  in  every  country  and  city  drug  store.  There 
is  widespread  faith  in  its  soothing  and  curative  powers  when 
rubbed  on  bruises  and  sprains,  and  applied  to  burns.  Strangely 
enough,  the  Indians  taught  white  folks  to  use  it.  But  chemical 
analysis  has  failed  to  discover  any  medicinal  properties  in  bark  or 

27? 


The  Witch   Hazel  and  the   Sweet   Gum 

leaf.  Druggists  will  concede  that  the  alcohol  in  these  decoctions 
is  the  most  effective  agent.  The  patented  preparations  cost  more 
than  the  ordinary  witch  hazel  that  the  druggist  makes  up,  and 
there  is  an  impression  that  the  higher-priced  kinds  are  "stronger." 
They  probably  have  a  higher  percentage  of  alcohol. 

Below  is  given  the  "national  formulary"  which  manufacturing 
druggists  follow  in  the  United  States.  It  is  published  that  anyone 
may  know  just  how  the  extract  is  extracted,  and  what  is  added 
to  the  witch  hazel. 

{Aqua  Hamamelis)  extract  of  witch  hazel 

Hamamelis  roots  and  twigs lo    lbs. 

Water 20    pts. 

Alcohol — 6  per  cent i^pts. 

Place  Hamamelis  in  a  still,  add  the  water  and  alcohol,  and 
allow  the  mixture  to  macerate  twenty-four  hours.  Distil  ten  (10) 
pints  by  applying  direct  heat,  or  preferably  by  means  of  steam. 


2.  Genus  LIQUIDAMBAR,  Linn. 

The  Sweet  Gum  (Liquidamhar  Siyraciflua,  Linn.) — A  large 
tree  75  to  140  feet  high,  with  straight  trunk  and  short,  slender 
branches,  forming  a  pyramidal  or  oblong  head.  Bark  reddish 
brown,  furrowed,  scaly,  on  old  trunks;  on  young  trees,  ashy  grey, 
with  hard,  warty  excrescences;  twigs,  pale,  usually  with  corky 
wings,  which  continue  to  grow  for  years.  Wood  bright  reddish 
brown,  striped  with  black,  straight,  close  grained,  lustrous  when 
polished,  hard,  heavy,  not  strong.  Buds  acute,  reddish  and  hairy 
at  tips,  small.  Leaves  5  to  7  inches,  long  and  broadly  cleft  into 
5,  rarely  7,  triangular-pointed  lobes,  which  are  finely  saw-toothed; 
with  resinous  sap,  lustrous  when  mature,  streaked  crimson,  and 
yellow  in  autumn.  Flowers  after  leaves,  monoecious;  staminate 
in  terminal,  hairy  racemes,  2  to  3  inches  long,  set  with  head-like 
stamen  clusters;  pistillate  in  solitary  swinging  balls  from  axils  of 
upper  leaves;  stigmas  conspicuously  twisted.  Fruits  dry, 
swinging  balls,  1 1-  inches  in  diameter,  of  the  hardened,  2-horned 
capsules.  Single  seed,  winged,  ^  inch  long  in  some  cells.  Most 
of  the  cells  filled  with  minute,  aborted  seeds.  Preferred  habitat,  low 
wet  woodlands.  Distribution,  Connecticut  to  Missouri;  south  to 
Florida  and  Texas;  also  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.     Uses: 

274 


THE    WITCH    HAZEL  (// 


lis  V 


Tlic  goUl-threa'l  blossoms  appear  with  the  ripeni  ig  fruits  in  October  and  November.  The  2-valved  capsule  flies  open 
and  explcsively  ilischarges  the  two  seeds.  The  leaves  are  unsymmetrical  and  stronplv  ribbed,  and  turn  yellow  in  autumn. 
In  spring  the  undeveloped  fruits  appear  clustered  on  side  shoots,  awaiting  the  summer,  which  will  mature  them.  The  buds  are 
caked,  the  outer  covering  becoming  the  first  leaf.     The  spiny  galls  are  produced  by  an  insect 


The   Witch   Hazel  and  the   Sweet  Gum 

Valuable  ornamental  and  shade  trees.  Lumber  used  for  railroad 
ties,  paving  blocks,  shingles,  fruit  boxes,  spools;  choice  pieces 
known  as  "satin  walnut,"  used  for  veneering  furniture  and  for 
interior  finishing  of  houses.  Dyed  black,  it  imitates  ebony,  in 
picture  frames  and  cabinet  work. 

The  sweet  gum  is  probably  more  closely  linked  with  planta- 
tion life  in  the  South  than  any  other  tree.  It  grows  in  the  swamps, 
and  many  a  slave  hugged  the  slender  shaft  of  a  leafy  gum  tree 
while  he  waited  all  day  for  the  north  star  to  point  him  the  way 
to  freedom.  Here  the  'possum  and  the  'coon  found  similar 
refuge  from  hunters  and  their  dogs;  and  it  was  a  hollow  gum  tree 
that  old  "Nicodemus,  the  slave,"  was  buried  in  to  be  waked  in 
time  for  the  great  jubilee!  As  a  child,  I  lived  in  a  state  north  of 
the  range  of  the  most  intrepid  liquidambar  tree.  I  recall  with 
great  vividness  an  old  ex-slave's  description  and  eulogy  of  the 
tree,  and  the  song  he  sang,  full  of  the  exaltation  his  dearly  bought 
freedom  always  roused  in  him — especially  the  thrilling  chorus: 

"Da's  a  good  time  comin',  'tis  almos'  heah, 
Hit's  bin  long,  long  on  de  way: 
Run  'n'  tell  'Lijah  t'  hurry  up,  Pomp', 
Meet  us  at  de  gum  tree,  down  in  de  swamp; 
Wake  Nicodemus  to-day!" 

Travellers  in  the  bayou  country  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
can  easily  verify  the  statement  that  a  hollow  gum  tree  is  large 
enough  to  entomb  a  man.  Giants  exist  there  to-day,  standing 
in  rich  bottom  lands,  or  on  soil  that  is  inundated  a  part  of  the 
year,  whose  trunks,  1 5  feet  or  more  in  girth,  carry  their  tops  1 50 
feet  into  the  air.  These  trees,  often  bare  of  branches  for  half 
their  height,  look  like  great  columns  set  amid  the  tropical  vegeta- 
tion, and  towering  high  above  most  of  their  neighbour  trees. 
In  its  northern  range  the  tree  sacrifices  size  but  not  beauty. 

It  is  good  to  take  a  whole  year  to  get  acquainted  with  the 
sweet  gum,  and  it  doesn't  really  matter  when  one  begins.  The 
seed  balls  swing  on  the  trees  in  winter,  looking  like  the  button- 
balls  of  the  sycamore.  A  second  glance  shows  the  paired  "cows' 
horns"  above  the  gaping  pods,  and  the  crowded,  undeveloped 
seeds  shake  out  like  sawdust.  An  easier  way  to  identify  the  tree 
is  by  the  narrow  blade-like  ridges  of  bark  that  in  most  cases  adorn 
the  twigs.  Strangely,  these  are  on  the  upper  side  of  horizontal 
twigs,  and  all  around  the  vertical  ones.     The  shading  of  olives 

275 


The  Witch  Hazel  and  the  Sweet  Gum 

and  greys  and  browns  in  these  corky  ridges  reminds  one  of  the 
banding  of  an  agate.  Now  and  then  you  come  upon  a  gum  tree 
whose  twigs  are  all  smooth. 

Farther  down,  the  branches  have  warty  bark,  broken  into 
rough,  horny  plates.  This  gives  the  tree  its  name,  "alligator- 
wood."  Then  the  grey  of  the  big  branches  gives  way  to  the  red- 
brown  of  the  trunk;  the  shallow  fissures  and  scaly  ridges  give 
a  finer  texture  to  this  oldest  bark  than  the  limbs  give  us  reason  to 
expect. 

In  summer  time  the  leaves  of  the  sweet  gum  are  our  sure 
guide  to  its  identity.  "Star-leaved  gum,"  it  is  often  called. 
There  is  no  other  tree  whose  leaf  so  closely  resembles  a  regular, 
six-pointed  star  with  one  point  missing  where  the  petiole  is 
fastened  on.  These  leaf  stems  are  long  and  flexible — a  very 
important  fact  in  analysing  the  beauty  of  the  sweet  gum  tree  in 
full  leaf.    The  large  shining  blades  flutter  on  their  stems, 

"Continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 
And  twinkle  in  the  Milky  Way." 

They  fairly  dazzle  the  beholder,  as  the  polished  leaves  of  the 
tulip  tree  always  do. 

But  the  summer  garb  of  the  sweet  gum  tree  is  pale  and 
monotonous  compared  with  the  radiant  beauty  of  its  October 
foliage.  Wherever  gum  trees  grow,  there  the  autumn  landscape 
is  painted  with  the  changeful  splendour  of  sunset  skies.  The 
leaves  do  not  seem  to  dry  and  wither  as  maples  and  dogwoods  do. 
They  give  up  their  bright  green  for  the  most  gorgeous  shades 
of  red.     "The  tree  is  not  a  flame — it  is  a  conflagration!" 

Often  one  sees  a  fence-row  thicket  of  young  gum  trees  all 
burning  low  with  dull  crimsons  as  if  their  fires  sullenly  smoulder, 
and  might  at  any  moment  burst  into  the  clear  orange-red  flame 
that  consumes  a  neighbour  tree.  Afterward,  the  foliage  may 
turn  to  those  browns  and  lilac  tones  assumed  by  ash  trees,  but  as 
a  rule  the  ground  is  littered  with  the  leaves  before  they  fade— 
they  "die  like  the  dolphin." 

The  sap  of  the  sweet  gum  is  resinous  and  fragrant.  It  is 
easy  to  find  this  out  by  crushing  a  leaf  or  bruising  a  twig.  Chip 
through  the  bark  of  a  tree  and  an  aromatic  gum  accumulates  in 
the  wound.  In  the  Northern  States  this  exudation  is  scant,  but 
it  becomes  more  plentiful  as  one  proceeds  south.     The  most 

276 


The  Witch   Hazel  and  the   Sweet  Qum 

copious  flow  is  from  trees  in  Central  America.  This  gum  is 
known  to  commerce  as  "copalm  balm,"  large  quantities  of  which 
are  shipped  to  Europe  from  New  Orleans  and  from  Mexican  ports 
each  year.  A  Spanish  explorer  in  Mexico  described  in  1651 
"large  trees  that  exude  a  gum  like  liquid  amber."  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  trade.  Linnaeus  later  gave  the  name  "liquid- 
ambar"  to  the  whole  genus,  which  contains  four  species.  Be- 
sides our  American  tree  there  is  a  species  in  eastern  Asia,  not  yet 
well  known,  and  a  very  important  species,  L.  orienialis,  which 
forms  forests  in  Asia  Minor.  Long  before  the  Christian  era  the 
fragrant  gum  siorax,  or  siyrax,  of  these  trees  was  used  as  incense 
in  the  temples  of  various  oriental  religions.  Later  it  had  its 
place  also  with  frankincense  and  myrrh  in  the  censers  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  It  was  used  then,  as  it  is 
now,  as  a  healing  balm,  as  a  medicinal  drug  and  as  a  perfume. 

The  American  gum  is  believed  to  have  the  same  properties 
as  the  oriental  storax,  and  it  is  manufactured  into  medicines, 
perfumes,  and  incense.  As  a  dry  gum,  it  is  the  standard  glove 
perfume  in  France. 

First  and  last,  it  is  not  the  products  of  the  sweet  gum  tree 
that  should  first  commend  it  to  the  American  people.  It  is  the 
tree  itself,  beautifying  by  its  growth  the  landscape  of  which  it  is 
a  part.  More  and  more  we  are  realising  the  value  of  native 
things  in  landscape  gardening.  There  is  a  lesson  for  the  American 
(who  would  not  learn  it  at  home)  as  he  hunts  in  European  gardens 
and  nurseries  for  trees  to  plant  on  his  estate.  Among  the  finest 
and  most  valued  trees  abroad  is  his  own  native  Liquidamhar 
Styraciflua,  all  the  more  esteemed  because  there  is  no  European 
species. 

The  name  "gum  tree"  is  also  applied  to  our  tupelos,  and  to 
certain  species  of  Eucalyptus,  natives  of  Australia. 


277 


CHAPTER   XXXIV:     THE  SYCAMORES 

Family  Platanace/^ 

Genus  PLATANUS,  Linn. 

Large,  ornamental,  deciduous  trees  with  smooth  Hmbs 
from  which  whitish  bark  peels  in  irregular  flakes.  Leaves  simple, 
alternate,  palmately  lobed.  Flowers  monoecious  in  pendant 
heads.    Fruits  swinging,  many-seeded  balls,  hanging  all  winter. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Fruits   solitary,    rarely   2;   leaves  with  shallow  sinuses, 
broader  than  long;  seeds  blunt. 

(P.  occidenialis)  sycamore 
AA.  Fruits  4  to  6  on  each  stem;  seeds  pointed. 

B.  Leaves  with  triangular  lobes  and  deep  sinuses. 

(P.  racemosa)  California  sycamore 
BB.  Leaves  with  variable  lobes,  often  finger-like  and  8  to 
10  inches  long.         (P.  IVrightii)  Arizona  sycamore 
AAA.  Fruits  2  to  4  on  each  stem;  seeds  pointed;  leaves  deeply 
lobed,  broader  than  long.     (Exotic.) 

(P.  orientalis)  oriental  plane 

There  are  six  species  of  the  genus  Platanus  found  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  and  equally  divided  between  the  Old  and 
New  Worlds.  The  geologist  finds  evidences  of  much  wider 
distribution  for  our  sycamore  than  it  now  enjoys.  The  Arctic 
regions  from  Greenland  west  bore  forests  of  these  trees,  and  so 
did  central  Europe  before  the  Glacial  Epoch.  The  plane  tree  of 
Europe  extends  east  to  India. 

The  trees  are  all  characterised  by  brittle,  smooth  bark  of 
light  colour,  except  on  old  trunks.  The  flaking  oflF  of  this  bark 
in  irregular  plates,  leaving  the  white  under  layer  exposed,  enables 
the  most  casual  observer  to  recognise  the  trees  of  this  family  by 
sight.  The  broad  leaves,  lobed  like  a  maple's,  and  the  hanging 
seed  balls  are  striking  characteristics. 

278 


THE    SWEET   GUM  {Liquidambar  Styracifua) 
ridges  on  the  twigs  are  distinguishing  characters, 
in  racemes  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs.     The  pistillate  are  in  heads  on  long  stems  from  leaf  axils 


The  star-shape.l  leaves  and  the  corky  ridges  on  the  twigs  are  distinguishing  characters.     The  flowers  appear  in  May  after  the 
leaves.     The  staminate  .•>'^'"  ■"•-—■""—-' *' i._f. !__._•_        t-i         •    ■..  •     ■       ,  .  ...... 


C.  Fruit  of  previous  yeat 


THE  SYCAMORE  {Phuonus  orridentalh) 
The  broad  leaf  is  strongly  veined  and  toothed,  yellow  green  with  a  pale  lining.  Its  petiole  has  a  conical  hollow  base  which 
protects  and  conceals  the  growing  bud.  Winter  shows'the  bud  and  its  encircling  leaf  scar.  The  flowers  are  in  heads,  stam.nate 
dark  red,  lateral  ;  pistillate  greenish  red  and  terminal.  They  open  in  May  with  the  new  leaves.  The  stipules  torm  a  sneara 
with  a  leaf-like  frill  around  the  top.  The  seed  balls  dangle  on  flexible  stems.  A  central,  bonv  cone  is  "'^"'"^V  ^  kIT.™ 
seeds,  each  flying  away  on  a  hairy  parachute.  Sycamore  bark  is  reddish  brown  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk,  and  broken 
into  small  plates.  Above  and  on  the  limbs  it  comes  off  in  thin,  irregula 
or  white  under-bark.     This  gives  the  tree  a  mottled  and  weird  appearance,  especially  in  winter 


flakes   of  considerable  size,  exposing  the   pale-green 


The  Sycamores 

Sycamore,  Buttonwood,  American  Plane  Tree  (Plaia- 
nus  occidenialis,  Linn.) — A  large,  stately  tree,  75  to  150  feet  high, 
with  tall  trunk  and  loose,  broad  head  and  mottled  green  and  white 
limbs.  Bark  dark  reddish  brown  on  trunk,  breaking  into  small 
scaly  plates;  smooth  and  thin  on  branches,  olive  green,  flaking 
off  in  irregular  plates,  exposing  whitish  inner  bark.  Wood  light 
reddish  brown,  hard,  heavy,  with  prominent  satiny  pith  rays. 
Buds  conical,  with  hood-like  scales,  covered  by  hollow  base  of  leaf 
stalk,  and  encircled  by  a  single  leaf  scar.  Leaves  deciduous,  alter- 
nate, simple,  5  to  6  inches  long,  7  to  9  inches  broad,  3  to  5  lobed, 
with  broad,  shallow  sinuses  and  wavy-toothed  lobes;  yellow  green 
above,  paler  beneath,  and  fuzzy  on  veins;  yellow  in  autumn  and 
papery;  petiole  short,  with  hollow,  dilated  base;  stipules,  a  sheath, 
tubular,  flaring  into  ruffle-like  border.  Flowers,  May,  monoecious, 
in  globular  heads  on  flexible  stems;  staminate  axillary,  deep  red; 
pistillate  terminal,  pale  green  tinged  with  red,  with  long  stems. 
Fruit,  dry  pendulous  balls,  solitary  or  rarely  two  on  a  single  pedun- 
cle, I  inch  in  diameter,  made  of  a  close-set,  pointed  akenes.  Pre- 
ferred  habitat,  borders  of  streams  and  rich  bottom  lands. 
Distribution,  southern  Maine  to  north  shore  of  Lake  Ontario; 
west  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska;  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas.  Uses:  Excellent  shade  and  ornamental  tree,  especi- 
ally in  cities  and  towns.  Wood  is  used  for  furniture  and 
inside  woodwork  of  houses;  also  for  butchers'  blocks  and 
tobacco    boxes. 

The  "hoary  antlered  sycamore"  in  our  damp  woods  is  a  tree 
that  the  stranger  will  never  forget  after  his  first  introduction  to  it. 
There  is  only  this  one  native  tree  with  such  strange,  crazy  patch- 
work on  its  branches.  These  patterns  in  dull  olives  and 
dingy  white  show  themselves  from  any  reasonable  distance  in 
winter,  and  the  grey  balls  dangling  from  the  twigs  are  another  sure 
means  of  identification.  In  the  summertime  the  thickest  foliage 
never  quite  conceals  the  scarred  trunk  and  excoriated  branches, 
splotched  as  if  with  whitewash  to  the  utmost  twigs.  Moulting  is 
a  continuous  performance  during  the  buttonwoods'  growing  sea- 
son. Even  in  winter  flakes  of  bark  may  be  picked  up  on  the  snow 
blanket  that  protects  the  roots.  This  tree  seems  utterly  lacking 
in  the  power  to  stretch  its  bark  fibres  and  fill  in  the  chinks  to  fit 
the  growing  limbs.  Instead,  with  the  first  rift  sycamore  bark 
loosens    separates,   and  lets  go,   leaving  only   the  inner  layers 

279 


The  Sycamores 

between  the  tender  cambium  and  the  cold  outdoors.  It  is  the 
sycamore's  way. 

Have  you  ever  bolted  out  of  a  car  window  at  the  sycamores 
and  white  birches  that  streak  the  dull  winter  woods  with  light? 
It  is  a  strange  sight,  calculated  to  stir  the  dullest  imagination. 
The  birches  stand  together,  and  keep  each  other  in  countenance. 
They  do  not  seem  to  mind  being  looked  at,  but  flaunt  their  tattered 
ribbons  of  bark  without  self-consciousness.  The  sycamores  stand 
alone,  as  a  rule.  Except  in  young  trees,  the  limbs  are  tortuous, 
reaching  out  in  many  directions  without  much  regard  for  sym- 
metry. One  often  stands  on  the  verge  of  a  stream,  and  leans  far 
out  as  if  contemplating  a  plunge.  The  rush  of  the  train  makes  of 
these  solitary  trees  pallid,  spectral  figures,  that  dart  past  the  win- 
dows— hunted  outcasts,  lepers  in  the  tree  community,  fleeing 
before  invisible  pursuers.  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  find  each  tree 
back  in  its  place  when  we  come  again  that  way. 

Quite  a  different  tree  from  the  distressed-looking  specimen 
in  colder  New  England  is  the  buttonwood  of  more  congenial  soil 
and  clime — a  stalwart,  large-limbed  tree  of  colossal  trunk,  which 
lifts  its  head  high  above  its  forest  neighbours,  and  shelters  great 
oaks  and  maples  under  its  protecting  arms.  The  weird,  irregular 
top  is  singularly  free  from  small  branches,  but  in  summer  the 
broad  leaves  are  so  disposed  as  to  soften  the  harsh  lines.  The 
open-boughed  buttonwoods  of  the  little  city  of  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts, noted  for  their  stately  beauty  early  in  the  century  just 
finished,  well  illustrate  this  kindly  ministry  of  the  leaves. 

The  buds  of  the  sycamore  deserve  our  close  attention  in  the 
autumn.  Leaves  are  fading;  at  first  glance  we  note  that  there  are 
no  buds  in  their  angles.  How  is  next  year's  growth  provided  for? 
Look  again!  The  leaf  loosens  in  your  hand  and  lets  go  its  hold 
on  the  twig.  Its  stem  ends  in  a  hollow  cone.  There  on  the  twig 
is  a  plump  bud  that  grew  all  summer  under  the  protecting  base 
of  that  leaf.  Two  or  three  little  hoods  each  bud  wears  to  protect 
it,  now  the  leaf  is  gone.  The  outer  one  is  of  leathery  texture, 
without  seams,  and  the  delicate  inner  ones  fit  close,  so  there  is  no 
danger.     The  leaf  never  abandons  its  ward  until  it  is  safe  to  do  so. 

The  little  frilled  sheathing  stipules  are  well  worth  looking  for 
on  young  shoots  of  the  sycamore  in  spring.  So  are  the  balls  that 
hang  in  the  treetop,  first  in  May  as  the  two  separate  kinds  of 
flower  heads;   later  when  the  surviving  pistillate  ones  change  to 

280 


The   Sycamores 

hard  brown  seed  balls,  banging  against  neighbouring  limbs  until 
the  flexible  stems  are  worn  to  shreds,  and  the  pointed  seeds  are 
loosened  and  wafted  away  on  their  hairy  parachutes.  Most  of  the 
seeds  die,  of  course,  but  Nature  sees  to  it  that  here  and  there  a 
sycamore  seed  falls  on  good  ground;  and  a  young  sapling  lifts  its 
broad  palms  next  year  above  the  spot. 

Some  people  object  to  sycamores  because  the  leaves  as  they 
unfold  cast  off  their  fuzzy  covering  of  branched  hairs,  which  are 
irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eyes  and  throat.  Most 
of  us  have  never  heard  of  this  trouble  before,  and  have  lived  com- 
fortably in  the  neighbourhood  of  sycamore  trees  for  years.  Hap- 
pily, this  moulting  period  of  the  leaves  is  very  brief.  A  more 
serious  obstacle  to  the  planting  of  these  trees  is  their  susceptibility 
to  a  fungous  disease.  The  young  leaves  often  look  scorched  imme- 
diately upon  opening.  A  second  crop  of  inferior  size  and  vigour 
may  replace  them.  Examine  an  affected  leaf,  and  you  find  black 
specks  along  the  veins.  These  are  the  outward  signs  of  inward 
trouble,  which  is  too  deep-seated  to  be  reached  by  any  fungicidal 
spray.  Let  us  hope  that  time  will  show  a  cure,  for  the  sycamore 
is  one  of  the  trees  that  grows  rapidly  and  flourishes  amid  the  dust 
and  smoke  of  city  streets.  How  few  kinds  of  trees  there  are,  after 
all,  that  stand  by  to  shelter  and  encourage  city-bound  humanity 
through  the  hot  summer  days,  making  fresh  green  oases  in  burning 
brick-and-mortar  deserts! 

The  California  Sycamore  (P.  racemosa,  Nutt.)  bears  its  but- 
ton balls  in  a  series  of  four  to  six  strung  on  the  tough,  fibrous  stem. 
The  leaves  have  the  same  general  outline  as  those  of  its  Eastern 
relative,  but  the  lobes  are  slenderly  triangular,  and  deeply  cleft 
by  sinuses  of  about  the  same  size  and  shape.  This  beautiful 
Western  tree  was  long  confused  with  P.  occidenialis,  for  its 
bark  is  white,  and  in  habit  and  size  the  two  are  similar.  A 
comparison  of  the  leaf  and  the  fruit  easily  enables  one  to  dis- 
tinguish  them. 

The  Arizona  Sycamore  (P.  Wrightii,  Wats.)  is  a  sycamore 
which  looks  like  P.  racemosa  in  fruit  and  leaf,  but  the  lobes  of  the 
latter  are  much  more  finger-like,  and  measure  often  8  to  lo  inches 
in  length.  These  trees  are  strikingly  beautiful  objects,  growing 
to  large  size  on  canon  sides  and  stream  borders,  rising  far  above 
the  evergreen  oaks  and  pines  of  the  semi-arid  regions,  each  tree  a 
refreshing  dash  of  verdure  in  a  weary  land. 

281 


The  Sycamores 

The  Oriental  Plane  Tree  (P.  orienialis,  Linn.)  is  the  species 
best  known  in  Europe,  and  is  coming  to  be  very  popular  in  this 
country.  It  is  a  shapelier  tree  than  our  own,  more  compact  in 
habit,  with  larger  leaves,  and  three  or  four  seed  balls  are  strung 
on  each  long  stem.  So  far  it  seems  almost  immune  to  fungous 
diseases,  a  very  important  consideration  to  the  planter.  This  is 
the  plane  tree  of  the  Greek  writers,  in  groves  of  which  Plato 
walked  and  discoursed — a  tree  held  in  worshipful  esteem  by  the 
ancients  for  its  stateliness  and  beauty.  On  occasions  they  poured 
wine  upon  its  roots  and  decked  its  limbs  with  jewels  and  gold. 
Xerxes  halted  his  unwieldy  army  for  days  that  he  might  contem- 
plate to  his  satisfaction  the  beauty  of  a  single  tree.  He  had  its 
form  wrought  upon  a  medal  of  gold  to  help  him  to  remember  it  the 
rest  of  his  life.     Xerxes  never  did  things  by  halves. 

Certain  venerable  plane  trees  in  Europe  are  estimated  to  be 
4,000  years  old.  Very  few  species  of  trees  attain  a  greater  age. 
These  patriarchs  are  giants  as  well.  They  measure  as  much  as 
40  feet  in  trunk  diameter,  though  they  are  so  perforated  by  decay 
that  counting  rings  is  impracticable  even  when  the  tree  falls. 
These  old  trees  are  at  best  but  shattered  ruins,  supported  in  their 
senile  age  by  columns  and  braces — melancholy  figures,  indeed, 
renewing  feebly  each  spring  by  their  few  leaves  the  youth  they 
had  spent  and  quite  forgotten  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  civilisa- 
tion.    It  is  almost  pitiful  that  they  should  live  on. 

Quaintly  does  John  Parkinson,  "Apothecarye  of  London," 
write  of  plane  trees  in  the  year  1640:  "They  are  planted  by  the 
waysides  and  in  market  places  for  the  shadowes  sake  onely." 
Quite  sufficient  justification  for  any  tree  in  any  age,  that  it  tem- 
pers the  heat  of  the  sun  in  places  Vvhere  men  must  congregate. 
"For  the  shadowes  sake"  is  a  phrase  worth  remembering!  John 
Parkinson  seems  to  have  been  a  poet  as  well  as  an  apothecary. 

The  generic  name  of  these  trees  comes  from  the  Latin  plains, 
which  means  "broad."  It  refers  to  the  breadth  of  the  leaf.  A 
species  platanoides  is  found  in  many  genera;  it  means  "like  the 
sycamore."  The  swamp  white  oak  sheds  its  bark  in  sheets.  In 
the  Norway  maple  the  shape  of  the  leaf  is  much  like  that  of  the 
sycamore. 

The  common  name  of  this  tree  has  had  an  interesting  history. 
The  original  sycamore  was  a  fig  tree  of  the  ancients — Pharaoh's 
fig,  they  called  it  in  Egypt.     Their  strong  mummy  cases  were 

282 


The   Sycamores 

built  of  its  wood.  Its  scientific  name  is  Ficus  Sykomorus.  In 
Europe,  the  great  maple,  Acer  Pseudo-platanus,  is  called  sycamore. 
In  America,  our  sycamore  is  Plaianus  occidentalis.  Botanists  try 
to  teach  Europeans  to  call  their  tree  the  sycamore  maple  and 
Americans  to  call  theirs  the  buttonwood;  but  in  spite  of  their 
efforts  the  old  names  stick.  The  traveller  who  meets  abroad  all 
three  of  these  sycamores — a  fig,  a  plane,  and  a  maple — all  different 
but  known  by  the  same  common  name,  is  ready  to  side  with  the 
botanists,  for  his  head  is  in  a  whirl.  Common  names  may  do 
well  enough  till  all  the  trees  ire  met  with  in  the  same  region. 
Then  trouble  and  confusion  are  constant. 


283 


CHAPTER   XXXV:     THE   APPLES 

Family  Rosace.^ 

Genus  MALUS,  Hall. 

Trees  which  are  parents  of  cultivated  apples.  Leaves 
simple,  alternate,  deciduous.  Flowers  showy,  perfect,  fragrant, 
in  terminal  c^mes.     Fruit  fleshy,  enclosing  papery  5-celled  core. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  smooth  at  maturity;  flowers  rose  pink. 

B.  Blades  of  leaves  ovate,  blunt,  minutely  serrate,  thin. 

{M.  coronaria)  wild  crab  apple 
BB.  Blades  of  leaves   narrow,   pointed,   coarsely   toothed, 
leathery. 

{M.  augusiifolia)  narrow-leaved  crab  apple 
AA.  Leaves  tomentose  beneath;  flowers  pale. 
B.  Fruit  flattened,  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter. 
C.  Stems    slender.     (Exotic.) 

(M.  Malus)  COMMON  apple 
CC.  Stems   stout  (M.  Soulardi)  soulard's  apple 

BB.  Fruit  not  flattened,  \  to  i  ^^  inches  in  diameter. 

C.  Flowers  white.  (A/,  rivularis)  Oregon  crab 

CC.  Flowers   pink.  (M.  loensis)  iowa  crab 

The  genus  Malus  is  native  to  the  whole  of  eastern  Asia. 
We  have  four  native  species.  Our  cultivated  crab  apples  and 
the  hundreds  of  orchard  varieties  have  their  ancestral  home 
somewhere  in  Asia  Minor.  For  centuries  horticulturists  have 
been  at  work  improving  wild  apples.  In  Europe  and  in  America 
the  effort  is  to  get  better  fruit.  In  the  Far  East  the  aim  has  been 
to  produce  the  finest  flowering  trees.  The  results  are  both  ad- 
vantageous to  the  horticulture  of  the  world. 

Closely  allied  to  apples  are  the  other  pome  fruits,  pears  and 
quinces.  Neither  are  native  to  America,  though  they  are  widely 
cultivated  here. 

284 


lopyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Comrany 

PRAIRIE    CRAB    APPLE     (  Malus  loensis 


The  Apples 

Wild  Crab  Apple  (Malus  coronaria,  Mill.)— A  low,  bushy 
tree,  with  thorny  angular  twigs,  rarely  30  feet  high.  Bark 
reddish  brown,  scaly.  Wood  heavy,  fine  grained,  weak,  reddish 
brown.  Buds  small,  blunt,  bright  red.  Leaves  ovate  or  trian- 
gular, 3  to  4  inches  long,  half  as  broad,  velvety  beneath,  blunt 
pointed,  sharply  serrate,  often  lobed  near  base;  petioles  i^  to  2 
inches  long.  Flowers  May  to  June,  after  the  leaves,  in  5  to  6 
flowered  umbels,  perfect,  white  to  deep  pink,  spicy,  fragrant — 
I  to  2  inches  across.  Fruit  flattened,  yellow,  i  inch  in  diameter; 
flesh  hard,  sour.  September.  Preferred  habitat,  upland  woods, 
in  moist,  rich  soil.  Distribution,  Ontario  to  Minnesota;  south 
along  Alleghanies  to  Alabama;  Nebraska  to  eastern  Texas;  New 
York  to  South  Carolina.  Uses:  An  ornamental,  flowering  tree. 
Fruit  made  into  jellies  and  preserves.  Wood  used  for  levers,  tool 
handles,  etc. 

The  wild,  sweet-scented  crab  apple!  The  bare  mention  of 
its  name  is  enough  to  make  the  heart  leap  up,  though  spring  be 
months  away,  and  barriers  of  brick  hem  us  in.  In  the  comer 
of  the  back  pasture  stands  a  clump  of  these  trees,  huddled  together 
like  cattle.  Their  flat,  matted  tops  reach  out  sidewise  until  the 
stubby  limbs  of  neighbouring  trees  meet.  It  would  not  occur 
to  anyone  to  call  them  handsome  trees.  But  wait!  The  twigs 
silver  over  with  young  foliage,  then  coral  buds  appear,  thickly 
sprinkling  the  green  leaves.  Now  all  their  asperity  is  softened, 
and  a  great  burst  of  rose-coloured  bloom  overspreads  the  treetops 
and  fills  the  air  with  perfume.  It  is  not  mere  sweetness,  but  an 
exquisite,  spicy,  stimulating  fragrance  that  belongs  only  to  wild 
crab-apple  flowers.  Linnxus  probably  never  saw  more  than  a 
dried  specimen,  but  he  named  this  tree  most  worthily,  coronaria, 
"fit  for  crowns  and  garlands." 

Break  off  an  armful  of  these  blossoming  twigs  and  take 
them  home.  They  will  never  be  missed.  Be  thankful  that 
your  friends  in  distant  parts  of  the  country  may  share  your 
pleasure,  for  though  this  particular  species  does  not  cover  the 
whole  United  States,  yet  there  is  a  wild  crab  apple  for  each 
region. 

In  the  fall  the  tree  is  covered  with  hard  little  yellow  apples. 
They  have  a  delightful  fragrance,  but  they  are  neither  sweet  nor 
mellow.  Take  a  few  home  and  make  them  into  jelly.  Then 
you  will  understand  why  the  early  settlers  gathered  them  for 

285 


The  Apples 

winter  use.  The  jelly  has  a  wild  tang  in  it,  an  indescribable 
piquancy  of  flavour  as  different  from  common  apple  jelly  as  the 
flowers  are  in  their  way  more  charming  than  ordinary  apple 
blossoms.     It  is  the  rare  gamy  taste  of  a  primitive  apple. 

Well-meaning  horticulturists  have  tried  what  they  could  do 
toward  domesticating  this  Malus  coronaria.  The  effort  has  not 
been  a  success.  The  fruit  remains  acerb  and  hard;  the  tree 
declines  to  be  "ameliorated"  for  the  good  of  mankind.  Isn't 
it,  after  all,  a  gratuitous  office  ?  Do  we  not  need  our  wild  crab 
apple  just  as  it  is,  as  much  as  we  need  more  kinds  of  orchard 
trees?  How  spirited  and  fine  is  its  resistance!  It  seems  as  if 
this  wayward  beauty  of  our  woodside  thickets  considered  that  the 
best  way  to  serve  mankind  was  to  keep  inviolate  those  charms 
that  set  it  apart  from  other  trees  and  make  its  remotest  haunt  the 
Mecca  of  eager  pilgrims  every  spring. 

The  wild  crab  apple  is  not  a  tree  to  plant  by  itself  in  park 
or  garden.  Plant  it  in  companies  on  the  edge  of  woods,  or  in 
obscure  and  ugly  fence  corners,  where  there  is  a  background,  or 
where,  at  least,  each  tree  can  lose  its  individuality  in  the  mass. 
Now,  go  away  and  let  them  alone.  They  do  not  need  mulching 
nor  pruning.  Let  them  gang  their  ain  gait,  and  in  a  few  years  you 
will  have  a  crab-apple  thicket.  You  will  also  have  succeeded  in 
bringing  home  with  these  trees  something  of  the  spirit  of  the 
wild  woods  where  you  found  them. 

The  Narrow-leaved  Crab  Apple  (Malus  angustijolia, 
Michx.),  smaller  in  all  its  parts  than  the  common  wild  crab  apple, 
but  closely  resembling  it  in  all  but  its  leaf,  is  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida,  and  west  to  the  Mississippi. 
It  extends  also  to  western  Pennsylvania  and  eastern  Tennessee, 
overlapping  the  range  of  the  other  species  in  these  regions.  Its 
leaves  are  leathery,  almost  evergreen,  dark  and  shiny,  with  dull, 
often  fuzzy  linings.  They  are  small,  narrow,  and  blunt  pointed 
at  both  ends. 

The  Oregon  Crab  {Malus  rivularis,  Roem.),  a  white- 
flowered  species  with  ovate,  taper-pointed  leaves,  grows  in  dense 
thickets  along  streams  in  the  coast  region  from  northern  California 
well  into  Alaska.  Its  young  growth  is  covered  with  a  grey 
pubescence.  The  apples  are  oblong,  rarely  over  J  inch  long, 
and  few  people  beside  Indians  consider  them  worth  gathering  foj 
food. 

286 


IHh    WILD    CKAB    AI'PLK  (Mulus   ,oro„arui) 

111  lati    Mav  tlx-  tree  is  a  mass  of   pink,  spicy,  fragrant  flower  clusters  ami  bright  green  leaves.     The  flat  little  apple  ripens  is 

September,  but  it  is  not  mellow.     It  is  waxy  to  the  touch,  and  has  the  gamy  taste  a  wild  apple  ought  to  have 


The  Apples 

The  Prairie  Crab  Apple  (Malus  loensis,  Britt.)  is  the 
species  found  from  Wisconsin  to  Oklahoma.  It  has  only  recently 
been  distinguished  from  M.  coronaria,  which  its  flowers  closely 
resemble.  Its  leaves  are  shorter  and  oval  in  shape,  with  deep, 
irregular  teeth,  and  linings  of  silky  white  down.  The  dull  green 
apples  are  of  good  size,  larger  than  the  other  native  crabs,  and  are 
not  at  all  flattened.  It  is  the  woolliness  of  all  the  young  growth 
in  summer  that  will  chiefly  distinguish  this  tree. 

The  double-flowered  form  of  this  crab  apple,  Malus  loensis 
flore  pleno,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  ornamental  trees.  Its 
flowers  are  not  so  numerous  as  to  overload  the  tree,  and  each 
blossom,  in  its  setting  of  green  leaves,  has  all  the  delicacy  of  a 
pink  tea  rose,  exquisite  in  form,  in  shading,  and  in  fragrance. 

The  Soulard  Apple  (Malus  Soulardi,  Britt.)  may  con- 
fuse us.  It  is  a  hybrid  of  M.  loensis  and  the  common  apple,  as- 
caped  from  orchards — the  trees  that  come  from  apple  seeds  and 
are  not  grafted.  Such  are  our  good-for-nothing  roadside  "  wilding  " 
trees,  with  gnarly  fruit  nobody  can  eat. 

The  Soulard  apple  occurs  locally  from  Minnesota  to  Texas. 
It  is  large  leaved  and  stout  of  stature,  with  pink-flushed  blossoms, 
like  an  orchard  apple  tree.  But  its  woolly  surfaces  are  often 
roughly  rusty;  its  fruit  is  a  flat  crab  apple  on  a  stout  stem,  larger, 
sweeter  and  more  edible  than  one  expects  it  to  be.  Because  this 
species  is  hardy  and  disposed  to  vary  and  improve  in  the  quality 
of  its  fruit  in  cultivation,  horticulturists  consider  it  a  distinctly 
promising  apple  for  the  coldest  of  the  prairie  states.  Several 
varieties  have  already  been  produced  from  it. 

The  Wild  Apple  (Malus  Malus,  Britt.),  native  to  southern 
Europe  and  Asia,  is  the  parent  of  our  cultivated  apples.  It  is 
the  apple  of  classical  literature,  inseparably  associated  with  the 
growth  of  civilisation,  and  cultivated  for  the  improvement  of  its 
fruit  for  unnumbered  centuries.  Our  orchard  trees,  which  renew 
their  youth  every  spring  in  fuzzy  leaves  and  fragrant  pink  and 
white  blossoms,  are  direct  descendants  of  this  ancient  species. 
Myth  and  folk-lore  and  written  history  all  tell  how  this  fruit,  more 
than  any  other — the  simple,  wholesome,  uncloying  fruit  of  the 
north  temperate  zone — is  interwoven  with  the  life  of  the  people. 
Read  in  the  Song  of  Solomon:  "As  the  apple  tree  among  the 
trees  of  the  wood,  so  is  my  beloved  among  the  sons."  And  as  a 
symbol  of  exquisite  joy  attained  through  the  senses,  "the  smell 
287 


The  Apples 

of  apples"  is  named  with  the  odours  of  spikenard  and  camphire 
and  bundles  of  myrrh.  Read  the  classics,  ancient  and  modern. 
Fancy  the  story  of  the  fall  of  Troy  or  the  legend  of  William  Tell 
with  the  apple  left  out! 

If  we  would  know  what  this  wild  European  apple  is  like  we 
may  get  a  good  idea  by  planting  an  apple  seed,  and  watching  the 
tree  that  springs  from  it.  Or  we  may  save  time  by  examining  a 
wilding  tree  in  the  fence  corner,  planted  perhaps  by  the  hand 
that  threw  away  an  apple  core  years  ago.  Suppose  it  was  the 
seed  of  a  fine  desert  variety  of  apple.  Its  offspring  will  not  bear 
the  same  variety  and  quality  of  fruit.  It  is  almost  sure  to  " revert 
to  the  wild  type."  That  is,  the  fruit  of  it  will  be  small,  sour  and 
gnarly,  just  such  apples  as  the  orchard  tree  would  have  borne  if 
it  had  not  been  grafted  or  budded  while  it  stood  in  the  nursery 
row. 

But  there  are  exceptions  to  every  rule.  There  are  varieties 
of  apples — a  very  few — that  "come  true  from  seed."  Such  is 
La  Belle  Famcuse,  the  ruddy-cheeked,  white-fleshed  "Snow" 
of  the  Northeastern  States — the  domestic  apple  of  the  Canadian 
French.  Up  and  down  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  this  apple 
tree  grew  in  the  gardens  of  the  early  settlers.  The  seeds  were 
carried  and  distributed  by  neighbours,  by  migrant  traders,  but 
chiefly  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  whose  hope  was  that  the  home- 
sick habitant  should  grow  to  love  the  land  of  his  adoption.  And 
they  were  not  disappointed.  Generations  passed,  and  the  tree 
became  an  intimate  part  of  the  home  life  of  New  France.  Drum- 
mond,  poet  of  the  habitant,  describes  the  old-fashioned  garden, 
modelled  on  the  typical  one  of  precious  memory  in  sunny  France: 

"Dat  house  on  de  hill,  you  can  see  it  still. 
She's  sam'  place  he  buil'  de  firs'  tam'  he  come; 
Behin'  it  dere's  one  leetle  small  jardin. 
Got  plaintee  de  bes'  tabac  Canayen, 
Wit  Fameuse  apple,  an'  beeg  blue  plum." 

It  was  a  hard  life,  and  the  touch  of  poetry  and  luxury  brought 
into  it  by  these  fruit  trees  was  not  lost  on  the  appreciative  habitant. 
He  had  his  domestic  animals,  and  the  home  flowers  about  his 
door — "the  leetle  small  jardin" — and  he  was  comforted  in  the 
land  of  the  long,  cold  winters.  His  apple  trees  were  as  much  a 
part  of  his  establishment  as  the  dog  and  cow  and  team  of  horses. 
He  cherished  them  next  to  his  family  and  his  religion.     In  fact, 

288 


The  Apples 

they  were  a  part  of  both,  if  he  could  have  analysed  his  feeling  for 
them. 

While  the  French  in  Canada  were  still  planting  seeds  of  their 
beloved  Fameuse  apple  as  their  fathers  had  done  before  them, 
noting  no  change  in  the  character  of  the  fruit  except  when  a  tree 
bore  handsomer  and  fmer-flavoured  apples  than  any  tasted 
before,  a  strange  and  interesting  story  was  unfolding  itself  in  the 
valley  of  the  Ohio  River.  A  picturesque  character  calling  himself 
Johnnie  Apple  Seed  wandered  up  and  down,  with  no  apparent 
object  in  life  but  to  plant  apple  seeds.  Queer  as  he  was,  the 
motive  that  actuated  him  was  nobly  altruistic.  He  was  doing 
what  he  could  to  turn  the  desert  into  a  garden.  He  had  the 
strange  notion  that  grafting  and  pruning  trees  was  a  wicked 
practice.  He  lived  to  see  his  trees  in  bearing  over  a  vast  territory. 
But  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  never  realised  to  what  a  degree  his 
philanthropy  failed.  They  were  mostly  "Apples  of  Sodom" 
that  came  as  a  harvest.  Where  he  had  planted  seeds  of  Baldwins 
and  Greenings  and  Bellflowers  grew  trees  bearing  apples  with 
strange,  crabbed  looks,  mongrels  of  varying  degrees  of  insipidity. 
They  were  largely  seedling  trees  of  varieties  that  did  not  come 
true.  They  stubbornly  exemplified  the  rule  of  which  the  Fameuse 
is  an  exception. 

Do  you  know  the  romance  of  the  Newtown  pippin?  If 
you  have  seen  one  of  these  matchless  apples  and  sunk  your  teeth 
into  its  mellow  substance  I  need  not  tell  you  of  its  sprightly 
flavour,  its  absolute  fulfilment  of  your  ideal  of  what  an  apple 
ought  to  be.     What  is  its  pedigree? 

Two  centuries  ago  a  chance  seed  fell  near  a  swamp  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  village  of  Newtown,  Rhode  Island.  A  seedling 
tree  came  up,  and  was  ignored,  as  such  trees  are,  until  some  vagrant 
passing  by  saw  and  tasted  the  first  apples  it  bore.  And  the  very 
golden  apples  of  Hesperidcs  they  were  for  the  village  and  the 
countryside!  Cions  of  this  tree  became  the  parents  of  great 
orchards  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley.  Up  and  down  the  coast 
among  the  colonies  they  were  scattered. 

In  the  year  1758,  Benjamin  Franklin,  our  representative  in 
England,  received  a  box  of  Newtown  pippins,  and  he  gave  some 
to  his  distinguished  friend,  Peter  Collinson.  Thus  were  American 
apples  introduced  with  eclat  to  the  attention  of  the  English. 
The  trees  did  poorly  in  English  orchards,  but  the  fruit  in  London 
289 


The  Apples 

markets  grew  in  popularity.  In  1845  the  orchard  of  Robert 
Pell,  in  Ulster  County,  New  York,  which  contained  20,000  pippin 
trees,  yielded  a  crop  which  brought  in  the  London  market  |2i 
per  barrel.  The  tables  of  the  nobility  were  supplied  with  these 
apples  at  the  astonishing  price  of  a  guinea  a  dozen — forty-two 
cents  apiece! 

And  yet,  almost  within  the  memory  of  men  now  living,  the 
old  tree  still  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  swamp,  and  men  came  from 
far  and  near — even  from  over  seas — to  cut  cions  from  the  original 
Newton  pippin  tree. 

Here  and  there  in  the  history  of  horticulture  are  other  instances 
where  Nature  seems  to  rise  superior  to  her  own  laws  by  creating 
valuable  seedling  varieties.  The  "Wealthy"  apple  was  a  chance 
discovery  in  a  Minnesota  nursery  row.  It  is  the  parent  of  one  of 
the  noblest  varieties  of  the  Northwest  States — a  worthy  mate 
for  the  Newtown  pippin.  Other  sorts  of  apples  have  sprung 
from  crosses  between  known  varieties.  These  are  hybrids — 
seedlings,  one  of  whose  parents  contributed  the  pollen  that 
fertilised  the  flower  on  another  tree.  From  the  seed  thus  set 
the  new  tree  comes,  different  from  each  parent  tree,  but  having 
some  traits  of  each. 

In  these  two  ways — by  seedlings  and  by  hybrids — new 
varieties  have  arisen,  and  others  will  come  on.  But  each  is 
uncertain — a  problem  for  the  scientist,  not  the  apple  grower. 
To  plant  seeds  for  an  orchard  would  be  the  utmost  folly.  The 
quick  and  sure  way  to  get  and  keep  a  good  variety  is  to  graft 
other  trees  with  cions  of  the  desired  kind.  Fertilising  the  soil, 
and  thorough  tillage,  greatly  improve  the  health  of  a  tree,  and 
the  quality  and  size  of  its  fruit.  But  they  do  not  change  a 
Baldwin  into  a  Greening.  It  may  be  possible,  however,  to  produce 
a  superior  individual  tree,  whose  characters,  perpetuated,  give 
rise  to  an  improved  "strain"  of  the  variety.  Soil,  climate  and 
treatment  all  emphasise  individual  differences  in  trees  and  in  their 
fruits.  There  is  no  law  in  Nature  so  inexorable  as  the  law  of 
Constant  Variation. 

Our  little  hard-fleshed,  slender-stemmed  garden  crab  apples 
are  an  interesting  race.  The  Siberian  crab  (Malus  haccaia),  of 
northern  Asia,  is  the  parent  species.  The  larger  sorts  are  prob- 
ably from  crosses  of  this  with  Malus  Malus  in  some  of  its  varieties. 

Japan  has  given  us  some  wonderful  flowering  apples,  small 
290 


The  Apples 

trees  and  shrubs.  Malus  floribunda  is  probably  as  glorious  a 
sight  in  bloom  as  any  tree  that  ever  grew.  After  these  splendid 
blossoms  we  can  but  marvel  again  at  the  crop  of  fruit  that  succeeds 
them.  Some  of  these  apples  are  handsome  and  good  to  eat,  but 
of  the  various  species  I  have  seen  no  fruit  grows  larger  than  a 
cherry ! 

The  Pear  {Pyrus  communis,  Linn.),  also  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  is  a  close  relative  of  the  cultivated  apple,  and  ranks  high 
among  orchard  fruits.  We  have  no  native  species,  but  numerous 
valuable  varieties  have  originated  in  this  country. 

The  Quince  (Cydonia  vulgaris,  Pers.)  is  a  dwarf  tree  from 
Europe,  whose  hard-fleshed,  apple-like  fruit  has  been  used  for 
centuries  in  marmalades  and  jellies.  It  is  seen  in  old  gardens 
in  the  East — one  or  two  trees  are  the  customary  number.  Occa- 
sionally one  sees  a  quince  orchard.  It  is  an  old-fashioned  fruit, 
indeed;  the  demand  for  it  is  small,  but  steady.  The  Japanese 
quince,  C  Japonica,  is  a  splendid  flowering  shrub,  with  inedible 
fruit.  Hedges  are  often  seen  of  it,  ablaze  with  great  rose-coloured 
flowers  before  the  leaves  are  out  in  spring — a  sight,  indeed,  worth 
going  miles  to  see. 

The  Medlar  {Mespilus  Germanica,  Linn.),  a  pretty  tree  native 
to  central  Europe,  is  occasionally  planted  in  gardens  for  the  curios- 
ity aroused  by  its  peculiar,  apple-like  fruits.  The  core  is  exposed 
at  the  blossom  end,  as  if  the  flesh  had  not  quite  reached  around  it. 
After  frost  has  bitten  them,  and  they  have  Iain  all  winter,  these 
medlars  soften,  and  are  not  unpleasant  to  eat.  They  also  are 
made  into  preserves. 


291 


CHAPTER   XXXVI:     THE   MOUNTAIN   ASHES 

Family  Rosace/E 

Genus  SORBUS,  Linn. 

Small  trees  of  good  habit,  with  ornamental  foliage,  flowers 
and  fruit.  Leaves  alternate,  7  to  17  leaflets,  serrate.  Flowers 
small,  white,  in  many-flowered  flat  corymbs.  Fruit  small,  red, 
berry-like. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Buds  sticky;  shoots  smooth. 

B.  Leaflets  taper  pointed,  pale  green. 

{S.  Americana)  American  mountain  ash 
BB.  Leaflets  abruptly  pointed,  dark  green. 

(5.  samhicijolia)  elder-leaved  mountain  ash 
AA.  Buds  woolly;  branchlets  and  petioles  pubescent;   leaflets 
blunt  pointed,  dull  green.     (Exotic.) 
{S.  Aucuparia)  European  mountain  ash  or  rowan  tree 

The  handsome  foliage  and  showy  clusters  of  flowers  and 
fruits  make  this  a  favourite  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  for  orna- 
mental planting.  There  are  about  thirty  species  of  Sorbus, 
widely  distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  chiefly 
inhabitants  of  mountain  slopes.  Their  contentment  with  poor 
soil  and  exposed  situations  make  them  valuable  for  the  covering 
of  broken  ground,  where  they  show  to  the  best  advantage.  In 
autumn  the  red  berries  are  m.atched  by  the  ruddy  foliage.  Birds 
often  depend  on  the  berries  for  food  in  snowy  winters.  On  a 
lawn  a  mountain  ash  is  a  neat  and  very  decorative  little  tree  at  all 
seasons. 

Mountain  Ash  (Sorbus  Americana,  Marsh.) — A  small  tree, 
attaining  30  feet,  with  slender  spreading  branches,  forming 
pyramidal  head.  Bark  smooth,  brown  or  grey,  with  large  lenticels 
like  those  on  cherry;  taste  bitter.  Wood  pale  brown,  close 
grained,  weak.  5mJ5  reddish,  pointed,  glutinous.  Leaves  \)\nmXc, 
6  to  12  inches  long,  alternate;  petioles  red;  leaflets  13  to  17,  lanceo- 


The  Mountain  Ashes 

late,  dark  yellow-grccn,  pale  beneath.  Flowers  creamy  white, 
perfect,  small,  in  broad,  compound,  flat-topped  corymbs,  after 
the  leaves  in  May  and  June.  Fruit  small,  scarlet,  berry-like,  with 
thin  flesh  and  bony  seeds.  Ripe  in  September  and  hang  on  all 
winter.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  soil.  Distribution,  New- 
foundland to  Manitoba;  south  along  mountains  to  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina.  Uses:  Planted  for  its  red  berries  and  fern-like 
foliage.     Fruit  used  in  home  remedies. 

The  way  to  see  our  American  mountain  ash  at  its  best  is  to  take 
a  leisurely  October  drive  through  the  wooded  uplands  of  New  Eng- 
land or  lower  Canada.  Along  the  borders  of  swamps,  or  climbing 
the  rocky  bluffs,  with  the  wild  plums  and  the  straggling  beeches, 
this  frail  scarlet-berried  ash  leaps  up  like  a  yellow  flame,  and  the 
broad  discs  of  its  fruit  gleam  among  the  leaves  like  red  embers  in 
a  grate.  There  is  no  handsomer  leaf  at  any  season  than  this 
one,  on  its  red  stem,  its  pointed  leaflets  dainty  and  slim  as  a 
willow's. 

I  have  wondered  that  people  prefer  to  plant  in  their  gardens 
the  European  species.  But  I  fmd  it  is  not  all  the  deep-seated 
craving  for  imported  things.  The  American  tree  languishes  in 
warm,  dry  climates  and  in  the  protected  situations  we  are  apt  to 
choose.  It  shows  a  distinct  preference  for  cold,  unsheltered  places, 
exposed  to  winds,  where  its  growth  is  stunted.  Though  its 
range  extends  into  the  Southern  States,  it  always  keeps  to  high 
altitudes. 

The  Elder-leaved  Mountain  Ash  (Sorbus  sambuci folia, 
Roem.)  is  even  more  daring  in  its  fight  with  the  elements.  It 
climbs  higher  on  the  mountains,  and  ranges  from  Labrador  to 
Alaska,  following  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Colorado.  In  the 
East,  it  goes  no  farther  south  than  Pennsylvania.  The  same 
species  inhabits  Japan  and  eastern  China, 

This  species  has  showier  flowers  and  fruit  clusters  than 
S.  Americana.  In  the  large  area  where  their  ranges  overlap,  these 
two  can  be  best  distinguished  by  their  leaves.  This  Western  moun- 
tain ash  has  darker  green  foliage,  of  abruptly  pointed  leaflets. 
The  fruits  have  five  large,  erect  calyx  points  at  the  blossom  end. 
These  points  are  small  on  the  berries  ot  the  other  species,  and  are 
bent  inward  until  they  lie  flat. 

All  through  the  summer  the  graceful,  elder-like  foliage  of  the 
Western  mountain  ash  makes  it  a  tropical-looking  tree  among  its 

293 


The  Mountain  Ashes 

north  temperate  forest  neighbours,  though  it  is  rarely  more 
than  15  feet  in  height.  Its  open,  pyramidal  head  gives  each 
leaf  a  chance.  After  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the  twigs  still  hold 
up  their  broad  discs  of  scarlet  berries  that  cling  until  winter  is 
well  past. 

The  Rowan  Tree  or  European  mountain  ash  (Sorhus  Aucu- 
paria,  Linn.)  is  the  one  people  usually  plant  on  their  lawns  in  this 
country.  This  trim,  round-headed  tree  is  very  conventional  and 
well-behaved  compared  with  its  country  cousins  back  in  the  hills. 
Long  discipline  at  the  gardener's  hands  has  made  it  what  it  is.  In 
the  craggy  highlands  of  Scotland  and  Wales  it  leads  a  wild  life, 
and  is  there  quite  different  from  the  familiar  garden  tree.  Strange 
legends  and  superstitions,  centuries  old,  cluster  around  the  rowan 
in  all  rural  sections  of  Europe.  They  are  preserved  in  the  folk- 
lore and  the  literature  of  many  languages.  The  tree,  its  berries,  a 
leafy  spray,  or  a  bit  of  its  wood — all  were  considered  to  be  effectual 
charms  to  exorcise  evil  spirits,  and  to  undo  their  work.  The  rowan 
was  planted  at  the  gates  of  churchyards,  and  by  cottage  doors; 
and  leafy  twigs  were  hung  over  the  thresholds.  Crosses  of  "  roan  " 
wood,  given  out  on  festival  days,  were  worn  as  amulets,  and  were 
tacked  up  over  the  doors  of  houses  and  barns.  Milkmaids,  espe- 
cially, depended  on  them  for  the  defeat  of  the  "black  elves"  who 
tried  to  make  their  cows  go  dry,  and,  unless  prevented,  got 
into  the  churns,  and  then  the  butter  would  never  come!  We 
shall  look  upon  this  pretty  tree  with  new  interest,  and  perhaps 
a  mild  kind  ot  awe,  knowing  how  it  has  been  regarded  by  our 
ancestors. 

It  may  be  known  at  any  season  by  the  woolly  fuzz  that  whitens 
buds,  twigs  and  the  Hnings  of  leaves.  The  leaflets  are  small,  dull 
green,  with  blunt  points,  and  the  margins  have  double  teeth,  large 
and  small.  The  flowers  and  fruits  are  larger  than  those  of  our 
native  species,  and  more  showy. 

Mountain  ash  berries  at  best  are  a  poor,  insipid  sort  of  fruit. 
But  as  they  hang  on  the  trees  very  late,  birds  eat  them  with 
apparent  satisfaction.  During  periods  of  deep  snow,  these  trees 
are  often  the  sole  reliance  of  our  hardy  winter  residents — the  one 
bar  between  them  and  starvation. 

The  farther  north  a  tree  can  grow,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  have 
near  relatives  in  the  Old  World.  One  mountain  asl  of  Japan  can 
be  distinguished  only  with  difficulty  from  our  own;  and  some 

294 


THE   MOUNTAIN    ASH  {Sorbui  Jmerlai,,,.) 

The  flat,  crowMc!  chisti-r  of  tinv  white  flowers  is  set  in  a  whorl  of  the  dark-green  leaves  in  May  or  June.  The  red  berries 
ripen  in  September  an!  remain  all  winter.  The  foliage  is  bright  yellow  in  autumn.  The  twigs  are  red;  so  are  the  waxy  buds 
above  the  prominent  leaf  scars.      Tlie  white  breathing  pores  show  distinctly  on  the  smooth  bark 


.Vi<„\, 


■''>i)^)v^'-v 


■\v 


THE    .SI.R\  IC  I.-BI.KKV    I  Rhh   {.h„ri,i„rh,.-    (.,;„„•,;,  „w>  ) 

This  solitary  tree  grows  on  the  edge  of  a  plowed  field.     Tillage  and  elbow  room  enable  it   to  spread  out  like  a  luxuriant  cheny 

tree.     Its  bloom  appears  in  April,  when  most  trees  are  still  bare.     Its  berries  are  the  delight  of  the  birds  in  June 


The   Mountain   Ashes 

authorities  consider  our  two  species  but  varieties  of  the  rowan 
tree  of  Europe,  which  extends  its  range  well  into  Asia,  Inter- 
mediate forms,  growing  wild  with  the  two  American  species, 
show  how  each  is  apt  to  vary,  and  how  very  close  is  their 
relationship.  All  species  are  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  a 
common  ancestor  not  very  long  ago. 


295 


CHAPTER  XXXVII:     THE  SERVICE-BERRIES 

Family  Rosace/E 

Genus  AMELANCHIER,  Med. 

Slender,  pretty  trees  often  cultivated.  Leaves  simple, 
alternate,  deciduous,  Flowers  white,  numerous^  in  racemes. 
Fruits  small  berry-like,  with  4  to  lo-celled  core. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  ovate,  finely  saw-toothed;  fruit  flattened,  red  to 
purple. 
B.  Fruit  J  to  i  inch  across;  leaves  sharp  pointed. 

(A.  Canadensis)  service-berry 
BB.  Fruit  about  J  inch  across;  leaves  blunt  pointed. 

(A.  ohovalis)  longleaf  service-berry 
AA.  Leaves   broad,    coarsely   toothed   on   apical    half,   blunt; 
fruit  \  to  I  inch  across,  blue-black. 

(^A.  alnijolia)  western  service-berry 

The  genus  Amelanchier  occurs  in  southern  Europe,  northern 
Africa,  China  and  Japan,  and  in  southwestern  Asia  as  well  as  in 
eastern  and  western  North  America,  it  includes  few  species,  all 
delicate  and  pretty  in  foliage  and  flower,  planted  for  ornament 
in  many  countries.  Dwarf  varieties  are  raised  for  their  fruit. 
The  flowers  cover  the  slender  branchlets  before  the  leaves  appear. 
The  sweet  berries  feed  the  birds.  Our  Western  service-berry  has 
especially  large  and  juicy  fruits. 

June-berry,  Service-berry,  Shad-bush  (Amelanchier  Cana- 
densis, T.  &  G.) — A  slender,  round-headed  tree,  rarely  40  feet  high, 
usually  less  than  20  feet.  Bark  smooth,  purplish  brown,  with  pale 
lenticels.  Pk'ood  heavy,  hard,  dark  brown.  Buds  pointed,  brown, 
inner  scales  elongate  in  spring.  Leaves  alternate,  oval  or  oblong, 
serrate,  tapering,  smooth;  3  to  4  inches  long,  midrib  grooved 
above  and  ridged  underneath.  Flowers,  April,  before  leaves,  white 
in  loose,  drooping  racemes,  with  silky  bracts,  i  inch  across  with  5 

296 


The  Service-berries 

narrow,  long  petals.  Fruit,  June,  a  red,  juicy,  sweet  berry,  with 
lo-celled  core.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  upland  soil,  borders  of 
woods.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  the  Dakotas,  south  to  the 
Gulf.  Uses:  A  desirable  park  or  lawn  tree;  wood  occasionally 
used  for  tool  handles,  etc. 

Do  you  wait  until  you  are  sure  of  finding  violets  a-plenty 
.  before  you  take  the  time  to  go  to  the  woods?  Then  you  miss  a 
rare  and  most  delightful  experience.  Go  two  weeks  earlier  this 
year,  and  you  may  see  the  little  June-berry  tree  put  on  her  bridal 
veil.  The  larger  trees  which  stand  about  with  naked  branches 
are  but  a  background  to  set  off  the  charms  of  this  modest  wood- 
land beauty.  It  is  not  simply  by  contrast  with  the  barrenness 
around  it  that  this  tree  delights  the  beholder.  The  soft,  graceful, 
feathery  clusters  and  the  individual,  starry  blossoms  would  be 
attractive  at  any  season.  But  that  flowers  so  delicate  should 
unfold  so  early,  while  yet  winter  lingers,  is  a  marvel  that  goes 
straight  to  the  heart.  You  break  the  sprays  that  lean  toward  you 
as  if  in  invitation,  and  carry  them  home  with  a  sense  of  personal 
gratitude.  What  makes  one  feel  a  glow  of  warmth  when  looking 
at  this  tree?  The  sharp  spring  air  does  not  justify  it.  There  is 
a  faint  undertone  of  colour  that  takes  off  the  chill  of  the  white  cloud 
of  blossoms.  Looking  close  we  see  that  the  strap-shaped  bracts 
are  red,  a  pair  of  them  below  each  flower,  and  the  tinge  is  deepened 
by  the  red-brown  of  the  silky  infant  leaves,  which  hang  limp  and 
helpless,  their  two  halves  folded  on  the  midrib,  and  quite  obscured 
by  the  mass  of  bloom. 

In  summer  the  leaves  are  not  distinctive.  They  are  daintier 
than  those  of  the  apple  and  pear,  and  have  not  the  hydrocyanic 
acid  odour  of  the  foliage  of  plums  and  cherries.  The  twigs  lack 
the  thorns  characteristic  of  the  hawthorns.  So,  by  elimination, 
we  may  be  able  to  identify  this  tree  among  the  multitude  of  its 
relatives. 

The  fruit  cluster  is  a  good  clue  all  summer  long,  though  the 
birds  take  the  berries  so  promptly  that  it  is  exceptional  good  luck 
if  you  find  a  ripe  one  on  the  tree.  But  the  long  branching  stems 
which  bore  the  sweet  morsels  are  held  out  empty,  or  with  dry, 
undeveloped  berries  upon  them, '  longer  and  looser  in  structure 
than  the  racemes  of  the  cherry  group. 

Showy  as  it  is  in  blossom,  the  June-berry  is  never  a  self- 
assertive  tree.     Its  flowers  are  gone  as  suddenly  as  they  came,  and 

297 


The  Service-berries 

the  little  tree  quite  loses  its  identity  when  the  forest  wakes  and 
covers  itself  with  a  dense  thatch  of  green.  Cloistered  thus,  and 
cut  off  from  the  benefits  of  wind  and  sun,  no  wonder  that  the  tree 
ordinarily  rises  little  higher  than  a  thrifty  shrub. 

The  Dwarf  June-berry,  or  Swamp  Sugar  Pear  (A.  obo- 
valis,  Ashe),  has  its  young  leaves  and  tender  shoots  covered  with 
dense  white  wool  until  quite  matured.  The  flowers  are  smaller 
than  those  of  its  sister  species,  and  crowded  in  shorter,  denser 
racemes.  The  fruit  is  juicier  and  of  richer  flavour,  and  eagerly 
sought  by  children  and  birds.  Tne  tree  bears  the  name,  long-leaf 
service-tree  in  some  localities,  and  in  others,  shad-bush.  The 
Indians  noted  that  these  trees  blossomed  along  the  banks  of  tide- 
water streams  about  the  time  that  the  shad  came  up  to  spawn. 
The  colonists  adopted  this  name.  Naturally,  it  is  not  used  in  the 
inland  states,  where  shad  are  seen  only  in  fish  markets.  This 
June-berry  frequents  swamps  and  stream  borders,  ranging  from 
New  Brunswick  to  Florida  and  Louisiana,  and  west  to  Minnesota 
and  Missouri. 

The  Western  Service-berry  {A.  alnijolia,  Nutt.)  has  a 
thick,  roundish  leaf,  broad  and  toothed,  which  makes  it  a  hand- 
some foliage  tree.  Its  large,  juicy,  fine-flavoured  berry  commends 
it  to  horticulturists  as  worthy  of  cultivation.  It  grows  over  a 
vast  territory  which  extends  from  the  Yukon  River  south  through 
the  Western  States,  and  east  to  Ontario,  Michigan  and  Nebraska. 

Widely  distinct  as  is  this  species  from  A.  Canadensis  when 
individuals  from  distant  localities  are  compared,  these  differences 
become  less  marked  as  each  species  is  studied  nearer  and  nearer 
the  regions  where  their  ranges  overlap.  It  is  believed  that  in 
these  two  we  have  the  offspring  of  a  single  species  which  came 
from  the  North,  and,  spreading  east  and  west  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  became  modified  by  climate  into  two  distinct 
species  as  we  see  them  to-day.  Comparisons  of  specimens  taken 
at  regular  intervals  on  both  sides  of  the  mountains  form  a  most 
interesting  chain  of  evidence  to  support  the  theory  of  a  common 
origin.  Fossils  of  the  Glacial  Period  show  clearly  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  ancestral  type. 


298 


^'^'-'^-f-A 


^^^^ 


^^ifi^''  .t.><?i* 


■Hi 


l-HK    SKRVICE-BERRY  {Jmehwchicr  Canadensis) 


A  well-tilled  specimen  spread,'-  like  an  apple  tree.     The  flowers  appear  ir 
IS  a  juicy  berry,  which  the  birds  love. 


.April  before  the  leaves  spread  themselves.     The  fruit 
It  is  ripe  in  June 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII:     THE   HAWTHORNS 

Family  RosACEi€ 

Genus  CRATAEGUS,  Linn. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs,  with  rigid,  thorny  branches.  Leaves 
simple,  alternate,  deciduous,  stipulate,  serrate,  often  lobed. 
Flowers  perfect,  usually  white,  in  corymbs  on  short  side  twigs. 
Fruits  drupe-like  pomes,  with  hard  nutlets  containing  the  seeds. 
IVood  hard,  tough,  reddish,  close  grained.  Uses:  Ornamental 
trees  and  hedge  plants;  wood  used  for  tool  handles  and  mallets. 

KEY  TO  GROUPS  AND  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Nutlets  not  grooved  in  front. 

B.  Leaf  veins  extending  to  points  of  lobes;  not  to  sinuses. 
C.  Petioles  short;  leaves  obovate,  wedge  shaped  at  base. 
D.  Corymbs  many-flowered. 

E.  Leaves  leathery,  dark  green,  shining  above; 
fruit  almost  globular,  nutlets  i  to  3, 
ridged  on  back. 

I.  Group  CRUS-GALLI 

F.  Stamens  10,  anthers  rose  colour;  leaves 
thick,  fruit  dull  red;  spines  stout,  4  to 
6  inches  long. 

(C.  Crus-galli)  cockspur  thorn 
FF.  Stamens  20,  anthers  yellow;  leaves  thin; 
fruit  orange  red;  spines  slender,   i   to 
i^  inches  long.  (C.  Mohri)  haw 

EE.  Leaves  membranaceous  or  firm;  veins  strong; 
fruit  usually  dotted;  nutlets  2  to  5, 
strongly  ridged  on  back. 

II.  Group  PUNCTATA 

F.  Fruit  oblong,  yellow  or  red,  \  to  i  inch 
long,  with  large,  pale  dots;  stamens  20. 
(C.  punctata)  dotted  haw 
299 


The  Hawthorns 


FF.  Fruit  globose,  J  to  ^  inch  long,  dull  red, 
with  small  pale  dots;  stamens  20, 
yellow.  (C.  collina)  haw 

DD.  Corymbs  f ew-flowered ;  flowers  with  leaves  in 
February,  stamens  20  to  25,  with  large,  dark- 
red  anthers. 

III.  Group  /^STIVALES 

(C.  cEsiivalis)  may  haw 
CC.  Petioles  long,  slender,  scarcely  glandular ;  leaves  mem- 
branaceous to  leathery,  narrow  at  base;  corymbs 
many-flowered;  fruit  oblong  to  subglobose,  ^  to 
f  inches  in  diameter. 

IV.  Group  VIRIDES 
Fruit    flattened,    under    J    inch    in    diameter, 
bright  scarlet  or  orange.  (C.  viridis)  haw 

CCC.  Petioles  long,  slender,  glandular  at  apex. 

D.  Leaves  broad  at  base;  corymbs  many-flowered. 

E.  Fruit   flattened,   \   to   -|   inch   in   diameter, 

green,    with    glaucous    bloom,    becoming 

dark  purple-red  and  lustrous;  leaves  blue 

green,  smooth. 

V.  Group  PRUINOS/E 

Leaves  elliptical  (C  pruinosa)  haw 

EE.  Fruit  short  oblong  or  obovate,  \  to  |  inch 
long,  scarlet  to  purple,  leaves  mem- 
branaceous. 

VI.  Group  TENUIFOLIA 

Leaves  blue-green,  rough. 

(C.  apiomorpha)  haw 
EEE.  Fruit  I  inch  in  diameter,  red  or  yellow,  flesh 
thick,  juicy;  corymbs  downy. 

VII.  Group  MOLLES 

F.  Stamens  20,  anthers  yellow;  leaves  broad 
and  thick;  fruit  scarlet,  downy. 

(C  mollis)   RED  HAW 
FF.  Stamens  10,  anthers  yellow. 

G.  Fruit    crimson,    velvety,    flattened. 

(C.  Arnoldiana)  scarlet  haw 
GG.  Fruit  orange  red,  lustrous. 

(C.  submolUs)   RED  HAW 
FEE.  Stamens  10,  anthers  rose  colour. 

Fruit    short  oblong,  bright    crimson, 
shining. 

CC.  EUwangcriana)  scarlet  haw 
300 


The   Hawthorns 

EEEE.  Fruit    oblong,    f    inch    long,    red,    pulpy, 
lustrous;  leaves  lobed;  anthers  red. 

VIII.  Group  FLABELLAT/^ 

Stamens  5,  rarely  6  to  8;  leaves  yellow- 
green.  (C  Holme siana)  haw 
EEEEE.  Fruit   nearly   round,   f   inch   long,   greenish 
red,  calyx  prominent;  stamens  20,  anthers 
rose  coloured. 

IX.  Group  DILATAT/^ 

Flowers  ij  inches  across,  few;  leaves  2  to 
3  inches  long  and  broad,  with  deep 
side   lobes.  (C  coccinioides)  haw 

DD.  Leaves  wedge  shaped  at  base. 

E.  Corymbs  many-flowered;  leaves  dark  green, 
lustrous  above,  fruit  A-  to  J  inch  long, 
nutlets  2  to  3,  ridged  on  back. 

X.  Group  COCCINE/E 

Thorns  i|  inch  long,  brown,  stout; 
fruit   crimson,   dry   and   sweet,   leaves 

2  to  3  inches  long. 

(C.  coccinea)  scarlet  haw 
EE.  Corymbs  few-flowered ;  leaves  membranaceous. 
F.  Fruit    \    inch    long,    green    or    yellow; 
nutlets  3  to  5,  rounded  at  ends,  strongly 
ridged  at  back;  leaves  yellow-green. 

XI.  Group  INTRICAT/E 

Fruits  2  to  4  in  clusters,  erect,  flat, 
rusty,  reddish  green,  stamens  10, 
pale  yellow.  (C  Boyntoni)  haw 

FF.  Fruit  \  inch  long,  red  or  orange;  nutlets 

3  to  5  but  slightly  grooved  on  back; 
stamens  20,  anthers  rose  coloured; 
leaves  thin,  sharply  lobed. 

XII.  Group  PULCHERRIM/E 

Fruit  bright  red.  (C.  opinio)  haw 

FEE.  Fruit  h  to;^  inch  long;  nutlets  3  to  5, 
narrowed  at  ends,  strongly  ridged  on 
back;  bracts  large;  calyx  lobes  leaf- 
like; stamens  20,  anthers  yellow;  leaves 
dark,  lustrous,  leathery. 

XIII.  Group  BRACTEAT/E 

Fruit  bright  red.  (C.  Ashci)  wkvi 

30 « 


The  Hawthorns 

CCCC.  Petioles,  leaves  and  corymbs  conspicuously  glandu- 
lar; corymbs  few-flowered;  fruit  ^  to  f  mch  long, 
flesh  hard,  dry;  branches  zizag. 

XIV.  Group  FLAV/E 

Bark  deeply  furrowed ;  leaves  diamond  shaped,  thick, 
shining,  with  short  winged  petiole;  corymbs 
velvety,  with  3  to  6  flowers,  stamens  10,  an- 
thers yellow;  fruit  late,  dull  orange  red, 
flattened.  (C.  aprica)  haw 

BB.  Veins  of  leaves  extending  to  sinuses  as  well  as  to  points 
of  lobes;  corymbs  many-flowered;  stamens  20. 
C.  Fruit  flattened  to  oblong,  pea  size,  scarlet;  nutlets 
2  to  5,  prominently  ridged  at  back;  anthers  rose 
coloured  or  purple. 

XV.  Group  MICROCARP/E 

D.  Leaves  round,  deeply  5  to  7  cleft. 

(C.  apiijolia)  parsley  haw 
DD.  Leaves  heart  shaped. 

(C  cordaia)  Washington  thorn 
CC.  Fruit  flattened,  ^  to  ^  inch  long,  red,  blue  or  blue- 
black  nutlets  3  to  5,  obtuse  at  ends,  slightly  ridged 
at  back;  leaves  dark  and  lustrous. 

XVI.  Group  BRACHYACANTH/E 

Leaves  lanceolate;  thorns  stout; fruit  bright  blue. 

(C.  hrachyacaniha)  pomette  bleue 
AA.  Nutlets  grooved  in  front. 

B.  Fruits  \  to  \  inch  long,  erect,  lustrous,  orange  or 
scarlet;  nutlets  2  to  3,  blunt  at  ends,  ridged  on  back; 
leaves  downy  below. 

XVI I.  Group  TOMENTOS/E 

C.  Fruit  pear  shaped,  translucent,  orange  red,  leaves 
2  to  5  inches  long,  grey-green,  tomentose  below; 
thorns  i^  inches  long,  slender. 

(C  iomentosa)  pear  haw 
CC.  Fruit,  pea-like,  crimson,  leaves  2  to  3  inches  long, 
dark,  lustrous,  tapering;  thorns  2\  to 4  inches  long, 
curved.  (C  macracaniha)  long-spine  haw 

BB.  Fruit  nearly  globular,  \  inch  long,  black;  nutlets  5, 
blunt  at  ends,  faintly  ridged  on  back;  stamens  20; 
leaves  leathery. 

XVIII.  Group  DOUGLASIAN/E 

Leaves  variable  in  form,  fruit  many  in  a  cluster, 
lustrous,    sweet.  (C  Douglasii)  black  haw 

302 


The   Hawthorns 

The  hawthorns  are  a  shrubby  race  of  trees,  under-sized,  as  a 
rule,  with  still",  /-igzag  branches,  set  with  thorns.  The  leaves  are 
simple,  alternate,  deciduous,  usually  cut  into  sharp  lobes,  and  saw 
teeth.  The  flowers  are  generally  white,  and  set  in  terminal 
corymbs  on  side  branchlets.  The  fruits  are  drupe-like  pomes, 
with  bony  nutlets  containing  the  seeds.  As  a  rule  fruits  are  red; 
in  a  few  species  they  are  orange;  still  fewer,  yellow,  blue  or  black. 
The  flesh  is  generally  mealy  and  dry.  The  nutlets  are  joined  at 
their  bases,  and  are  variously  grooved  and  ridged. 

The  stamens  are  normally  five  in  a  circle,  set  alternate  with 
the  petals.  There  may  be  five  pairs,  similarly  placed.  Or  fifteen 
may  occur,  in  two  rows,  twenty  in  three,  or  twenty-five  in  four 
circles.  These  are  the  typical  arrangements.  When  not  in  fives, 
some  stamens  have  failed  to  develop.  The  number  of  stamens, 
their  arrangement  and  the  colour  of  their  anthers,  is  considered  by 
Professor  Sargent  an  important  clue  to  relationship.  The  grooves 
and  ridges  on  the  nutlets  form  another  constant  and  significant 
character  on  which  his  classification  is  based. 

The  generic  name,  Crataegus,  is  derived  from  hraios,  the  Greek 
word  for  strength,  and  refers  to  the  hard,  tough  wood. 

The  centre  of  distribution  for  the  hawthorns  is  undoubtedly 
the  eastern  United  States.  From  Newfoundland  to  Mexico  they 
abound  in  great  variety.  A  few  species  are  found  on  the  Pacific 
coast  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.     Europe  and  Asia  have  a  few. 

It  is  remarkable  that  trees  so  conspicuous  as  these  should 
until  lately  be  so  little  known.  Linnaeus  named  four  American 
species.  Professor  Sargent  described  fourteen  only  in  Vol.  IV.  of 
"The  Silva  of  North  America."  In  Vol.  XIII.,  the  supplement, 
issued  in  1900,  seventy-three  species  were  added  to  those  described 
in  Vol.  IV.,  bringing  his  total  up  to  eighty-seven.  In  his  "  Manual" 
published  in  1905,  Professor  Sargent  describes  and  gives  rank  as 
species  to  128  hawthorns  native  to  the  United  States.  These  are 
divided  into  eighteen  groups  by  characters  set  forth  in  the  key. 
I  have  chosen  a  typical  species  to  illustrate  each  group,  and  added 
only  such  others  as  have  distinction  and  horticultural  promise. 
The  fact  that  Professor  Sargent  knows  this  genus  better  than  any- 
one else  has  been  my  reason  for  borrowing  his  key  almost  un- 
changed. 

The  whole  story  of  the  hawthorns  and  their  relationships  can- 
not be  told  by  any  man  now  living.     Nor  can  present  knowledge 

303 


The  Hawthorns 

and  opinion  on  the  subject  be  considered  as  final.  It  takes  time 
to  test  the  stability  of  species.  Thousands  of  seeds  have  been 
collected  from  haws  and  planted  in  the  nurseries  of  the  Arnold 
Arboretum.  Probably  no  such  undertaking  was  ever  projected 
and  carried  out.     What  is  it  all  about?    Take  an  example. 

A  new  kind  of  hawthorn  was  found  growing  wild  on  a  hillside 
within  the  very  gates  of  the  Arboretum.  It  was  evidently  related 
to  C.  mollis,  but  was  considered  sufficiently  distinct  to  deserve 
rank  as  a  new  species.  Professor  Sargent  called  it  Cratcegus 
Arnoldiana.  A  keen-eyed  scientist  found  the  same  species  growing 
wild  along  the  river  banks  at  Medford,  Massachusetts.  Does  it 
grow  elsewhere?  Nobody  knows,  yet.  Seeds  from  both  groups 
are  growing  in  the  nursery.  They  have  shown  their  foliage. 
They  will  be  set  out  in  due  time,  and  ultimately  will  produce 
flowers  and  fruit  for  comparison  with  the  parent  trees.  If  they 
are  alike  and  "true  to  type,"  the  inference  is  that  the  species  is 
distinct — set  off  by  clear-cut  characters  from  its  near  relatives. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  these  seedling  trees  closely  resemble  C.  mol- 
lis, rather  than  their  own  parents,  the  variability  is  evidence  against 
their  deserving  a  distinct  name  and  a  place  among  species.  Their 
seeds  must  be  planted,  and  seedling  trees  brought  to  bearing. 
What  will  their  testimony  be?  How  will  they  compare  with  their 
parents  and  grandparents? 

It  takes  years  of  careful  study  to  find  out  these  things.  Accu- 
rate records  must  be  kept;  each  tree  has  its  pedigree  and  biography 
written  in  full  in  the  card  catalogue,  and  a  prophecy  of  its  value 
in  cultivation. 

Perhaps  there  are  not  so  many  species  as  are  now  described. 
One  student  of  the  genus  thinks  that  the  virgin  forests  kept 
hawthorns  suppressed.  The  clearing  of  the  land  gave  them  a 
chance.  The  multitude  of  forms  now  seen,  he  thinks  may  be 
seminal  variations,  due  to  the  more  favourable  auspices  under 
which  the  seedling  trees  now  grow.  Until  recent  years,  nobody 
was  making  observations  on  the  subject.  Now,  in  many  regions, 
this  scientific  study  is  being  carried  on — independently  or  in  con- 
junction with  Professor  Sargent.  The  outcome  will  be  a  large 
body  of  knowledge  regarding  the  genus. 

The  horticulturist  is  beginning  to  realise  the  value  of  the 
hawthorns.  The  showy  flowers  and  fruits,  the  vivid  colouring 
of  autumn  foliage,  and  the  striking  character  expressed  in  winter 

304 


Coryright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Cl:i;:.  ..;,, 

SCARLET    HAW     {Craizgus  coccineo) 


The   Hawthorns 

by  the  rigid  branches  and  their  menacing  thorns,  give  most  of 
these  Httle  trees  attractiveness  at  all  seasons.  Many  species 
are  handsome  and  effective  as  hedge  plants.  Fine  individual 
trees  for  lawn  planting  are  furnished  by  others.  Hawthorns 
are  quick  to  grow  in  any  soil  and  situation,  and  they  show  the 
most  remarkable  improvement  when  encouraged  by  tillage  and 
a  little  fertilising.  They  do  well  in  heavy  clay.  They  are  trans- 
planted easily  when  young,  from  the  wild;  but  having  tap  roots 
are  hard  to  dig,  and  less  sure  to  survive  transplanting  when  older. 
They  come  readily  from  seed,  though  as  a  rule  requiring  two  years 
to  germinate. 

I.  Crus-galli 

Cockspur  Thorn  {Crataegus  Crus-galli,  Linn.) — A  small, 
handsome  tree,  15  to  25  feet  high,  with  stiff  branches  in  a  broad, 
round  head.  Thorns  axillary,  stout,  often  curved,  brown  or 
grey,  3  to  4  inches  long,  often  becoming  6  to  8  inches  long  and 
branched  when  old.  Bark  grey  or  brown,  scaly,  branchlets 
smooth,  green,  becoming  brown,  then  grey.  IVood  brownish  red, 
close  grained,  hard,  heavy,  takes  satiny  polish.  Buds  small, 
scaly,  brownish  red.  Leaves  thick,  leathery,  lustrous,  dark  green 
above,  paler  beneath,  i  to  4  inches  long,  obovate;  acute  or  rounded 
and  serrate  at  apex;  entire  below  middle  and  tapering  to  the 
stout  petiole;  veins  netted;  stipules  paired,  strap  shaped,  or 
obliquely  ovate,  falling  early.  Autumn  colours  orange  and 
scarlet.  Flowers,  May  to  June,  after  leaves,  in  racemose  corymbs, 
loose,  many-flowered,  with  smooth  stems,  blossoms  spreading, 
white,  I  inch  across;  sepals  and  petals  5;  stamens  10,  with  rose- 
coloured  anthers;  styles  usually  2.  Fruit,  October,  remain  till 
spring,  almost  globular,  ^  inch  long,  dull  red,  with  dry,  thin, 
mealy  flesh;  calyx  lobes  dry  and  spreading  at  apex;  nutlets  2, 
deeply  grooved  on  back.  Preferred  habitat,  rich  soil  of  low  hill 
slopes.  Distribution,  Montreal  region  to  southern  Michigan; 
south  to  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania;  along  Appalachian  foot- 
hills into  North  Carolina.  Uses:  Cultivated  as  an  ornamental 
and  in  hedges  in  Europe  and  America.  Wood  used  for  tool  han- 
dles, levers,  etc. 

Wherever  a  cockspur  thorn  is  planted,  in  open  lawn  with 
elbow  room,  or  in  a  crowded  shrubbery  border,  it  keeps  its  char- 
acter, and  gives  the  passerby  a  distinct  impression  of  something 
305 


The  Hawthorns 

new  and  different.     It  is  like  an  interjection  met  in  the  even 
swing  of  a  long  sentence. 

There  are  vigour  and  strength  expressed  at  any  age  by  the 
tree's  rigid,  zigzag  branches,  armed  with  long,  sharp  spurs.  The 
thorns  strike  downward,  as  a  rule,  on  horizontal  branches.  The 
leaves  stand  up  "on  tiptoe,"  as  if  to  keep  out  of  the  way.  Indeed, 
they  might  be  taken  for  weapons  themselves,  they  are  so  thin, 
and  keen  edged,  and  shining.  From  the  ground  up,  on  young 
trees,  the  bark  is  bright  and  polished,  varying  from  red  to  brown 
and  grey. 

The  flowers  are  late,  coming  out  in  showy  clusters  when 
the  full-grown  leaves  make  a  lustrous  background.  The  fruits 
make  little  show  until  ripe,  for  the  leaves  are  rarely  touched  by 
fungous  or  insect  injuries,  and  in  the  fall,  when  the  fruit  begins  to 
flush,  the  foliage  takes  on  the  colours  of  flame.  The  dull  red 
clusters  glow  with  a  subdued  warmth  on  the  branches  all  winter. 
The  birds  let  them  alone. 

So  all  year  long  the  cockspur  is  a  beautiful  ornamental  tree, 
and  a  competent  and  popular  hedge  plant.  It  is  the  favourite 
American  thorn  in  Europe  and  at  home,  known  for  two  centuries, 
and  named  by  Linnaeus,  one  of  the  proud  old  "first  families" 
of  the  genus  Crataegus. 

Craicegus  Mohri,  Beadl.,  is  a  slender  thorn  tree,  close  of  kin 
to  the  other  cockspurs,  as  we  recognise  by  its  shining  leaves, 
slender  spines  and  thin-fleshed  fruits,  with  nutlets  deeply  grooved 
on  the  back.  It  belongs  to  the  group  of  cockspur  thorns  whose 
flowers  and  fruits  are  borne  on  pubescent  pedicels.  There  are 
twenty  stamens,  with  yellow  anthers,  set  in  three  rows. 

This  straight  thorn  tree  has  spreading  and  rather  pendulous 
limbs,  and  short,  shiny,  brown  spines.  Its  range  centres  in 
Alabama,  whence  it  extends  into  Georgia,  Mississippi  and 
Tennessee.  Its  favourite  situations  are  moist,  level  wood- 
lands. 

It  promises  to  be  for  the  South  what  C.  Crus-galli  is  in  the 
Northeastern  States — a  handsome,  useful  ornamental  and  hedge 
tree. 

II.    PuNCTATyE 

Dotted  Haw  {Cratcegus  punctata,  Jacq.) — A  broad,  round- 
headed  tree,  20  to  30  feet  high,  with  horizontal  branches,  and 

306 


I   Lc.if,  un.lrr  Mle  i    I.ral    upprr  si.le  ;   Fruit  4   Triiit  cut  to  show  seo.is  5 

THE  COCKSPUR  THORN  (Crat^^us  Crus-galli) 

Copious  white  hlooin  conceals  the  leaves  in  early  June.     The  thorns  are  slender  and  strong,  becoming  6  to  8  inches  long  and 

branched  on  old  limbs.     The  leaves  are  leathery  and  polished,  narrowly  obovate,  I  to  4  inches  long 

THE    RED    HAW  {Crat^gus  mollis) 

The  large  red  haws,  which  ripen  in  early  September,  are  fuzzy  around  the  base  of  the  incurving  calvx  tips.     The  fruit   stems  and 

leaf  linings  are  pubescent.     In  spring  the  new  growtli  is  thickly  coated  with  white  hairs 


THE    DOTThD    HAV\    {Cmt.r^us  pun 


The  pale  dots  on  the  fruit  give  this  tree  its  namo.  The  grcv- 
green  leaves  taper  narrowly  to  the  petioles.  The  prominent, 
depressed  veins  and  the  long,  straight  spines  are  shown  in  the 
upper   plate 


THE  SCARLET  HAW  {Crataegus  prut 

The  lower  right-hand  picture  shows  the  broad-based  leaf 
with  its  lobed  margin  and  the  short,  stout  spines.  The 
leaves  are  blue-green,  and  the  unripe  fruit  has  a  hoary 
bloom  upon  it 


The   Hawthorns 

rigid  twigs.  Thorns  straight,  slim,  2  to  3  inches  long,  brown  or 
grey.  Dark  thin,  dark  brownish  red,  in  long,  plate-like  scales, 
branches  brown  to  pale  grey;  twigs  pubescent  at  first,  soon 
becoming  smooth.  IVood  red-brown,  hard,  close-textured.  Duds 
plump,  small,  scaly,  shiny.  Leaves  obovate,  acute  or  obtuse  at 
apex,  2  to  3  inches  long,  narrowed  to  short  petiole;  sharply 
serrate,  sometimes  lobed,  entire  toward  base;  pubescent  at  first, 
smooth  at  maturity,  except  on  veins  below,  leathery,  grey-green, 
orange  and  scarlet  in  autumn,  yeins  prominent,  depressed 
above.  Flowers,  May,  when  leaves  are  half  grown,  in  thick, 
flat,  many-flowered  corymbs  on  pale  tomentose  stems;  calyx 
hairy,  corollas  spreading,  white,  i  to  f  inch  across,  stamens  20, 
with  rose-coloured  or  yellow  anthers,  styles  2  to  5,  hairy  at  base. 
Fruit  falls  in  October,  short-oblong  to  sub-globose,  ^  to  i  inch 
long,  yellow  or  red;  marked  by  white  dots;  flesh  thin,  dry;  calyx 
lobes  flattened;  nutlets  5,  ridged  on  back.  Preferred  habitat,  rich, 
moist  upland  soil.  Farm  thickets.  Distribution,  Quebec  to  Detroit; 
western  New  England,  along  mountains  to  northern  Georgia, 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina;  west  to  Ohio  and  Illinois.  Uses: 
Valuable  ornamental  hawthorn. 

The  large,  pale  dots  on  the  fruit  of  this  haw  give  it  its  name, 
punctata.  Very  strangely,  some  trees  produce  yellow  fruit, 
and  have  flowers  with  yellow  anthers;  while  red  is  the  rule  in 
both  anthers  and  fruit. 

The  dotted  haw  is  a  handsome,  long-thorned  tree,  with 
obovate,  strongly  veined  leaves,  whose  colour  in  autumn  is  like 
fire.  The  fruit  is  brilliant,  too,  hanging  in  full  clusters  long  after 
the  leaves  drop. 

Craicegus  collina,  Chapm.,  which  resembles  C.  punctata  and 
C.  Crus-galli  in  habit,  has  yellow-green  foliage,  and  the  dull  red 
fruits  are  flattened  globes,  containing  five  grooved  and  ridged 
nutlets.  Sometimes  the  branches  are  set  with  formidable, 
branched  thorns,  6  inches  long.  It  is  quite  common  for  the  trunk 
to  be  corrugated  and  buttressed  at  the  base. 

This  tree  grows  along  the  foothills  from  West  Virginia  to 
central  Georgia,  and  west  half  way  across  Tennessee  and  Alabama. 
It  reaches  an  altitude  of  2,500  feet.  It  is  an  early  species,  bloom- 
ing in  April  when  the  leaves  are  scarcely  opening,  and  ripening  its 
fruit  in  September.  The  flesh  is  yellow  and  thin,  mealy  and 
insipid. 

.307 


The   Hawthorns 

III.  /^STI VALES 

May,  or  Apple  Haw  (C.  cesiivalis,  T.  &  G.) — A  round- 
headed,  compact  tree,  with  stout  trunk,  20  to  30  feet  high.  Thorns 
I  to  i^  inches  long,  stout,  sharp;  often  absent.  Bark  thin,  fissured 
and  broken  into  plate-Hke  scales,  dark  reddish  brown.  Twigs 
rufous  pubescent,  soon  becoming  smooth  and  grey  or  brown. 
Wood  heavy.  Close  grained,  light  brown,  weak.  Buds  plump, 
small,  scaly,  brown.  Leaves  elliptical,  irregularly  wavy-toothed 
and  serrate  above  the  middle,  entire  and  tapering  to  pubescent 
petiole;  i^  to  2  inches  long,  dark  green,  leathery  shining  above, 
with  rusty  hairs  on  veins  beneath.  Flowers  with  the  leaves  in 
February  or  early  March,  2  to  5  in  simple  corymbs,  corolla  i  inch 
across,  white;  calyx  tips  ruddy;  stamens  20  to  25,  anthers  large 
dark  rose.  Fruit,  May,  i  to  3  in  cluster,  flattened  globes,  fragrant, 
pleasantly  sub-acid,  juicy,  thick  fleshed,  calyx  lobes  large,  curved 
back;  nutlets  3  to  5,  with  deep  grooves  and  ridges  on  back.  Pre- 
ferred habitat,  moist,  sandy  soil.  Distribution,  Florida  to  Texas 
and  Arkansas.  Uses:  Handsome  tree  for  ornamental  planting. 
Fruit  sold  in  Louisiana  markets,  and  made  into  preserves  and 
jellies. 

IV.   ViRIDES 

Haw  (C.  viridis,  Linn.) — A  round-headed  tree,  20  to  35  feet, 
with  tall,  often  fluted  trunk,  and  spreading  branches.  Thorns 
slim,  pale,  under  i  inch  long;  usually  wanting.  Bark  brown, 
ashy  grey  or  orange,  checked  into  plate-like  scales.  Leaves 
ovate  or  obovate,  acute  at  apex  and  base,  serrate  and  lobed  above 
middle,  usually  entire  below;  dark  green,  lustrous  above,  pale 
and  dull  beneath,  scarlet  in  autumn;  veins  strong;  petioles  slender. 
Flowers,  March  to  May,  with  leaves,  in  smooth  corymbs,  white, 
f  inch  across,  stamens  20,  anthers  yellow,  styles  5.  Fruit  bright 
scarlet  in  pendant  clusters,  flattened  globose,  pea-size,  thin, 
dry  flesh;  nutlets  5,  scarcely  ridged.  Preferred  habitat,  low 
ground  along  streams.  Distribution,  Savannah  River  to  western 
Florida,  through  Gulf  States  to  eastern  Texas;  north  to  St.  Louis; 
forms  thickets  in  Louisiana.  Uses:  Valuable  ornamental  tree, 
for  the  brilliance  of  its  autumn  foliage  and  winter  fruits. 

The  trunk  of  this  species  attracts  attention,  sometimes  by  its 
form,  always  by  its  colour.     Its  vivid  fruit  hangs  throughout  the 

308 


THE    SCARLET    HAW  {Cratagus  Arnoldiana) 

This  tree  is  vigorous  in  habit;  its  new  growth  is  downy. 
Even  the  ripe  fruits  are  velvety.  The  flowers  come  out 
in  May  after   the  broad,  ovate  leaves  are  spread 


THE   PARSLEY   HAW  {Cratctgu^  apiifolia) 
The  deeply  cut  leaves  distinguish  this  tree 


The   Hawthorns 

winter,  making  up  in  quantity  what  it  lacks  in  size.     Rare  in  the 
East  and  North,  yet  it  is  hardy  in  tne  Arnold  Arboretum. 

V.  Pruinos/^ 

Scarlet  Haw  (C.  pruinosa,  K.  Koch.) — Small  tree,  15  to 
20  feet  high,  spreading  irregular  head  of  horizontal  limbs.  Thorns 
numerous,  stout,  straight,  i  to  i  \  inches  long.  Bark  grey,  thin, 
in  loose  scales.  IVood  hard,  heavy,  close  grained.  Buds  small, 
blunt,  scaly.  Leaves  ovate  or  elliptical,  acute,  lobed  and  serrate, 
except  on  entire  base;  dark  blue-green,  smooth,  leathery,  paler 
beneath;  i  to  ij  inches  long,  on  slender  petioles;  autumn  colour 
orange.  Flowers,  May,  white,  i  inch  broad,  in  few-flowered 
corymbs,  stems  long  smooth;  stamens  20,  with  long,  rose-coloured 
anthers;  styles  5,  tufted.  Fruit  sub-globose,  ^-  to  f  inch  in 
diameter,  with  erect  calyx,  green  with  hoary  bloom  until  ripe, 
then  purplish  red  and  lustrous  with  pale  dots.  Nutlets  5,  deeply 
ridged,  enclosed  in  dry,  thick  flesh.  Preferred  habitat,  limestone 
soil  of  slopes.  Distribution,  Vermont  to  southern  slopes  of  Appa- 
lachian Mountains ;  west  to  Illinois  and  Missouri.  Uses:  Valuable 
ornamental  tree  over  wide  territory. 

There  is  a  pale  bloom  on  the  green  fruit  of  this  tree,  which 
wears  off  at  length,  and  the  skin  becomes  shiny  and  dark,  purplish 
red.  The  leaves,  too,  have  a  bluish  green  cast  through  the 
summer,  but  turn  to  orange  at  last.  This  is  one  of  the  handsome 
native  thorn  trees,  a  long  time  confused  with  C.  coccinea. 

VI.  Tenuifoli/^ 

Haw  (C  apiomorpha,  Sarg.) — A  pyramidal  tree,  10  to  25 
feet  high,  with  short  trunk.  Thorns  short,  straight,  slender, 
grey,  i  to  i^  inches  long.  Bark  dark  grey,  cracking  into  plates 
which  show  yellow  under  /ayer.  Leaves  oblong-ovate,  pointed  at 
apex,  serrate  almost  to  petiole,  irregularly  lobed  above  middle, 
thick,  leathery,  lustrous,  blue-green,  paler  beneath,  membrana- 
ceous and  hairy  when  opening,  \\  to  2^  inches  long,  petioles 
slender.  Flowers,  May,  in  many-flowered  corymbs,  with  hairy 
stems,  small,  white,  stamens  5,  anthers  pink,  styles  3  to  5,  tufted. 
Fruits,  September,  in  drooping  clusters  of  3  to  5 ;  pea  size,  obovate, 
bright,  red-purple;  calyx  large,  spreading,  deciduous,  flesh  thin. 

309 


The   Hawthorns 

acid,  succulent;  nutlets  3  to  5,  with  one  low  ridge  on  back.  Pre- 
jerred  habitat,  dry  borders  of  woodlands.  Distribution,  near 
Chicago. 

VII.   MOLLES 

Red  Haw  (C  mollis,  Scheele.) — A  tree  25  to  40  feet  high, 
tall  trunk;  round  head,  branchlets  stout.  Thorns  stout,  brown, 
I  to  2  inches  long,  shining.  Bark  grey  to  brown,  thin,  in  plate- 
like scales;  branches  ashy  grey;  twigs  coated  with  pale  hairs. 
IVood  hard,  heavy,  brown.  Buds  small,  blunt.  Leaves  thick, 
firm,  rough  above,  dark  yellow-green,  3  to  4  inches  long,  broadly 
ovate,  acute,  serrate,  with  4  to  5  pairs  of  pointed  lobes  above 
middle;  base  entire;  lining,  pale,  pubescent;  petioles  slender, 
hairy,  stipules  leaf-like,  toothed  on  vigorous  shoots.  Flowers, 
May,  I  inch  across,  in  hairy,  many-flowered  corymbs,  with 
prominent  bracts;  disc,  red,  calyx  hoary,  red-tipped,  stamens  20, 
with  pale  yellow  anthers,  styles  4  to  5.  Fruits,  August  and  Sep- 
tember, few  in  a  cluster,  drooping,  scarlet,  downy,  globular,  or 
nearly  so,  |  to  i  inch  in  diameter,  marked  with  dark  dots;  calyx 
lobes  large,  erect,  falling  as  fruit  ripens,  nutlets  4  to  5,  faintly 
ridged,  in  thick,  mealy  yellow  flesh.  Preferred  habitat,  rich 
bottom  lands.  Distribution,  Ohio  to  Dakota,  Nebraska  and 
Kansas. 

This  red  haw  is  the  type  of  a  large  group  containing  a  dozen 
related  species.  Ample  in  size,  fine  in  form  and  colouring,  there 
is  but  one  fault  the  landscape  gardener  can  find.  The  red  fruits 
fall  early  in  the  autumn. 

Scarlet  Haw  (C.  Arnoldiana,  Sarg.) — A  broad,  open- 
headed  tree,  15  to  20  feet  high,  with  ascending  branches  and 
slender,  zigzag,  orange-brown  branchlets,  downy  at  first.  Thorns 
stout,  shining,  brown,  2  to  3  inches  long.  Bark  dark  grey,  with 
thick  scales  on  trunk;  branches  pale  grey,  smooth.  Leaves 
broadly  ovate,  with  shallow  lobes,  sharply  serrate  almost  to 
petiole;  covered  at  first  with  matted  white  hairs,  at  maturity 
lustrous,  dark  green  above,  paler  beneath  and  smooth  except  on 
slender  veins,  2  to  3  inches  long  and  the  same  broad;  petioles  \ 
to  i^  inches  long.  Flowers,  May,  in  broad,  compound  corymbs; 
stems  velvety;  corolla  f  inch  across;  stamens  10,  anthers  pale 
yellow,  large;  styles  3  to  4,  densely  tufted.  Fruit,  August, 
September,  soon  falling,  few  in  a  cluster,  erect,  nearly  globular, 

310 


If  he  Hawthorns 

bright  crimson,  J  inch  long,  velvety,  with  large,  pale  dots;  flesh 
thick,  juicy,  pleasantly  acid;  nutlets  3  to  4,  ridged.  Preferred 
habitat,  dry  banks.  Distribution,  Arnold  Arboretum  in  Boston, 
and  Medford,  Massachusetts. 

The  discovery  of  this  handsome  hawthorn,  not  long  ago, 
growing  wild  within  the  gates  of  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  was 
an  event  of  considerable  importance  to  horticulture;  for  this 
tree,  laden  with  its  large  crimson  fruit  in  August,  is  a  wondrous 
sight.  Added  to  their  beauty,  these  fruits  are  juicy,  and  have 
a  pleasant  piquant  flavour,  for  which  they  deserve  especial 
mention. 

In  winter,  the  tree  may  be  known  by  the  remarkable  zigzag 
of  its  ascending  branches.  In  habit  and  foliage  it  is  thrifty  and 
handsome.  The  fruit  ripens  and  begins  to  fall  in  August,  but  a 
goodly  quantity  remains  to  brighten  the  fading  leaves  well  on 
into  October. 

The  tree  has  been  found  growing  wild  near  Medford,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  is  now  often  seen  in  cultivation  about  Boston. 

Red  Haw  (C.  submollis,  Sarg.)— Tree  20  to  25  feet  high,  with 
round,  handsome  head,  branchlets  slender.  Thorns  slender, 
curved,  brown,  shining,  2  to  3  inches  long.  Bark  pale  greyish 
brown,  scaly;  twigs,  tomentose,  branches  orange  brown.  Leaves 
ovate,  acute,  with  doubly  serrate,  pointed  lobes  above  middle; 
base  cuneate,  serrate,  becoming  entire  near  slender,  downy 
petiole;  2^  to  3^  inches  long,  almost  as  wide,  pubescent  at  first, 
becoming  smooth,  except  on  veins  beneath,  and  rough  above. 
Flowers,  May,  in  compound,  pubescent  corymbs,  white,  i  inch 
across,  with  10  stamens,  anthers  pale  yellow,  styles  3  to  5,  tufted 
at  base.  Fruits  ripe  and  falling  in  early  September;  in  slender, 
copious  clusters,  lustrous  orange  red,  pear  shaped,  with  pale  dots, 
J  inch  long,  with  prominent,  erect  calyx  lobes;  pedicels  slender, 
velvety;  nutlets  5,  slightly  ridged,  in  thin,  mealy  flesh.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich  soil  of  woodland  borders.  Distribution,  Quebec  to 
Penobscot  Valley  in  Maine;  to  eastern  Massachusetts;  also  near 
Albany,  New  York. 

This  Eastern  species  was  long  considered  identical  with  the 
preceding  one.  It  is  now  distinguished  by  well-defmed  characters. 
It  is  not  so  densely  downy  as  C.  mollis.  The  leaves  are  smaller, 
more  deeply  lobed,  and  usually  wedge  shaped  at  base.  The 
fruits  are  smaller  and  pear  shaped.     The  branchlets  are  orange 

311 


The  Hawthorne 

brown.  The  flowers  have  ten  stamens;  C.  mollis  has  twenty. 
C  submollis  is  one  of  the  showiest  and  best  species  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

Scarlet  Haw  (C.  Ellwangeriana,  Sarg.) — A  handsome 
tree,  lo  to  20  feet  high,  with  ascending  branches,  forming  a  round 
head.  Thorns  ij  to  2  inches  long,  stout;  tree  often  unarmed. 
Bark  light  grey,  scaly;  twigs  green,  with  pale  hairs.  Leaves 
oval,  acute,  sharply  serrate  almost  to  base,  with  4  to  5  acute 
lobes,  rough  above,  paler  beneath,  light  green,  thin,  2^  to  3^ 
inches  long;  petioles  pubescent,  slender;  veins  strong.  Flowers, 
May,  in  velvety-stemmed  corymbs;  calyx,  hairy,  with  stalked 
glands;  corollas  i  inch  across,  white;  stamens  8  to  10;  anthers 
small,  rose  coloured.  Fruits  ripe  and  falling  in  September,  on 
smooth  stems,  oblong,  bright  crimson,  shining,  i  inch  long,  f 
inch  wide,  flesh  thin,  sour,  juicy;  nutlets  3  to  5,  ridged.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich  woodland  soil.  Distribution,  about  Rochester,  New 
York.     Uses:    A  handsome  ornamental  tree. 

The  preceding  species  is  worthily  named  in  honour  of  the 
founder  of  the  Arboretum.  Another  distinguished  patron  of 
horticulture  and  forestry,  George  Ellwanger,  is  remembered  in 
the  name  of  this  species.  A  single  tree  which  stands  in  the 
Mount  Hope  Nurseries  of  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  at  Rochester,  New 
York,  has  been  for  years  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  visitors 
and  the  pride  of  its  owners.  In  the  woods  about  Rochester  this 
species  is  quite  common.  It  is  counted  by  Professor  Sargent 
"one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  hawthorns  in  the  Northern 
States." 

VIII.  Flabellat^ 

Red  Haw  (C.  Holmesiana,  Ashe.) — Tall  tree,  20  to  30  feet 
high,  with  stout  ascending  branches;  head  irregular  and  open,  or 
compact.  Thorns  thick,  ij  to  2  inches  long,  scattered  far  apart. 
Bark  grey  or  nearly  white,  scaly.  Leaves  oval  or  ovate,  acute  or 
acuminate,  sharply  lobed  and  doubly  serrate;  thick  and  firm, 
nearly  smooth,  distinctly  yellow-green  at  maturity,  i^  to  2  inches 
long,  with  strong  midribs  and  long  petioles.  Flowers,  May, 
cup  shaped,  ^  to  f  inch  across,  in  loose  corymbs;  stamens  5  to  8, 
anthers  large,  deep  reddish  purple.  Fruits  September,  falling 
soon,  crimson,  oblong,  ^  to  §  inch  long,  with  reddish,  incurved 
calyx  lobes;  nutlets  3,  distinctly  ridged,  flesh  m.ealy,  acid,  dis- 

312 


THE    SCARLET   HAW    iCr^Uj!,us 
This  is  one  of  the  ol<i,  well-known,  ornnmrntal 
thorns   which  flowers  coriouslv  in    rarlv  Mav  and 
ripens  its  large  red    fruits  in  late   August.     Unfor- 
tunately, they  soon  fall 


THE    RED    HAW  (Crai<rgus  molln) 

'llii  hanlstme  thorn  tree  is  hoary  in  spring  with  white,  malted  hairs 
u(»)n  its  new  shoots.  One  flower  cluster  is  shown  below.  Each  flower 
has  20  pale  yellow  stamens 


■  2     «  2 
'p      ajc-o 


The  Hawthorns 

agreeable.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  hillsides.  Distribution, 
Montreal  to  southern  Ontario;  coast  of  Maine,  central  and  western 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  western  New  York,  eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania. Largest  in  Worcester  County,  Massachusetts.  Uses: 
Handsome  tree  for  ornamental  planting. 

This  is  the  largest  hawthorn  in  eastern  New  England.  Its 
scaly  bark  is  often  almost  white.  Its  leaves  are  more  distinctly 
yellow  than  green — greenish  yellow,  to  speak  accurately.  The 
lustrous  crimson  fruit  makes  a  gorgeous  autumn  contrast  with 
bark  and  foliage. 

Scattered  over  pasture  land,  these  lusty  young  trees  are 
cropped  by  cattle,  which  manage  to  avoid  the  infrequent  thorns. 
By  degrees,  the  girth  of  the  tree  widens,  in  spite  of  the  pruning 
thus  administered.  The  terminal  shoot  finally  rises  above  the 
reach  of  any  yearning  tongue.  It  branches,  and  lifts  above  the 
dome-like  basal  part  a  flourishing  top  that  grows  loose  and  free 
in  striking  contrast  to  the  compact  close-clipped  base.  Many  of 
these  pasture  trees  have  this  hour-glass  form. 

IX.    DlLATAT^ 

Red  Haw  (C.  coccinioides,  Ashe.) — A  tree  lo  to  25  feet 
high,  with  broad  dome  of  stout,  spreading  branches.  Thorns 
i^  to  2  inches  long,  straight,  stout,  purplish  red.  Bark  dark 
brown,  scaly;  branches  light  grey.  Leaves  broadly  ovate,  acute, 
sharply  serrate,  with  deep  pointed  lateral  lobes,  2  to  3  inches  long, 
lustrous  yellow-green,  at  first;  becoming  dull,  dark  green  later; 
thin,  turning  to  orange  and  bright  red  in  fall;  petioles  bright  red, 
\  to  I  inch  long.  Flowers,  May,  in  compact  corymbs,  with  prom- 
inent, serrate  bracts,  with  red  glands;  corolla  \\  inches  across; 
stamens  20,  anthers  large,  rose  colour;  styles  5.  Fruits,  October, 
falling  gradually;  clusters  erect;  haws  globose,  flattened  at  ends, 
lustrous,  dark  red,  with  pale  dots;  calyx  conspicuous,  red  at  base; 
flesh  thick,  reddish,  pleasantly  acid;  nutlets  5,  small,  slightly 
ridged  on  back.  Preferred  habitat,  dry  woods.  Distribution, 
St.  Louis,  Missouri,  to  eastern  Kansas.  Uses:  Desirable  orna- 
mental thorn  tree. 

The  very  large  leaves  of  this  tree  obscure  the  compact  fruit 
clusters,  and  its  ornamental  character  is  not  so  obvious  until  the 
leaves  turn.     I  recall  one  tree,  a  fme,  lusty  specimen,  loaded  with 

313 


The   Hawthorns 

fruit  in  late  September.  There  was  a  cockspur  on  one  side,  an 
Arnoldiana  on  the  other.  Both  were  bidding  high  for  attention, 
one  with  its  crimson  fruits,  the  other  with  its  splendid  fohage  and 
flashing  thorns.  A  flush  of  rose  pink  covered  the  middle  tree, 
the  fruits  turning  to  red.  There  was  more  delicacy  of  colouring 
and  m.oderation  here,  which  made  the  two  trees  alongside  seem 
rather  common  and  gaudy  by  contrast.  Sometimes  soft  colours 
appeal  strongly  as  a  relief  from  more  vivid  ones.  Out  of  this 
period  the  tree  passes  to  its  flaming  October  garb,  in  the  midst 
of  which  the  shining  fruits  are  a  dark  crimson,  and  even  the  twigs 
and  spines  burn  red  or  purple. 

X.  CocciNEi^ 

Scarlet  Haw  (C.  coccinea,  Linn.) — A  shrubby  round  tree, 
I o  to  20  feet  high,  with  short  trunk,  and  stout,  ascending  branches. 
Thorns  stout,  shining,  i  to  i^  inches  long,  brown.  Bark  dark 
red-brown,  scaly;  branches  grey.  Leaves  elliptical  or  obovate, 
acute  at  both  ends,  serrate  and  acutely  lobed  on  sides;  2\  to  3 
inches  long;  veins  prominent;  petioles  i  inch  long,  tinged  with  red. 
Flowers,  May  or  June,  in  broad  corymbs  with  downy  stems; 
corollas  ^  to  f  inch  across;  stamens  10,  anthers  small,  yellow. 
Fruit,  October,  falling  soon;  sub-globose  to  oblong,  h  inch  in 
diameter,  deep  crimson,  with  dark  dots;  calyx  red,  spreading; 
flesh  sweet,  dry,  thin;  nutlets  3  to  4,  distinctly  ridged  on  back. 
Preferred  Habitat,  well-drained  soil,  along  low  hills  and  banks  of 
salt  marshes.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Connecticut,  along 
the  shore,  and  along  St.  Lawrence  to  western  Quebec.  Var. 
roiundijolia,  a  shrub.  New  England  into  Pennsylvania. 

This  scarlet  thorn,  the  one  that  Linnaeus  named,  has  very 
uncertain  botanical  and  geographical  limits.  Those  forms  found 
west  of  Quebec  are  now  excluded,  and  many  that  were  counted 
mere  varietal  forms  are  now  promoted  to  specific  rank.  These 
changes  in  classification  are  the  result  of  recent  studies  of  the 
genus  in  various  regions.  The  true  coccinea  is  one  of  the  old 
well-known  ornamental  thorns,  a  favourite  in  the  Northeastern 
States. 

XL    iNTRICAT/t 

Haw  (C.  Boyntoni,  Beadl.) — Narrow  or  round-headed  tree, 
15  to  20  feet  high,  with  tall,  straight  trunk,  often  a  many-stemmed 

3'4 


The  Hawthorns 

shrub.  Thorns  numerous,  slender,  straight,  i^  to  2  inches  long, 
sometimes  branched  when  old.  Bark  grey,  often  brownish, 
scaly.  Leaves  broadly  ovate,  acute,  irregularly  lobed,  finely 
serrate,  thin,  firm,  yellow-green  at  maturity;  smooth,  i  to  2^ 
inches  long;  petioles  stout,  short,  with  red  glands.  Flowers,  May, 
in  4  to  lo-flowered  corymbs,  smooth,  corrollas  f  inch  across, 
stamens  10,  anthers  pale  yellow;  styles  3  to  5,  tufted.  Fruit 
ripe  and  falling  in  October,  in  erect  clusters  of  2  to  4;  each  a 
flattened  globe,  rusty  reddish  green,  with  dark  dots,  ^  inch  in 
diameter;  calyx  spreading,  falling  off  before  fruit  ripens;  flesh 
thin;  nutlets  3  to  5,  distinctly  ridged.  Preferred  habitat,  stream 
borders  and  uplands.  Distribution,  Appalachian  foothills,  to 
3,000  feet  elevation;  southern  Virginia  and  southeastern  Kentucky 
to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

XII.    PULCHERRIM/t 

Haw  (C.  opima,  Beadl.) — Small  tree  20  to  25  feet  high,  with 
open,  oval  head,  above  a  slender,  spiny  trunk.  Thorns  slender, 
straight,  shining,  i  to  i^  inches  long.  Bark  nearly  black  at  base; 
ashy  grey  on  limbs.  Leaves  ovate,  acute,  sharply  saw-toothed, 
lobed  above  middle,  thin,  firm,  pale  beneath.  Flowers,  few  in 
clusters  §  inch  across,  stamens  20,  anthers  purple.  Fruit  in 
October,  persistent,  small,  few,  bright  red,  mealy.  Preferred 
habitat,  clay  soil  in  woods.  Distribution,  about  Greenville, 
Alabama. 

XIII.  BracteaT/^ 

Haw  (C  Ashei,  Beadl.) — Tree  1 5  to  20  feet  high,  with  pyra- 
midal head.  Thorns  slender,  i  to  i^  inches  long.  Bark  scaly, 
grey  or  brown.  Leaves  broadly  ovate  to  obovate,  about  2  inches 
long,  finely  serrate,  blunt  at  apex,  tapering  to  base.  Flowers  in 
May,  3  to  10  in  cluster  on  hairy  stems,  f  inch  across,  stamens  20, 
anthers  yellow.  Fruit,  October,  bright  red,  i  inch  long,  dotted, 
thick  fleshed.  Preferred  habitat,  clay  soil  of  fallow  land.  Distribu- 
tion, near  Montgomery,  Alabama. 

XIV.  Flavm 

Haw  (C  aprica,  Beadl.) — ^Tree  15  to  20  feet  high,  or  many- 
stemmed    shrub.     Thorns    straight,    slender,    chestnut    brown, 

3»5 


The  Hawthorns 

I  to  i^  inches  long.  Bark  dark  grey,  deeply  furrowed,  with 
plate-like  scales;  branchlets  brown  to  ashy  grey.  Leaves  obovate 
or  rhomboidal,  acute  or  rounded,  serrate,  often  faintly  lobed  at 
apex,  entire  at  tapering  base;  thick,  shiny,  dark  yellow-green  at 
maturity,  paler  beneath,  i^  to  2  inches  long  and  wide;  petioles 
short,  winged.  Flowers,  May,  3  to  6  in  corymbs,  velvety  stems, 
corollas  J  inch  across,  stamens  10,  anthers  yellow.  Fruit  late  to 
ripen,  2  to  3  in  cluster,  ^  inch  in  diameter,  slightly  flattened,  dull 
orange  red;  calyx  spreading,  red  tinged  at  base;  flesh  juicy, 
yellow,  sweet;  nutlets  3  to  5,  ridged.  Preferred  habitat,  dry 
woods  of  foothills.  Distribution,  southwestern  Virginia,  through 
western  North  Carolina,  eastern  Tennessee,  northern  Georgia  and 
Alabama.     Common  at  1,500  to  3,000  feet  above  sea  level. 

Its  contorted  branches  and  dark,  furrowed  bark  give  this 
tree  a  picturesque  appearance  that  matches  well  the  wild,  broken 
foothills  it  covers  in  thickets  of  considerable  extent.  Inured  to 
high  altitudes  and  exposed  situations,  yet  it  grows  thriftily  in  the 
Arboretum  at  Boston.  It  is  a  striking  tree  in  late  autumn,  when 
its  leaves  turn  to  purple,  and  the  twigs  are  illuminated  by  the 
thickly  clustered,  orange-red  fruit. 

,      XV.    MlCROCARPy€ 

Parsley  Haw  (C.  apiifolia,  Michx.) — ^Tree  15  to  20  feet, 
with  horizontal,  zigzag,  twisted  branches,  forming  irregular,  wide, 
open  head.  Thorns  stout,  straight,  brown,  i  to  i^  inches  long. 
IVood  hard,  heavy,  reddish  brown,  with  satiny  lustre.  Leaves 
broadly  ovate  to  round,  with  5  to  7  lobes,  separated  by  deep 
sinuses,  and  sharply  toothed  margins  to  the  broad,  entire  base; 
bright  green,  smooth  above,  i^  to  2  inches  long;  petioles  slender, 
long.  Flowers,  March  to  April,  ^  inch  long,  in  hairy,  dense 
corymbs;  stamens  20,  anthers  bright  rose  colour,  styles  i  to  3. 
Fruits,  October,  persistent  for  several  weeks,  oblong,  i  to  J  inch 
long,  scarlet;  nutlets  i  to  3,  grooved.  Preferred  habitat,  stream 
borders,  hummocks  in  pine  barrens  and  swamp  margins.  Dis- 
tribution, coast  region  from  Virginia  to  Florida;  westward  to 
Arkansas  and  Texas.  Uses:  One  of  the  finest  and  most  abundant 
hawthorns  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  Its  graceful,  parsley- 
like leaves  at  once  distinguish  it  from  other  species.  The  flowers 
and  fruit  are  small,  but  abundant  and  very  handsome. 

3.6 


The  Hawthorns 

Washington  Thorn  (C.  cordata,  Ait.) — Vigorous  tree, 
compact,  25  to  40  feet  high.  Thorns  numerous,  slender,  i  to  2 
inches  long.  Leaves  triangular,  i  to  3  inches  long,  with  3  to  7 
acute  lobes,  serrate,  cordate  at  base,  thin,  shining,  vivid  red  in 
autumn;  petioles  slender,  long.  Flowers,  May,  many  in  corymb, 
\  inch  across,  styles  5,  stamens  20,  anthers.  Fruits,  September, 
small,  flat,  scarlet,  shining,  hanging  late  into  winter.  Preferred 
habitat,  moist  woods.  Distribution,  Virginia  to  Alabama,  to 
Illinois.     Uses:    A  desirable  ornamental  and  hedge  thorn. 

This  species  comes  nearer  than  any  of  its  relatives  to  the 
typical  heart-shaped  leaf,  hence  its  Latin  name.  As  the  upper 
course  of  the  Potomac  River  is  the  northernmost  limit  of  its 
natural  range,  we  may  guess  that  it  takes  its  common  name 
from  the  capital  city. 

Very  early,  the  Virginians  sent  the  seed  of  this  thorn  to 
friends  at  home,  so  that  it  has  long  adorned  European  gardens. 
In  the  colonies,  it  was  extensively  planted  for  hedges.  It  proved 
hardy  in  all  the  Middle  States,  and  is  now  naturalised  by  escape 
from  old  hedges  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 
The  compact  habit  of  the  tree,  and  the  great  multitude  of  its 
slender  spines  make  it  useful  as  a  hedge  plant.  Besides,  it  is 
thrifty  and  grows  rapidly.  The  flowers  and  berries  make  up  in 
numbers  for  their  small  size.  When  the  bright  green  foliage 
turns  to  vivid  reds  in  the  fall,  the  tree  has  already  been  conspicuous 
for  some  weeks  by  its  coral  red  berries,  which  persist  often  till 
spring. 

XVI.    BrACHY ACANTHI 

Hog's  Haw,  Pomette  Bleue  (C.  hrachyacantha,  Sarg.  & 
Engelm.) — Tree  40  to  50  feet  high,  trunk  18  to  20  inches  in 
diameter,  with  handsome,  compact  head,  of  stout  grey  branches. 
Thorns  numerous,  short,  stout,  curved,  J  to  §  inch  long.  Dark 
dark  brown,  deeply  furrowed,  scaly.  Leaves  lanceolate  to  rhom- 
boidal,  acute,  serrate,  sometimes  distinctly  lobed  above  middle, 
dark  green,  lustrous,  firm,  i  to  2  inches  long,  on  short  petioles; 
stipules  triangular,  often  i  inch  long.  Flowers,  May,  \  inch  across, 
in  compound  corymbs;  petals  orange  colour  as  they  fade;  stamens 
15  to  20,  Fruits,  August,  falling  soon,  flattened  globes,  J  to  ^ 
inch  in  diameter,  bright  blue,  with  pale  bloom;  flesh  thin;  nutlets 
3  to  5,  faintly  grooved  on  back.     Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist 

317 


the  Hawthorns 

soil  of  stream  borders.  Distribution,  southern  Arkansas  to 
western  Louisiana,  and  to  the  Sabine  River  valley  in  Texas. 
Uses:  Handsome  ornamental  in  south  temperate  regions;  not 
hardy  in  Massachusetts. 

This  is  the  only  blue-fruited  haw  in  the  world.  This  unique 
character  alone  must  commend  it  to  planters.  The  stout,  curving 
thorns,  the  lustrous  foliage,  the  abundant  flowers,  and  the  large 
blue  fruit — all  make  this  one  of  the  best  ornamental  species.  On 
the  wet  prairies  of  western  Louisiana,  this  tree  forms  dense 
thickets  which  are  quite  the  dominating  feature  of  the  woods. 

XVI  L   ToMENTOS/t 

Pear  Haw  (C.  iomentosa,  Linn.) — A  tree  15  to  20 
feet  high,  forming  a  flat,  wide  head.  Thorns  scattered,  slim, 
straight,  i  to  i^  inches  long;  or  wanting.  Bark  dark  brown, 
furrowed;  branches  grey,  twigs  hoary  tomentose,  becoming  dark 
orange  colour.  Leaves  ovate,  acute  at  apex  and  base,  2  to  5 
inches  long,  shallowly  lobed  and  coarsely  serrate,  thin,  firm, 
grey-green,  persistently  tomentose  below;  petioles  stout,  winged; 
veins  prominent;  autumn  colour  orange  and  scarlet.  Flowers, 
March  to  June,  ^  inch  across,  in  broad,  downy  corymbs,  ill-scented; 
stamens  20,  anthers  rose  or  yellow.  Fruits,  October,  in  erect, 
many-fruited  clusters,  persisting  all  winter,  dull  orange  red, 
translucent,  pear  shaped,  ^  inch  in  diameter;  flesh  thick,  sweet, 
juicy;  nutlets  2  to  3,  ridged  on  back;  grooved  on  ventral  face. 
Pre] erred  habitat,  low,  rich  soil.  Distribution,  Troy,  New  York, 
to  eastern  Pennsylvania,  central  Tennessee  and  northern  Georgia; 
west  to  southern  Minnesota  and  south  to  southeastern  Kansas. 
Uses:  Valuable  ornamental  for  its  brilliant  autumnal  colours 
and  persistent  fruits. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of  our  native 
haws.  It  is  cultivated  to  some  extent,  but  not  as  it  deserves. 
With  the  development  of  horticulture,  it  will  get  recognition 
from  nurserymen  and  from  the  tree-planting  fraternity  in  general. 

Long-spine  Haw  (C  macracantha,  Koehne.) — Tree  10  to  15 
feet  high,  or  spreading  shrub.  Thorns  numerous,  curved,  slender, 
2^  to  4  inches  long,  shining.  Dark  pale,  close  textured;  branchlets 
reddish,  lustrous.  Leaves  oval  or  obovate,  2  to  3  inches  long, 
I   to  2  inches  wide,  acute  at  both  ends,  shallowly  lobed,  and 

318 


f  .E 

-^  E 


^  a.  a 


The  Hawthorns 

sharply  serrate;  dark  green,  often  red  when  opening,  leathery, 
lustrous  in  late  summer;  petioles  short,  red,  stout.  Flowers, 
May,  J  inch  across,  in  compound,  velvety  corymbs;  stamens  lo, 
anthers  yellow.  Fruiis,  September,  falling  before  winter,  in  erect 
clusters,  globular,  pea  size,  hairy  at  tips,  till  ripe,  then  lustrous, 
crimson;  flesh  dry;  nutlets  2  to  3,  ridged  on  back,  with  irregular 
depressions  on  face.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  uplands;  limestone 
soil.  Distribution,  from  Montreal  region  through  New  England 
south  to  eastern  Pennsylvania;  westward  to  northern  Illinois 
and  southern  Wisconsin.     Uses:     For  ornamental  planting. 

Its  many  very  long  thorns  make  this  a  strikingly  ornamental 
tree.  The  leaves  are  handsome,  and  the  fruits  though  small  are 
blood  red  and  conspicuous. 

XVIII.    DOUGLASIAN/E 

Black  Haw  (C.  Douglasii,  Lindl.)— Round-headed  tree, 
30  to  40  feet  high,  or  many-stemmed  shrub,  with  slender,  stiff 
twigs.  Thorns  stout,  acute,  f  to  i  inch  long,  red,  becoming 
grey.  Barh  red-brown  in  oblong,  scaly  plates.  IVood  hard,  tough, 
heavy,  rose  coloured,  with  satiny  grain.  Duds  blunt,  \  inch  long, 
scaly,  shining,  brown.  Leaves  obovate  to  oblong-ovate,  acute, 
finely  serrate,  on  irregular  incised  lobes;  occasionally  with  two 
deep  sinuses  nearly  cutting  the  blade  in  two;  base  tapering  to 
short,  stout  petiole;  smooth,  dark  green,  leathery,  paler  beneath; 
I  to  4  inches  long.  Flowers,  May,  ^  to  ^  inch  across,  in  leafy 
cymes;  stamens  20,  anthers  pale,  small;  styles  2  to  5,  short. 
Fruits  black,  ripe  in  August  to  September,  soon  falling,  globose 
or  oblong,  in  many-fruited  clusters,  lustrous,  \  inch  long;  flesh 
thin,  sweet;  nutlets  slightly  grooved  on  back  and  front.  Pre- 
ferred habitat,  moist  soil  of  coast  and  stream  borders.  Distribution, 
coast  of  Puget  Sound,  Oregon,  and  California;  east  on  mountains 
to  Montana  and  Idaho,  and  south  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 
Occurs  also  in  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan. 

This  black-fruited  thorn  tree  of  the  West  has  been  successfully 
introduced  into  cultivation  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  proves 
hardy  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  well 
worth  cultivating  wherever  it  will  grow. 

The  English  Hawthorn  (C.  Oxyacantha,  Linn.)  is  the  best 
known  Crataegus  in  the  world.     \.  grows  wild  in  Asia  and  Europe, 

31Q 


The  Hawthorns 

and  when  it  first  came  into  cultivation  no  man  knows.  English- 
men will  tell  you  it  has  always  formed  the  hedgerows  of  their 
snug  little  island,  and  the  sweetness  of  the  blossoms  will  be  one  of 
the  last  things  to  fade  from  the  exile's  memory.  Snowy  white, 
and  pink  and  rose  coloured,  the  "blossoming  May"  turns  the 
whole  countryside  into  a  garden,  with  linnets  and  skylarks  filling 
the  fields  and  lanes  with  music.  "Oh!  to  be  in  England,  now 
that  April's  there!"  Browning's  poetry  is  sometimes  obscure, 
but  here  is  a  line  that  needs  no  explanatory  note  for  any  of  his 
countrymen. 

The  leaf  of  the  English  hawthorn  is  deeply  cut,  like  our 
parsley  haw,  in  the  type  species.  But  this  species  we  shall 
rarely  see.  It  has  been  so  long  in  cultivation  that  the  improved 
horticultural  varieties  are  legion.  These  are  much  in  evidence 
in  American  gardens,  where  they  are  usually  grown  as  single 
specimens,  for  their  showy  flowers  and  coral-red  fruits. 


320 


CHAPTER   XXXIX:     THE   PLUMS   AND   THE 
CHERRIES 

Family  Rosace.^ 

Genus  PRUNUS,  B.  &  H. 

Trees  with  bitter,  astringent  sap,  containing  hydrocyanic 
acid.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  generally  serrate.  Flowers  in 
clusters,  perfect,  white,  with  parts  distinct.  Fruit  a  fleshy, 
I -seeded  drupe,  with  smooth  skin  and  stone. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Flowers   axillary,  in  sessile  umbels;  fruit  with  oval, 
flattened  stone.  Plums 

B.  Fruit  red  or  yellow,  without  bloom. 

C.  Leaves   broadly   elliptical,    taper   pointed,   dull 
green,  thick;  twigs  thorny. 
D.  Petioles  bearing  2  glands  near  base  of  leaf; 
pit  much  compressed.  {P.  nigra)  Canada  plum 
DD.  Petioles  without  glands,  pit  thick. 

{P.  Americana)  wild  red  plum 
CC.  Leaves   broadly   oval,   finely   serrate,   leathery; 

pit  grooved  at  back.  (P.  subcordata)  pacific  plum 
CCC.  Leaves  lanceolate,  thin,  shining;  petioles  glandu- 
lar; pit  thick. 
D.  Twigs  stout,  stiff,  usually  thornless;  leaves 
broad;  fruit  thick  skinned. 

(P.  horiulana)  wild-goose  plum 
DD.  Twigs  slender,  supple,  thorny;  leaves  narrow; 
fruit  thin  skinned. 

(P.  angustijolia)  chickasaw  plum 
BB.  Fruit  blue  or  black,  with  pale  bloom,  small. 
C.  Petioles  not  glandular  at  apex. 

D.  Leaves  lanceolate  to  ovate,  long  pointed. 

(P.  Alleghaniensis)  alleghany  sloe 
DD.  Leaves  oblong  or  obovate,  blunt  pointed. 

(P.  umhellata)  black  sloe 
AA.  Flowers  axillary,  in  umbels;  fruit  small,  red,  shining, 
globular.  Bird   Cherries 

321 


The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

B.  Leaves  lanceolate,  taper  pointed;  fruit  sour. 

{P.  P ennsylvanica)  wild  red  cherry 
BB.  Leaves  obovate,  blunt  pointed;  fruit  bitter. 

{P.  emarginata)  bitter  cherry 
AAA.  Flowers  in  terminal  racemes;  fruit  globose. 

W^ild   Cherries 
B.  Trees  small,  blooming  early;  leaves  broad,  abruptly 
pointed. 
C.  Fruit  red,  puckery;  sap  rank  smelling. 

{P.  Virginiana)  choke  cherry 
CC.  Fruit  purple,  mild,  edible. 

(P.  demissa)  western  choke  cherry 
BB.  Trees  large,  blooming  late,  leaves  oval  to  lanceolate, 
taper  pointed;  fruit  black,  sweetish. 

{P.  seroiina)  wild  black  cherry 
AAAA.  Flowers   in   lateral   racemes;   leaves   persistent;  fruit 

globular.  Cherry   Laurels 

B.  Fruit  thin  fleshed,  dry. 

C.  Flowers  in  autumn;  fruit  brown. 

{P.  sphcerocarpa)  west-indian  cherry 
CC.  Flowers  in  spring;  fruit  black;  leaves  with  entire 

margins.  {P.  Caroliniana)  cherry  laurel 

BB.  Fruit  thick  fleshed,  juicy;  leaves  ovate,  entire,  or 
obscurely  spiny  serrate. 

(P.  integrijolia)  entire-leaf  cherry 

The  genus  Prunus  includes  trees  with  stone  fruits,  and  has 
its  representatives  well  distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
In  its  wild  forms  it  is  not  as  well  known,  perhaps,  as  in  those 
varieties  that  horticulture  has  brought  to  high  perfection  and 
importance  as  fruit  trees.  There  are  over  one  hundred  species, 
including  many  shrubby  ones.  Of  this  number  about  thirty 
occur  in  North  America,  only  half  of  which  assume  tree  form. 
All  of  these  but  the  wild  black  cherry  are  small  trees.  Neverthe- 
less the  wood  of  most  of  them  is  valuable,  being  close  grained  and 
durable.  Their  fruits  furnish  food  and  medicinal  substances. 
Beside  the  cherries  and  plums  of  others  countries,  the  peach, 
apricot  and  almond  belong  to  this  genus.  Important  flowering 
varieties  of  each  are  to  be  added  to  this  list  of  valuable  introduced 
stone  fruits. 

THE    PLUMS 

"Wild  Red,  or  Yellow  Plum  {Prunus  Americana,  Marsh.) — 
A  graceful  little  tree,  1 5  to  20  feet  high,  with  thorny  limbs.     Bark 

322 


THE   CANADA   PLUM  {I'ru„u>  uig^r,,) 

The  white,  fragraiu  flowers  open  in  early  spring  and  turn   pink  in  faJinj;.     The  stiff  zigzag  branches  beset    with    spiny  stub' 
interlace,  forming  ininenetraMe  thickets 


THE    CANADA  PLUM  {Prunu!  n,^r^) 

Note  the  spurs  and  the  broad,  abruptly  pointed  leaves.     The  sour,  hard-fleshed  orange  fruits  have  flattened  pits.     They  ar; 

ripe  in  August 


The   Plums  and  the   Chtrricu . 

thick,  grey.  Leaves  oval,  taper  pointed,  sharply  toothed.  Flowers 
in  April,  before  the  leaves,  in  lateral  umbels.  Fruit  globose,  red 
or  yellow,  with  pleasant  taste,  but  covered  with  leathery,  acid 
and  puckery  skin.  Pit,  with  two  sharp  edges.  Preferred  hahiiat, 
moist  woods  and  river  banks.  Distribution,  New  York  to  Texas 
and  Colorado.  Uses:  Good  stocks  on  which  to  graft  less  hardy 
varieties.  Deserves  planting  as  an  ornamental,  and  cultivation 
to  improve  its  fruit. 

In  the  woods  that  bordered  the  prairie  watercourses  were 
occasional  open  spaces,  often  swampy  in  times  of  high  water. 
Here  the  wild  plum  took  possession  and  spread  into  dense  thickets. 
The  timber  land  about  was  owned  by  farmers  who  lived  on  the 
prairies,  but  the  plums  belonged  by  common  consent  to  the  com- 
munity at  large,  just  as  did  the  nut  trees  and  the  wild  grapes. 

In  April  these  plum  thickets  were  white  with  bloom.  Bees 
hung  over  the  nectar-laden  blossoms,  as  if  intoxicated.  Indeed, 
the  fragrance  was  so  sweet  it  was  overpowering;  and  in  hot 
weather  the  nectar  often  fermented  and  turned  sour  before 
the  petals  fell.  It  was  good  luck  if  a  brisk  wind  were  blowing 
when  plum  blossoms  opened,  for  experience  had  taught  that 

"  You  need  a  breeze 
To  help  the  bees 
To  set  a  crop  of  plums." 

After  the  bloom,  thoughts  of  plums  were  banished  until  the  days 
grew  shorter  and  the  autumn  haze  settled  on  the  woods.  Then 
came  a  sharp  frost  one  night,  and  everybody  knew  what  the 
signal  meant. 

"  Do  you  calculate  to  go  a-plummin'  this  fall?"  The  question 
was  quietly  put  in  father's  judicial  tones,  but  it  sent  an  electric 
thrill  from  head  to  toes  of  every  youngster.  Mother's  reply 
sent  an  answering  current,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment 
burst  all  bounds.  "Well,  you'd  better  go  this  afternoon.  I  can 
spare  the  team  and  wagon,  and  I  guess  John  is  big  enough  to 
drive.     There's  no  use  in  goin'  at  all  if  you  can't  go  right  off." 

So  mother  and  the  children  rode  out  of  the  yard,  she  sitting 
with  her  young  driver  on  the  spring  seat,  the  rest  on  boards  laid 
across  the  wagon  box  behind.  What  a  jouncing  they  got  when 
the  wheels  struck  a  stone  in  a  rut!  But  who  cared  for  a  trifle 
like  that?  John's  reckless  driving  but  brought  nearer  the  goal 
of  their  heart's  desire. 

323 


,  The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

A  lurid  colour  lightened  the  plum  thicket  as  it  came  in  sight. 
The  yellow  leaves  were  falling  and  the  fruit  glowed  on  the  bending 
twigs.  Close  up  the  wagon  is  drawn;  then  all  hands  pile  out, 
and  the  fun  really  begins.  "How  large  and  sweet  they  are  this 
year!"  Mother  knows  how  to  avoid  the  puckery  thick  skin  in 
eating  plums.  The  youngsters  try  to  chew  two  or  three  at  once 
and  their  faces  are  drawn  into  knots.  But  they  soon  get  used 
to  that. 

Now  the  small  folk  with  pails  are  sent  to  pick  up  ripe  plums 
under  the  trees,  and  warned  against  eating  too  many.  "  Remem- 
ber last  year,"  says  mother — and  they  remember.  The  larger 
boys  spread  strips  of  burlap  and  rag  carpet  under  the  fullest 
trees,  in  turn,  and  give  their  branches  a  good  beating  that  showers 
the  plums  down.  With  difficulty  the  boys  and  girls  make  their 
way  into  the  thicket;  but  torn  jackets  and  aprons  and  scratched 
knuckles  can  be  mended — such  accidents  are  overlooked  in  the 
excitement  of  filling  the  grain  sacks  with  the  ripe  fruit.  How 
fine  "plum  butter"  will  taste  on  the  bread  and  butter  of  the 
noon  lunch  when  winter  comes  and  school  begins!  (The  Pennsyl- 
vanian's  love  for  "spreads"  on  his  bread  leavened  the  West 
completely.) 

Other  neighbours  have  come,  and  started  in  with  a  vim. 
It  seems  unreasonable  to  take  any  more.  The  bags  are  full, 
and  there  are  some  poured  loose  into  the  wagon  box.  Besides, 
everybody  is  tired,  and  John  shouts  that  the  hazel  nuts  are  ripe 
on  the  other  side  of  the  log  road. 

A  great  grapevine,  loaded  with  purple  clusters,  claims  mother's 
attention.  There  will  probably  be  no  better  chance  for  grapes 
this  fall,  and  the  sun  is  still  an  hour  high.  John  chops  down  the 
little  tree  that  supports  it,  and  the  girls  eagerly  help  to  fill  the 
pails  with  the  fruit  of  the  prostrate  vine,  while  John  goes  back  to 
command  the  hazel-nut  brigade  and  see  that  no  eager  youngster 
strays  too  far. 

Mother's  voice  gives  the  final  summons,  and  the  children 
gather  at  the  wagon,  tired  but  regretful  for  the  filled  husks  that 
they  must  leave  behind  on  the  hazel  bushes.  A  loaded  branch 
of  the  grapevine  is  cut  off  bodily,  and  lifted  into  the  wagon.  The 
team  is  hitched  on,  and  the  happy  passengers  in  the  wagon  turn 
their  faces  homeward. 

Such  was  the  poetry  of  pioneer  life.  Pleasures  were  simple, 
324 


The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

primitive,  hearty — like  the  work — closely  interlinked  with  the 
fight  against  starvation.  There  was  nothing  dull  or  uninteresting 
about  either.  The  plums  and  grapes  were  sweetened  with  molasses 
made  from  sorghum  cane.  Each  farmer  grew  a  little  strip,  and 
one  of  them  had  a  mill  to  which  everyone  hauled  his  cane  to 
be  ground  "on  the  shares." 

Who  will  say  that  this  "long  sweet'nin'"  was  poor  stuff,  that 
the  quality  of  the  spiced  grapes  suffered  for  lack  of  sugar,  or 
that  any  modern  preserves  have  a  more  excellent  flavour  than 
those  of  the  old  days  made  out  of  the  wild  plums  gathered  in  the 
woods?  And  this  is  also  true:  There  is  no  more  exhilarating 
holiday  conceivable  than  those  half  days  when  mother  took  the 
children  and  "went  a-plummin'." 

The  Canada  Plum  (Prunus  nigra,  Ait.),  which  grows  from 
Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  and  extends  its  range  into  the  northern 
tier  of  states,  is  called  by  Professor  Waugh  a  variety,  nigra,  of 
our  common  wild  plum,  instead  of  a  separate  species,  as  the 
earlier  authorities  have  set  it  down.  The  tree  has  a  narrow  head, 
formed  of  stiff,  angular  branches.  The  leaves  are  broad  and 
large,  with  abruptly  sharpened  points.  Flowers  and  fruit  are 
larger  than  in  the  common  plum;  the  petals  turn  pink  before 
they  fall.  It  is  valuable  to  the  North,  furnishing  the  settler 
a  relish  for  his  hard  fare  until  his  orchard  comes  into  bearing. 
It  forms  an  excellent  stock  on  which  to  graft  cions  of  species 
which  are  not  hardy  on  their  own  roots  through  long  Northern 
winters.  It  is  a  tree  well  worth  planting  about  one's  premises, 
as  in  some  bare  fence  corner  that  needs  brightening  in  early 
summer,  and  in  August  and  September  when  the  bright  orange- 
coloured  fruit  shows  its  colour  against  the  leafy  background. 
In  winter  the  framework  of  the  tree  is  picturesque  by  the  angu- 
larity of  its  thorny  twigs. 

The  Chickasaw  Plum  (Prunus  angustijolia,  Marsh.)  is  the 
wild  plum  of  the  South.  Its  narrow  leaves  are  shiny  and  strangely 
trough-like,  instead  of  flat.  The  small,  round  fruit  is  soft  and 
sweet,  more  like  a  cherry  than  a  plum.  One  often  sees  it  planted 
near  houses,  and  the  crop  in  the  woods  is  marketed  by  the  Negroes. 
It  is  unexcelled  for  jellies  and  preserves. 

The  ^A(^ild-goose  Plum  {Prunus  hortulana,  Bailey)  is  a 
natural  hybrid  between  the  species,  Americana  and  angustijolia. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Kentucky.  It  grows  wild 
325 


The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

from  Maryland  to  Texas — a  tall,  straight-limbed,  thornless  tree, 
with  thin,  oblong,  flat  leaves,  and  thick-skinned,  juicy  fruit. 
It  is  a  better  fruit  tree  than  either  of  its  parents,  and  has  given 
rise  to  several  varieties  of  garden  plums  of  which  the  Miner  and 
the  Wayland  are  familiar  types.  The  Miner  group  are  commonly 
seen  in  Northern  orchards;  the  Waylands  in  the  South. 

The  little  beach  plum  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  sloes  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  the  South,  the  leathery-leaved  Pacific  plum,  and 
the  sand  plum  of  the  semi-arid  plains  are  all  distinct  species. 
There  is  scarcely  a  region  of  the  country  that  has  not  its  own 
wild  plum;  and  each  species  shows  a  tendency  to  improve  under 
cultivation. 

The  Alleghany  Sloe  (Prunus  Alleghaniensis,  Port.)  is  a 
black-fruited  little  wild  plum  found  growing  on  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  of  this  name  wherever  the  soil  is  wet  enough.  The 
abundant  fruit  is  gathered  in  fall  to  make  preserves  and  jellies, 
and  is  often  seen  in  local  markets. 

The  Black  Sloe  (P.  umhellata,  Ell.)  is  highly  esteemed  for 
the  same  purposes  farther  south.  It  follows  the  coast  from 
South  Carolina  to  Mosquito  Inlet,  Florida,  and  from  Tampa  Bay 
into  Louisiana,  thence  north  into  Arkansas. 

Exotic  Plums 

The  old-fashioned  New  England  garden  with  its  fine  plums — 
damsons,  green  gages,  and  the  like — points  us  back  to  the  time 
when  the  colonists  came  to  the  New  World  and  brought  the  fruit 
trees  they  had  known  in  the  Old.  These  common  plums  are 
varieties  of  the  woolly-twigged,  thick-leaved  European  Prunus 
domestica,  and  they  still  do  well  in  the  Northeastern  States  and  on 
the  Pacific  slope. 

The  native  plums,  improved  greatly  in  the  past  half  century 
have  proved  the  best  for  the  prairie  states  and  for  the  South. 

Now  a  fine  Japanese  plum,  Prunus  iriflora,  hardy,  prolific 
and  generally  immune  from  the  black  knot,  a  fungous  disease 
of  native  plums,  gives  promise  of  thriving  in  the  South  and  in  the 
Middle  West.  Its  fruit  is  large  and  handsome  and  keeps  well, 
though  in  quality  it  is  not  considered  equal  to  the  European 
varieties.  Crosses  between  the  Japanese  and  the  native  American 
plums  promise  well.     Prune  raising  as  an  industry  was  old  in 

326 


THE    BEACH    PLUM  {Prunus   maritttna) 

The    white  flowers    are    succeeded  by  Httle   globular,  sweet   fruits,  coated  with  a  pale  bloom.     This  scragglj  seaside  plum  it 

always  shrubby 


THE    WILD-GOOSE    PLUM  {Prunus  hortulana) 


This  is  a  natural  hybrid  between  the  wild  red  plum  and  the  Chickasaw  plum.  The 
leaves  are  large,  thin  and  flat,  and  the  fruit  is  thick-skinned,  sour  and  juicy.  It  is  the  parent 
of  the  Miner  and  Wayland  groups  of  garden  plums 


{Prunus  Alleghaniensis) 

The   winter   buds   of  this  little 

black-fruited  plum 


The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

Europe  before  it  came  to  us.  Now  France  ranks  second  to 
California.  Prunes  are  dried  plums.  Only  certain  sweet  and 
fleshy  species  can  be  profitably  dried. 

Peaches,  almonds,  nectarines  and  apricots,  all  stone  fruits, 
and  Old  World  relatives  of  plums,  have  been  introduced  into 
cultivation  here.  The  almond,  with  its  dry,  woody  flesh,  is 
commercially  the  most  valuable  species  in  the  genus.  Bitter 
almonds  yield  almond  oil  and  hydrocyanic  acid.  The  pit  of  the 
sweet  almond  is  one  of  the  most  important  nuts. 

THE    CHERRIES 

The  Wild  Red  Cherry,  Bird,  or  Pin  Cherry  (Prunus  Penn- 
sylvanica,  Linn.) — A  slender,  narrow  or  round-headed  tree,  20  to 
40  feet  high,  with  regular,  horizontal  branches.  Bark  smooth, 
shining,  reddish  brown,  with  conspicuous  rusty  lenticels  on 
branches;  on  trunk  broken  into  thin,  curling,  horizontal  plates. 
Twigs  red.  Wood  pale,  close  grained,  soft.  Buds  small,  brown, 
sharp,  often  clustered.  Leaves  slender,  pointed,  finely  saw- 
toothed,  with  wavy  edges  and  shining,  smooth  surfaces.  Flowers 
white,  few  in  lateral  clusters  on  long  stems.  Fruit  globular, 
clear  red,  size  of  a  pea,  sour.  Preferred  habitat,  rocky  woods. 
Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Georgia;  west  to  Rocky  Mountains. 
Uses:  Valuable  nurse  trees  to  hardwoods  in  the  natural  reforest- 
ing of  burned  areas.     Fruit  made  into  cough  medicine. 

It  is  hard  to  find  what  a  hard-headed,  practical  person  would 
call  a  sufficient  excuse  for  this  tree's  existence.  It  has  no  timber 
value,  and  the  horticulturist  has  little  interest  in  it  as  a  fruit  tree. 
But  I  consider  that  it  has  many  uses.  It  is  beautiful,  with 
satiny  bark  and  leaves  that  catch  and  reflect  the  light,  providing 
itself  with  a  sort  of  nimbus  of  glory,  winter  or  summer.  The 
wavy  leaf  margins,  fluttering  in  every  breeze,  seem  to  shake  the 
light  off"  as  they  do  the  drops  of  rain. 

It  is  no  small  boon  to  a  bleak  ravine  and  to  the  people  who 
live  near  it  that  this  tree  should  spring  up  and  clothe  both  sides 
with  verdure.  With  the  leaves  come  clustered,  nectar-laden 
flowers,  whitening  the  tree,  and  calling  the  bees.  Then  comes 
the  harvest,  and  who  can  see  without  real  emotion  a  bird  cherry, 
gemmed  on  all  its  twigs  with  these  clear,  ruby  fruits,  and  the 
birds    holding   high    carnival    among   the   shining   leaves?    The 

327 


The   Plums  and  the   Cherries 

cherries  are  small  and  sour,  to  be  sure,  but  the  birds  pick  every 
one.  By  them,  the  pits  are  scattered  far  and  wide,  and  seedlings 
spring  up  each  year,  in  fence  corners,  on  rocky  hillsides,  and  in  the 
paths  of  forest  fires.  Wherever  such  a  tree  appears  we  may  be 
sure  it  was  planted  by  birds. 

This  wild  cherry,  it  is  acknowledged  by  foresters,  renders  a 
distinct  service  to  the  country  by  furnishing  shade  under  which 
valuable  hardwoods  and  other  kinds  of  timber  trees  can  make  a 
strong  start.  By  the  time  the  nurse  trees  are  no  longer  needed 
they  are  gone,  for  the  bird  cherry  is  a  fast-growing,  short-lived  tree. 

Wild  Black  Cherry,  Rum  Cherry  {Prunus  seroiina,  Ehrh.) 
— A  large,  spreading  tree  with  oblong  head  and  sturdy,  rough 
trunk;  branches  drooping.  Bark  dark  brown  (grey  in  the  South), 
checked  into  rough  plates,  shedding  horizontally  in  curling 
sheets  on  branches;  bitter  taste.  Wood  reddish  brown,  hard, 
light,  strong,  easily  worked,  close,  lustrous  grain.  Buds  brown, 
slender,  scaly.  Leaves  narrowly  oblong,  tapering,  2  to  5  inches 
long,  alternate,  fmely  serrate;  dark  green,  shining  above,  paler 
beneath;  bitter;  yellow  in  fall;  petioles  slender,  short.  Flowers, 
May,  small,  white,  in  racemes  2  to  4  inches  long.  Fruits,  Sep- 
tember, flattened,  pea  sized,  purple,  bitter  and  sweetish  aromatic; 
skin  thick.  Preferred  habitat,  moist,  alluvial  soil.  Distribution, 
Ontario  to  Dakota;  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Uses:  A  most 
valuable  lumber  tree;  handsome,  quick-growing  shade  and  orna- 
mental tree;  the  fruit,  roots  and  bark  yield  a  tonic  drug. 

The  black  cherry  is  a  substantial  citizen  in  any  community 
of  trees.  In  an  astonishingly  short  time  the  sapling  becomes  a 
tree,  low  trunked,  great  of  girth,  and  crowned  with  a  dome  of 
graceful,  pendulous  branches. 

The  satiny  brown  bark  reminds  us  of  the  birches.  It  has 
the  same  slit-like  horizontal  "breathing  holes,"  and  the  birches' 
way  of  shedding  its  bark.  But  a  taste,  or  even  a  sniff  of  a  twig, 
or  a  bit  of  bark,  will  decide  the  point.  The  cherry  birch,  which 
is  the  species  most  likely  to  be  confused  with  the  black  cherry, 
has  a  pleasantly  aromatic  flavour.  The  bark  of  the  cherry  is 
bitter  as  gall. 

In  old-fashioned  home  remedies,  in  patent  medicines,  and  in 
the  prescriptions  of  regular  physicians  cherry  extracts  and  decoc- 
tions are  often  met.  No  spring  tonic  is  seriously  expected  to  rid 
us  of  "that  tired  feeling"  unless  the  tang  of  wild  cherry  is  there. 

328 


THE    BIRD    CHERRY   {I'ruuus    /',-r,„>ylv.,nnu) 

The  wh.t.  flower.  H-cad  a  feast  for  the  bees  in  May  and  the  ruby    fruits  for  the  birds  in  June.     The  tree  lover  finds  beaut, 

in  the  dainty  fohage  all  summer  long,  and  in  the  satiny  brown  bark    all  winter 


THE    CHOKE    CHERRY  {Prunus   Virglniami) 
Very  broad  leaves,  rank,  disagreeable  smell   of   bark  and  bruised   leaves,  and   puckery,  harsh  fruit  that  is  red  or  yellow 
until  almost  dead  ripe— these  traits  distinguish  this  species.     The  flowers  are  beautiful  in  May,  and  the  fruits  from  June  until 
thej  turn  black  in  August. 


The  Plums  and  the  Cherries 

Cherry  brandies  and  cordials  are  put  away  against  an  emergency, 
and  cherry  bounce  is  a  good  old-fashioned  beverage  that  long 
ago  got  into  the  story  books.  Old  settlers,  frugal  as  they  were 
wise,  simply  chewed  the  opening  buds  in  the  spring  "to  purify 
their  blood,"  and  to  save  doctors'  bills  at  the  same  time. 

The  chief  value,  however,  of  this  cherry  is  its  wood.  It  is 
beautiful  enough  when  polished  to  compete  in  popularity  with 
mahogany  and  rosewood.  Its  rich,  lustrous  brown  deepens  and 
softens  with  age.  Woodwork  in  sumptuously  built  houses,  parlour 
cars  and  steamships  is  often  done  in  cherry.  Fine  furniture  is 
made  of  it.  Small  pieces  are  used  in  inlay  work,  for  tool  handles, 
and  the  like.  It  is  so  costly  that  it  is  largely  used  in  veneering 
cheaper  woods.  A  sharp  look  on  unfinished  edges  of  chairs, 
bureau  drawers  and  similar  articles  will  detect  this.  Birch 
furniture,  which  is  much  cheaper  and  more  crude  in  colour,  is 
often  sold  under  the  name  of  "solid  cherry"  or  "solid  mahogany." 

As  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree  the  black  cherry  is  charmingly 
unconventional.  It  is  somewhat  wayward  in  habit  and  sparse 
in  foliage,  but  it  carries  neither  trait  to  extremes.  The  foliage 
mass  is  carried  with  the  grace  of  a  willow,  for  the  leaves  are  narrow 
and  pointed,  and  they  hang  on  slender  petioles. 

While  the  opening  leaves  are  still  red  the  flowers  come  on,  in 
dainty,  erect  racemes  that  bloom  from  the  bottom  upward  to  the 
top.  The  heavy  fruits  invert  the  clusters,  and  remain  until  late 
summer.  They  are  sweet  and  not  unpleasant  in  flavour,  eaten 
before  they  are  thoroughly  ripe  by  birds  and  by  children. 

The  Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  Virginiana,  Linn.)  is  a  minia- 
ture tree,  as  a  rule,  rarely  growing  higher  than  a  thrifty  lilac 
bush  except  in  the  region  between  Nebraska  and  northern  Texas. 
Its  shiny  bark,  racemed  flowers  and  fruit,  and  the  odour  of  its 
leaves  and  bark  may  lead  one  to  confuse  it  with  a  black  cherry 
sapling.  But  this  mistake  need  not  occur.  The  leaves  and 
bark  of  the  black  cherry  are  aromatic  and  pungent,  and  the  taste 
is  bitter.  The  choke  cherry  exhales  an  odour  that  is  rank  and 
disagreeable  beside  being  pungent,  and  the  taste  is  intensified 
in  the  same  unpleasant  way.  The  leaves  of  choke  cherry  are 
nearly  twice  as  broad  as  those  of  P.  serotina,  and  abruptly  pointed; 
its  fruit,  until  dead  ripe,  is  red  (or  yellow),  and  so  puckery,  harsh 
and  bitter  that  children,  who  eat  the  black  cherries  eagerly, 
cannot  be  persuaded  to  taste  choke  cherries  a  second  time. 
329 


The  Plums   and  the   Cherries 

The  birds  are  not  so  fastidious.  They  strip  the  trees  before 
the  fruit  turns  black.  It  is  probably  by  these  unconscious 
agents  of  seed  distribution  that  the  choke  cherry  has  become  so 
widely  scattered.  From  the  Arctic  circle  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  it  is  found  in  all 
wooded  regions. 

The  Western  "Wild  Cherry  (P.  demissa,  Walp.)  occurs 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  to  the  Pacific.  Closely 
related  to  the  Eastern  choke  cherry,  it  differs  in  having  thicker 
leaves  and  sweeter,  scarcely  astringent  fruit.  It  is  easy  to  believe 
that  these  Western  trees  belong  to  the  Eastern  species,  but  are 
modified  by  climatic  conditions  into  a  new  form.  Where  their 
ranges  meet,  it  is  hard  to  distinguish  the  two  species. 

The  Cherry  Laurels 

The  cherry  laurels  are  ornamental  native  species,  so  named 
because  of  their  waxy  green  leaves.  They  have  handsome  but 
not  showy  fruits.  They  deserve  and  are  receiving  recognition 
by  nurserymen.  Californians  bring  their  beautiful  spiny-leaved 
evergreen  islay  and  plant  it  in  their  gardens  as  an  ornamental 
tree,  or  set  it  close  for  screens  and  hedges. 

The  European  cherry  laurels,  strange  evergreen  relatives 
of  our  plums  and  cherries,  are  often  seen  as  tub  plants  for  porch 
decorations  in  this  country.  They  are  easily  mistaken  for  the 
Old-World  sweet  bay,  Laurus  nobilis,  which  is  also  set  in  tubs 
for  the  same  purposes. 

Cultivated  Cherries 

The  Sour,  Pie  Cherry  (Prunus  Cerasus,  Linn.),  which 
often  escapes  from  old  gardens  and  spreads  by  suckers  into 
roadside  thickets,  is  a  European  immigrant.  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  parent  of  our  cultivated  sour  cherries.  It  is  a  low-headed, 
spreading  tree  with  no  central  "leader"  among  its  branches, 
with  grey  bark,  and  stiff,  grey-green,  ovate  leaves,  and  white 
flowers  in  scaly  side  clusters  opening  before  the  leaves  are  fully 
out.    The  cherries  are  soft,  small  and  red. 

Two  groups  of  these  sour  cherries  are  recognised  in  cultiva- 
tion: (i)  The  early,  light-red  varieties  with  uncoloured  juice, 
of  which  the  Early  Richmond  is  a  familiar  type;  and  (2)  the  late, 

330 


The   Plums  and  the   Cherries 

dark-red  varieties  with  coloured  juice,  of  which  the  EngHsh 
Morello  is  a  well-known  example. 

The  Sweet  Cherry  of  Europe  (Prunus  Avium,  Linn.), 
has  given  us  our  cultivated  sweet  cherries.  Wild  seedlings  in 
fence  corners  are  called  Mazzards.  They  have  brown  bark,  and 
grow  tall  and  pyramidal  around  a  central  stem,  often  attaining 
great  age  and  size — very  different  in  habit  of  growth  from  small, 
short-lived  sour  cherry  trees.  The  leaves  are  broad,  doubly 
toothed,  sharp  pointed,  and  limp  in  texture.  The  flowers  are 
much  like  those  of  the  preceding  species,  but  they  open  later, 
when  the  leaves  are  out.  The  cherries  are  more  or  less  heart 
shaped  and  generally  sweet. 

Beside  the  Mazzards,  which  are  inferior  in  fruit,  there  are  the 
Heart  cherries  in  cultivation,  two  groups  of  them:  (i)  Those  with 
firm  fiesh,  and  (2)  those  with  soft,  juicy  flesh;  and  the  Dukes, 
which  have  light-coloured,  acid  flesh.  The  Hearts  are  variously 
coloured — some  red,  some  black,  others  yellow. 

Cherries  in  Japan 

Everybody  admires,  in  a  casual  way,  the  crisp,  dainty 
blossoms  of  our  garden  cherries,  and  the  large,  rosy  ones  of  certain 
European  ornamental  varieties  often  seen  in  American  gardens. 
But  until  one  goes  to  Japan  he  cannot  realise  how  beautiful  a 
blossoming  cherry  tree  can  be,  nor  what  it  is  really  to  love  the 
flowers.  The  native  species,  Prunus  Pseudo-Cerasus,  has  been 
specialised  in  the  direction  of  beauty,  according  to  the  ideals  of 
Japanese  artists.  Grace  of  line  and  delicacy  of  texture  and 
colour  have  been  patiently  worked  for — not  in  flowers  alone,  but 
in  leaf,  in  branch,  and  even  in  bark.  The  whole  tree  crowned  with 
its  blossoms  is  the  ideal  toward  which  patience  and  artistic  skill 
have  successfully  striven  for  centuries. 

"Spring  is  the  season  of  the  eye,"  says  a  Japanese  poet. 
The  third  month  is  cherry-blossom  time,  and  as  the  gardens 
burst  suddenly  into  the  marvellous  pink  bloom  all  eyes  and 
thoughts  are  fixed  upon  them.  1  he  passionate  love  for  Sakura, 
the  cherry,  symbol  of  happiness,  lays  hold  on  all  classes  alike. 
In  a  quiet  ecstasy  of  joy  the  Japanese  people  turn  out  in  holiday 
attire  to  view  tlic  wondrous  spectacle.  It  is  a  great  national 
fete,  a  time  of  universal  rejoicinji;. 

33' 


CHAPTER   XL:     THE   POD-BEARERS 

Family  Leguminos^ 

Trees  of  high  ornamental  and  timber  value.  Leaves  com- 
pound (except  in  Cercis),  alternate,  deciduous.  Flowers  sweet, 
pea-like,  or  regular.     Fruit,  a  pod. 

KEY  TO  IMPORTANT  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Foliage  simple;  flowers  rosy,  pea-like. 

I.  Genus  CERCIS,  Linn. 

B.  Leaves   heart   shaped.  (C.  Canadensis)  redbud 

BB.  Leaves  kidney  shaped.  (C  Texensis)  Texas  redbud 

AA.  Foliage  compound. 

B.  Leaves  twice  compound;  flowers  regular. 
C.  Branches  thorny;  foliage  fleecy. 

2.  Genus  GLEDITSIA,  Linn. 

D.  Pods  12  to  1 8  inches  long,  pulpy,  many-seeded. 

(G.  triacanthos)  honey  locust 
DD.  Pods  4  to  5  inches  long,  without  pulp,  many- 
seeded.  (G.  Texana)  texan  honey  locust 
DDD.  Pods  oval,  i  to  2-seeded,  without  pulp. 

(G.  aqiiatica)  water  locust 
CC.  Branches  thornless;  foliage  and  pods  coarse. 

3.  Genus  GYMNOCLADUS,  K.  Koch. 

(G.    dioicUS)    KENTUCKY    COFFEE    TREE 

BB.  Leaves  once  compound;  flowers   pea-like,   showy,   in 
racemes,  pods  thin. 
C.  Leaves  with  spiny  stipules. 

4.  Genus  ROB  IN  I  A,  Linn. 

D.  Blossoms  white;  shoots  smooth. 

{R.  Pseudacacia)  locust 
DD.  Blossoms  pink;  shoots  hairy. 

E.  Shoots  clammy.       {R.  viscosa)  clammy  locust 
EE.  Shoots  not  clammy. 

(R.  Neo-Mexicana)  new  Mexican  locust 
332 


The  Pod-bearers 

CC.  Leaves  without   spiny   stipules;  flowers  white,   in 
loose  clusters. 

5.  Genus  CLADRASTIS,  Raf.     (C.  lutea)  yellow-wood 

The  family  Leguminosae,  to  which  our  pod-bearing  trees 
belong,  is  one  of  vast  size  and  economic  importance,  and  of 
world-wide  distribution.  There  are  nearly  450  genera  and  over 
7,000  species.  Peas,  beans,  lentils,  clover — all  plants  that  bear 
simple,  2-valved  pods  after  the  flowers — are  included.  By  this 
sign  they  are  easily  recognisable  when  in  fruit.  Besides  food 
stuffs,  the  pod-bearers  yield  rubber,  balsams,  oils,  dyestuffs, 
good  timber,  and  a  long  list  of  ornamental  plants.  The  grass 
family,  which  includes  the  chief  forage  and  grazing  plants,  the 
grains  and  sugar  cane,  is  the  only  one  that  ranks  higher  than  the 
legumes  in  service  to  the  human  family. 

The  pod-bearers  are  the  only  plants  that  have  the  power 
to  abstract  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  store  it  in  their  stems  and 
roots.  The  rotting  of  these  parts  restores  to  the  soil  that  particular 
plant  food  which  is  most  commonly  lacking  and  the  costliest  to 
replace.  The  cheapest  way  to  put  nitrogen  into  the  soil  is  to 
plough  under  green  crops  of  clover,  cowpeas,  or  other  legumes. 
They  improve  the  texture  and  therefore  the  moisture-holding 
capacity  of  the  soil;  commercial  fertilisers  do  not.  Legumes 
grow  on  poor  soil  and  make  it  rich. 

American  pod-bearing  trees  belong  to  several  different  genera, 
with  one  or  more  species  in  each.  With  few  exceptions  they  have 
handsome  pinnate  foliage,  and  showy  flowers  in  drooping  clusters. 
These  characters,  combined  with  an  admirable  form,  give  these 
trees  prominence  as  ornamentals  wherever  they  will  grow.  Their 
pods  are  often  highly  decorative  in  summer  and  winter.  The 
thorns  of  certain  species  give  the  trees  character  and  distinction. 
Several  valuable  lumber  trees  are  included  in  the  family.  In 
North  American  forests  seventeen  genera  of  pod-bearers  are 
native.  These  include  over  thirty  species.  Beside  these,  several 
exotic  species  are  met  with  in  cultivation. 

I.  Genus  CERCIS,  Linn. 

The  genus  Cercis,  including  seven  species  of  shrubs  and  trees, 
is  distributed  in  Asia,  Europe  and  America.  We  have  two  tree 
forms  and  one  shrubby  species,  native  to  California. 

333 


The  Pod-bearets 

Red  Bud,  Judas  Tree  (Cercts  Canadensis,  Linn.) — A  dainty 
tree,  sometimes  40  to  50  feet  high,  oftener  much  smaller,  with 
broad,  flat  head  of  slender,  smooth,  thornless,  angular  branchlets. 
Bark  reddish  brown,  furrowed  deeply  and  closely,  broken  into 
small,  scaly  plates;  twigs  brown  or  grey.  IVood  heavy,  hard, 
close  grained,  weak,  red-brown.  Buds  inconspicuous,  axillary, 
scaly,  blunt.  Leaves  simple,  entire,  broadly  heart  shaped  or 
ovate,  alternate,  deciduous,  on  long,  slender,  smooth  petioles 
which  are  enlarged  at  apex;  autumn  colour  yellow.  Flowers, 
April,  before  the  leaves,  in  axillary  fascicles^  pea-like,  ^  inch  long, 
rose  pink  to  purplish;  numerous,  conspicuous.  Fruit  a  pod,  thin, 
pointed,  flat,  smooth,  lustrous,  purplish,  stalked,  2  to  3  inches 
long,  many-seeded.  Preferred  habitat,  borders  of  streams,  under 
other  trees.  Distribution,  New  Jersey  to  western  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Texas;  Ontario  to  Nebraska  and  south.  Maximum 
size,  Arkansas  to  Texas.  Uses:  Important  hardy  ornamental 
tree.    Grown  in  Europe.     Flowers  sometimes  eaten  as  a  salad. 

The  early-blooming  trees  and  those  of  small  size  will  ever 
be  held  in  affectionate  regard.  Here  is  one  of  the  most  charming 
of  them  all — a  dainty,  low-headed  tree  skirting  the  woodlands  in 
the  North,  often  growing  farther  south  in  dense  thickets,  under 
the  taller  trees.  It  wakes  with  the  shad-bush  and  the  wild  plum 
and  covers  its  bare  twigs  with  a  profusion  of  pea-like  rosy  magenta 
blossoms  in  clusters  that  hug  the  branch  closely,  and  continue  to 
open  until  the  leaves  have  unfolded. 

The  hardiness  of  the  redbud  commends  it  to  planters  in 
the  Northeast,  as  well  as  in  the  warmer  parts  of  its  natural  range. 
It  is  widely  cultivated  as  a  flowering  tree.  After  the  flowers, 
the  glossy,  round  leaves  are  beautiful,  as  are  also  the  dainty,  pale 
green  pods,  which  in  late  summer  take  on  their  purple  hue.  The 
foliage,  unmarred  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  a  season  of  growth, 
turns  to  bright  yellow  before  it  falls. 

A  further  merit  of  the  redbud  tree  is  that  it  begins  blooming 
when  very  young.  It  should  be  in  every  shrubbery  border. 
Some  people  prefer  the  double-flowered  form  offered  by  nursery- 
men. A  variety,  pubescens,  called  the  downy  redbud,  grows  wild 
from  Georgia  westward. 

The  Texas  Redbud  (Cercis  Texensis,  Sarg.)  is  commonly 
seen  as  a  low  shrub,  forming  thickets  on  the  uplands  of  eastern 
Texas.    Occasionally  it  reaches  40  feet  in  height.    The  leaves 

334 


The  Pod-bearers 

are  leathery,  but  in  the  characters  of  flower  and  fruit  the  tree  is 
much  like  its  Northern  relative. 

The  European  redbud,  which  grows  also  in  Asia  Minor,  is 
stigmatised  by  tradition  as  the  tree  on  which  Judas  Iscariot 
hanged  himself.  Our  little  tree  has  had  to  share  the  name, 
and  in  many  places  it  is  the  "Judas  tree"  to-day.  It  is  a  pity  to 
keep  alive  a  notion  so  ghastly.  The  most  beautiful  redbud  is 
a  Chinese  species  (C  Chinensis,  Bunge),  with  very  large  and 
abundant  pink  flowers.  Its  leaves  are  bordered  with  a  clear  or 
white  rim. 

2.  Genus  GLEDITSIA,  Linn. 

The  genus  Gleditsia  has  ten  species  or  more,  three  of  which 
are  native  to  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  Japan  and 
China  have  three  or  four  species  between  them;  Asia  Minor  and 
northern  Africa  have  representatives.  The  oriental  species  are 
cultivated  by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese,  and  have  been  intro- 
duced into  European  and  American  plantations.  The  wood  is 
durable  and  strong.  The  trees  are  ornamental  and  easy  to 
grow.  In  Japan  the  pulp  of  the  green  pods  is  used  instead  of 
soap. 

Honey  Locust,  Three-thorned  Acacia  {Gleditsia  triacan- 
ihos,  Linn.) — A  large,  handsome  tree,  70  to  140  feet  high,  with 
rigid,  horizontal  branches;  trunk  3  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  Bark 
rough,  dark,  deeply  furrowed;  twigs  brown,  smooth.  Thorns 
in  second  year,  3-pronged,  single,  or  in  close-set  clusters.  Wood 
reddish  brown,  heavy,  durable,  hard.  Buds  clustered,  nearly 
hidden  in  winter;  spine  bud  some  distance  above  axillary  buds. 
Leaves  7  to  8  inches  long,  alternate,  once  or  twice  pinnately  com- 
pound, soft,  velvety,  and  pink  when  opening,  changing  to  dark 
green  with  paler  linings;  yellow  in  autumn.  Flowers  inconspicu- 
ous, regular,  in  small  greenish  racemes,  staminate  and  pistillate 
racemes  separate  on  the  same  or  on  different  trees.  Fruits 
purple,  curving,  flat  pods,  6  to  18  inches  long;  seeds  10  to  15, 
hard,  flat,  brown.  Preferred  habitat,  rich  woods.  Distribution, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  to  Mississippi  and  Texas;  Ontario 
to  Michigan  and  Arkansas.  Uses:  Ornamental  and  shade 
tree  much  cultivated.  Good  hedge  tree.  Wood  used  for  wheel 
hubs,  fencing,  and  for  fuel. 

335 


The  Pod-bearers 

Unlike  its  relative,  the  yellow  locust,  this  tree  is  strikingly 
handsome  and  full  of  character  in  winter.  Its  bark,  from  root 
to  twig,  is  brown  and  "alive-looking,"  though  no  buds  are  in 
sight,  and  the  bark  furrows  are  deep  on  a  large  tree.  There  is  all 
the  difference  in  the  world  between  a  dead  grey  and  a  lively 
brown.     The  locusts  well  illustrate  this  difference. 

The  honey  locust  has  angular  branches,  slender  and  wiry, 
which  extend  far  out  in  horizontal  planes.  These  branches 
shine  as  if  they  were  polished.  The  three-pronged  thorns  give 
an  added  asperity  to  the  demeanour  of  the  tree.  The  rattling 
pods  are  purple  and  shiny.  They  curve  and  cluster  on  the  top- 
most limbs,  and  long  defy  the  efforts  of  the  wind  to  dislodge 
them. 

The  thorns  of  the  honey  locust  are  thorns  indeed — modified 
branches  that  branch  again,  and  are  rooted  in  the  very  pith  of 
the  twig  that  bears  them.  The  "thorns"  of  the  yellow  locust 
are  prickles — merely  skin  deep.  Occasionally  a  leaf  appears  on 
the  side  of  a  young  thorn  to  strengthen  the  evidence  that  the 
thorn  is  a  branch  changed  to  a  special  form  to  serve  a  special 
use.  But  the  thorns  stop  growing  when  they  reach  about  a 
foot  in  length,  and  remain  indefinitely  in  their  places,  ranging 
along  the  branches  or  clustered  on  the  trunk,  even  encircling 
it  in  some  instances  with  the  most  formidable  chevaux-de-frise — a 
barrier  to  the  ambitions  of  climbing  boys,  and  to  cropping  cows 
which  like  the  taste  of  locust  foliage.  There  is  a  thornless  variety 
which  is  the  delight  of  boys  who  climb  for  the  sweet  pods  in 
summer  time. 

The  foliage  mass  of  the  honey  locust  is  wonderfully  light  and 
graceful.  New  leaves  with  a  silvery  sheen  upon  them  are  con- 
stantly appearing;  some  once,  some  twice  compound,  on  the 
same  tree.  The  colour  of  them  is  a  clear,  intense  emerald.  The 
pods  in  midsummer  show  many  shades  of  changeable  red  and 
green  velvet  against  the  leaves,  and  are  as  beautiful  in  form  as 
in  colour  and  texture. 

In  this  stage  of  growth  the  pods  contain  a  sweet,  edible 
pulp  which  later  dries  and  turns  bitter.  An  Old-World  tree 
has  pods  that  are  thicker  but  otherwise  resemble  those  of  the 
honey  locust;  these  sweetish  pods  are  sold  on  the  streets  of  New 
York  as  "St.  John's  Bread,"  and  are  believed  to  be  the  locusts 
eaten  by  John  the  Baptist  in  the  wilderness. 

336 


Staminate  Flowers 


THE   HONEY    LOCUST  {Gkditsia  triacanthos) 
The  main  thorn  bears  two  side  spurs.      On  old  branches  there  is  often  much   sub-branchin,e,    and   the   thorns   reach 


a  foot  in  lengtli.      Staminate  and  perfect  flowers  arc  borne  in  separate,  greenish  racemes  on  the  same  tree  in  Jui 
leaves  (much  enlarged  in  the  lower  plate)  are  made  up  of  many  leaflets.      Frequently  they  are  twice  compound 


The 


The  Pod-bearerq 

The  curving,  S-shaped  pods  of  the  honey  locust  hang  on  the 
tree  until  winter,  when  the  wind  whirls  them  along  over  the  icy 
ground  until  they  lodge.  Here  the  seeds  eventually  soften  and 
germinate,  and  saplings  spring  up  far  from  the  parent  tree.  The 
range  of  this  tree  is  extensive,  but  it  has  nowhere  a  very  plentiful 
growth.  The  wood  is  not  as  well  known  nor  as  fully  appreciated 
as  it  deserves.  The  claims  of  the  tree  for  ornamental  planting 
and  for  shade  are  granted  by  enterprising  nurserymen.  It  is  a 
handsome  park  tree,  and  thrives  in  almost  any  soil.  It  is  hardy, 
and  endures  heavy  pruning.  This  character  combined  with  its 
thorns  make  it  one  of  the  best  of  our  native  hedge  plants.  It 
is  necessary  to  soften  the  hard  seeds  in  hot  water  before  planting, 
else  they  will  not  germinate  until  the  second  year. 

Unlike  most  of  the  pod-bearers,  the  honey  locust  has  greenish, 
inconspicuous  flowers,  not  of  the  pea-blossom  form.  The  bees 
find  them,  as  they  are  fragrant  and  nectar  laden.  The  "honey" 
mentioned  in  the  name  is  not  in  the  flower  but  in  the  half-ripe 
fruit. 

The  Texan  Honey  Locust  (G.  Texana,  Sarg.),  with  the 
characters  given  in  the  key,  has  so  far  been  found  only  in  one 
grove  near  Brazoria,  Texas.  It  is  a  large,  thornless  tree,  with 
thin,  smooth  bark. 

The  ^Vate^  Locust  (G.  aquatica,  Marsh.)  is  a  small,  flat- 
topped,  irregular  tree  which  grows  best  in  the  swamps  just  west 
of  the  lower  Mississippi.  It  is  found  sparingly  from  South  Caro- 
lina through  the  eastern  Gulf  States,  and  north  as  far  as  the  Ohio 
River.  The  tree  can  easily  be  recognised  by  its  brown  polished 
thorns  which  are  3  to  5  inches  long,  pointed  and  stiff,  and  some- 
times flattened,  like  the  blade  of  a  sword.  The  two  lateral 
thorns  arise  close  to  the  base  of  the  main  one. 

The  pods,  which  are  usually  but  i -seeded,  are  oval  and 
pointed,  and  much  more  thickly  clustered  than  those  of  G.  iriacan- 
ihos.  The  wood  is  coarse  and  inferior  to  other  locusts,  though 
it  is  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  and  has  been  put  to  many  uses. 


3.  Genus  GYMNOCLADUS,  K.  Koch. 

The  genus  Gymnoclodus  has  one  species  in  China  and  another 
in  eastern  North  America.     Both  are  bare-limbed,  clumsy  mem- 

337 


The  Pod-bearers 

bers  of  a  family  which  boasts  many  graceful  trees.  The  pulp 
in  the  heavy  pod  is  used  in  China  for  soap.  Our  tree  is  planted 
for  shade  on  city  streets,  and  for  the  sake  of  its  peculiar,  great 
pods,  which  hang  on  the  bare  limbs  all  winter.  The  characters 
of  the  genus  are  embodied  in  the  native  species. 

Kentucky  CofTee  Tree  (Gymnocladus  dioicus,  K.  Koch.) — 
A  narrow,  round-topped  tree  with  tall  trunk,  75  to  loo  feet  high, 
with  stout,  thornless  twigs.  Bark  grey,  deeply  furrowed;  ridges 
scaly.  JVood  light  brown,  soft,  heavy,  coarse,  strong,  durable. 
Buds  scaly,  half  hidden  in  the  twig.  Leaves  twice  pinnate,  i  to 
3  feet  long,  i  to  2  feet  broad,  of  40  to  60  oval  leaflets,  dark  green, 
smooth;  petioles  stout,  long,  enlarged  at  base;  autumn  colour, 
clear  yellow.  Flowers,  June,  dioecious,  regular,  greenish  white, 
in  racemes  staminate,  3  to  4  inches  long;  pistillate  10  to  12 
inches  long,  somewhat  hairy.  Fruit  a  thick-walled,  purple  pod, 
6  to  10  inches  long,  2  inches  wide,  dark  red,  short  stalked;  seeds 
several,  bony,  globular,  ^  inch  in  diameter,  in  sweetish,  sticky 
pulp,  bitter  at  maturity.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  soil. 
Distribution,  New  York  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska;  south  to 
Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Arkansas  and  Indian  Territory.  Uses: 
A  good  street  and  shade  tree.  Wood  used  for  fencing,  in  con- 
struction and  rarely  in  cabinet  work. 

The  Kentucky  coffee  tree  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  American 
forest  trees.  It  ranges  widely,  but  is  nowhere  common.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  dead-looking  frame,  which  holds  aloft  its  stiff, 
bare  twigs  in  spring  after  other  trees  are  clothed  with  new  leaves. 
But  at  length  the  buds  open  and  the  leaves  appear,  twice  com- 
pound, and  often  3  feet  long.  The  basal  leaflets  are  bronze 
green  while  the  tips  are  still  pink  from  having  just  unfolded. 
This  stately  tree,  its  trunk  topped  with  a  close  pyramid  of  these 
wonderful  leaves,  is  a  sight  to  remember.  Often  the  trunk  is 
free  from  limbs  for  50  feet  or  more. 

The  flowers  of  the  coffee  tree  are  greenish  purple  and  incon- 
spicuous, borne  in  erect  racemes  or  loose  panicles  on  separate 
trees.  The  pistillate  trees  are  burdened  with  their  clumsy  pods 
in  the  autumn.  They  are  so  heavy  as  to  inflict  a  painful  bruise 
if  they  strike  a  person  in  falling.  The  pioneers  of  Kentucky 
made  out  of  the  seeds  a  beverage  to  take  the  place  of  coffee.  We 
may  well  wonder  how  they  ever  ground  these  adamantine  beans, 
and  how  they  ever  drank  a  beverage  as  bitter  as  it  must  have  been. 

338 


The   Pod-bearers 
4.  Genus  ROBINIA,  Linn. 

Trees  of  the  genus  Robinia  have  slender,  angled  branchlets 
usually  set  with  paired  prickles  which  are  the  spiny  stipules  of 
leaves,  past  or  present.  The  leaves  are  once  compound,  and 
have  the  habit  of  closing  and  drooping  when  night  comes  or  when 
rain  begins  to  fall.  The  pea-like  blossoms  are  in  showy  clusters; 
the  pods  are  thin  valved,  opening  when  ripe,  but  slow  to  fall 
from  the  tree. 

Four  species  belong  to  the  United  States;  of  these  three  are 
arbourescent.  Three  more  occur  in  Mexico.  Other  countries 
are  without  native  species,  so  they  borrow  of  us.  Streets,  parks 
and  gardens,  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  are  planted  with  our 
black  locust.  The  genus  contains  one  of  the  good  lumber  trees 
of  this  country,  and  some  of  our  handsomest  flowering  trees. 

Locust,  Yellow  Locust,  Black  Locust  (Robinia  Pseuda- 
cacia,  Linn.) — A  tall,  slender  tree,  40  to  80  feet  high,  with  erect 
branches  forming  an  oblong  head.  Bark  rough,  dark  grey,  deeply 
furrowed;  twigs  smooth,  silvery,  downy,  becoming  reddish  brown. 
Wood  brownish  yellow,  hard,  coarse  grained,  heavy,  strong, 
very  durable  in  contact  with  soil.  Buds  pointed,  silky,  all  but 
tip  hidden.  Leaves  8  to  14  inches  long,  alternate,  odd-pinnate  of 
9  to  19  leaflets,  silvery,  downy  when  young,  later,  pale  beneath, 
dark  green  above,  turning  yellow  in  early  autumn.  Stipules  in 
pairs,  spiny,  persistent,  becoming  thorny.  Flowers,  May  to  June, 
in  axillary,  drooping  racemes,  white,  fragrant,  pea-like,  of  good 
size.  Fruit  thin,  brown,  smooth,  4  to  8-seeded  pods,  hanging 
on  through  the  winter.  Preferred  habitat,  gravelly  soil  on  mountain 
slopes.  Distribution,  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  west  to  Iowa  and 
Oklahoma.  Naturalised  in  New  York,  New  England,  and  west 
of  Rocky  Mountains.  Uses:  Planted  as  a  shade  and  ornamental 
tree.  Wood  exceptionally  durable  and  strong.  Used  in  ship- 
building, for  mill  cogs,  posts,  ties,  wagon  hubs  and  spokes, 
and  especially  for  tree  nails.  Excellent  fuel.  Bark  has  tonic 
properties. 

The  locust  is  a  beautiful  tree  in  its  youth,  and  being  a  rapid 
grower,  becomes  sturdy  and  spreading  in  a  few  years.  But  its 
twigs  and  branches  are  brittle,  the  wind  breaks  them,  and  the 
symmetry  of  the  crown  is  soon  lost.  An  old  locust  is  a  dead, 
-^craggly-looking  object  for  half  the  year.    Coarse,  ragged  bark 

339 


The  Pod-bearers 

covers  trunk  and  larger  branches.  The  twigs  show  no  sign  of 
buds.  These  trees  have  a  fashion  of  hiding  their  winter  buds  in  the 
wood  of  the  twig,  as  the  sumachs  do.  The  pods  hang  on  all 
winter,  chattering  in  the  wind,  and  calling  attention  to  the  hope- 
lessly untidy  appearance  of  the  tree  as  a  feature  of  the  landscape. 

Whatever  may  be  urged  against  it — and  it  surely  has  its 
faults — the  locust  redeems  itself  in  the  late  spring.  The  delicate 
leaf  spray  is  silvery  as  it  unfolds,  changing  to  dark  green  as  the 
masses  of  white  fragrant  bloom  are  shaken  out.  From  a  little 
distance  the  green  leaves  are  obscured  by  the  flowers;  it  is  as  if 
a  white  cloud  rested  on  the  treetop,  heavy  with  perfume  and 
alive  with  bees.  One  rarely  sees,  even  in  spring,  a  sight  more 
beautiful.     It  is  the  supreme  moment  in  the  life  of  this  tree. 

A  very  interesting  habit  of  the  locust  is  the  folding  of  its 
leaflets  and  the  drooping  of  its  leaves  on  rainy  days  and  on  the 
approach  of  evening.  The  sensitive  plant,  a  near  relative,  shrinks 
away  and  folds  its  leaves  whenever  it  is  touched.  It  is  believed 
the  locust's  habit  of  "cuddling  down"  avoids  excessive  loss  of 
moisture  and  heat.  Parkinson,  writing  of  the  tree  in  1640, 
noted  "each  leaf  foulding  itself  double  every  evening  upon  Sunne 
setting,  and  opening  again  upon  the  rising."  Some  years  before, 
the  cultivation  of  locusts  had  been  introduced  in  Europe  by 
Vespasian  Robin,  whose  name  the  genus  bears.  Great  plans 
were  made  a  century  ago  for  the  growing  of  these  trees  to  supply 
the  British  Navy  with  shipbuilding  timbers.  The  plan  never 
reached  the  magnitude  its  promoters  desired;  yet  the  locust  is  to 
be  met  with  more  often  in  European  gardens  and  forests  than  any 
other  American  tree.     The  leaves  are  a  common  forage  for  cattle. 

Unfortunately  for  us,  the  locust  borer  has  put  an  end  to 
raising  this  valuable  timber  in  any  but  the  mountainous  parts 
of  its  natural  range.  Lumbermen  well  know  there  is  no  more 
profitable  timber  crop,  except  when  the  locust  borer  attacks  it. 
The  wood  is  riddled  by  these,  even  to  the  twigs,  and  no  effective 
means  of  combating  them  is  known.  For  this  reason,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  tree  has  been  abandoned  in  the  regions  where  this 
insect  has  appeared.  In  Europe,  locusts  seem  to  be  comparatively 
free  from  insect  injury. 

The  extreme  hardness  of  locust  wood  is  due  to  crystals, 
called  rhaphtdes,  formed  in  the  wood  cells.  These  hard  mineral 
deposits  soon  take  the  edge  off  of  saws  and  chisels. 

340 


The   Pod-bearers 

As  an  ornamental  tree,  the  chief  drawback  of  the  locust  is  its 
unsightliness  when  bare  of  leaves.  The  fact  should  he  added  that 
the  leaves  come  late  and  fall  early.  The  tree  sends  up  suckers 
freely  from  the  roots,  which  unfits  it  for  planting  on  lawns.  There 
are  sixteen  varieties  of  this  tree  known  in  cultivation.  With  all 
its  faults  they  love  it  still;  the  American  people  plant  locusts  for 
the  borers  to  distort. 

The  prickles  that  arm  these  trees  are  not  thorns  at  all.  They 
are  but  skin  deep,  like  prickles  of  rose  and  gooseberry  bushes. 
But  they  persist  and  become  quite  formidable.  They  are  merely 
stipules  of  the  leaves.  Each  pair  of  leaflets  has  a  pair  of  tiny 
spines  guarding  the  base.  But  they  are  transient,  falling  with  the 
leaf.    Thornless  trees  often  occur  in  groves  of  locusts. 

The  Clammy  Locust  (Robtnia  viscosa,  Vent.)  is  a  little, 
rough-barked  tree  that  grows  wild  in  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina.  It  is  a  favourite  garden  ornament,  for  it  has  delicate 
feathery  foliage  and  the  shaded  pinks  of  its  close  flower  cluster 
make  a  combination  of  form  and  colour  no  artist  can  resist. 
The  calyxes  are  dark  red,  and  all  the  new  growth  shines  with  the 
sticky  substance  that  exudes  from  the  covering  of  glandular 
hairs,  and  gives  the  tree  its  name.     The  spines  are  inconspicuous. 

The  New  Mexican  Locust  (Robinia  Neo-Mexkana,  Gray) 
rarely  rises  higher  than  a  shrub  in  the  Southwestern  semi-desert 
regions.  Its  tender  shoots  are  covered  with  glandular  but  not 
viscid  hairs.  The  flowers  are  rosy  and  handsome.  The  twigs 
are  armed  with  short,  stout,  recurved  spines. 

The  Bristly  Locust  (Robtnia  hispida,  Linn.),  a  garden 
shrub  with  large  crimson  flowers  and  bristly  hairs  covering  its 
shoots,  is  probably  the  most  common  locust  in  cultivation. 


5.  Genus  CLADRASTIS,  Raf. 

'  The  genus  Cladrastis  is  "Queen  of  Beauty"  among  the 
pod-bearers.  It  is  represented  by  one  species  in  the  eastern 
United  States  and  another  in  Manchuria.  The  name,  from  two 
Greek  words,  refers  to  the  brittleness  of  the  branches. 

The  Yellow-wood,  or  Virgilia  {Cladrastis  lutea,  K.  Koch.), 
is  native  to  the  limestone  hillslopes  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky  and 
North  Carolina,  but  even  here  it  is  very  rare.     It  is  cultivated, 


The  Pod-bearers 

however,  and  good  specimen  trees  may  be  seen  in  nurseries  and 
in  private  grounds  in  the  East,  It  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  New 
England  and  Ontario,  and  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  native 
ornamental  trees. 

It  is  a  small  tree,  rarely  reaching  50  feet  in  height,  with 
wide,  graceful  head  of  slender,  pendulous  branches,  grey  bark 
as  smooth  as  that  of  a  beech,  and  four  little  winter  buds  enclosed 
in  the  hollow  base  of  each  leaf  stem.  The  leaves  are  compound, 
a  foot  long,  of  seven  to  eleven  oval,  broad  leaflets,  diminishing  in 
size  toward  the  base,  pale  beneath,  and  turning  a  clear  yellow 
in  the  autumn. 

The  flowers  are  large,  white,  pea-like,  fragrant,  and  borne 
in  drooping,  terminal  clusters,  often  a  foot  long.  The  pods  are 
thin,  smooth,  few-seeded.  Virgilia  is  the  garden  name  of  this 
tree.  It  is  called  so  in  the  nursery  catalogues.  The  wood  is 
yellow,  and  its  sap  yields  a  dye  of  that  colour. 

These  are  the  botanical  characters  of  the  yellow-wood. 
One  can  easily  identify  it.  But  to  remember  the  tree,  to  have 
it  indelibly  impressed  upon  the  memory,  one  must  see  it  in  blossom. 
It  is  a  "shy  bloomer";  at  least  it  never  blooms  in  two  successive 
years,  and  rarely  does  it  cover  itself  with  flowers  oftener  than 
twice  or  three  times  in  a  decade.  That  is  quite  enough  to  justify 
planting  it  as  a  lawn  tree,  with  evergreens  for  a  background — a 
frame  for  the  picture  when  it  comes. 

The  virgilia  is  always  beautiful.  But  in  wealth  of  bloom,  as 
I  saw  it  in  the  gardens  and  parks  about  Boston  in  the  summer  of 
1904,  it  surpassed  all  other  trees.  Every  twig  ended  in  a  long, 
loose  raceme  in  which  each  pure  white  blossom  had  room  to  reach 
its  full  development — to  get  its  fill  of  light  and  sun  and  air.  The 
weight  of  the  flowers  made  every  twig  bend  outward  and  down- 
ward. Each  tree  was  overspread  for  days  with  this  marvellous 
veil  of  white,  and  out  of  each  came  all  day  long  the  low  murmur 
of  contented  bees. 

The  tree  is  rare  and  local,  hanging  over  mountain  streams  and 
edging  the  woodlands  of  its  range,  the  highlands  of  western  North 
Carolina,  eastern  Tennessee,  central  Kentucky  and  northern  Ala- 
bama. Its  beauty  is  much  enhanced  by  cultivation.  The  hand- 
some foliage  turns  yellow  before  it  falls,  and  all  through  the 
summer  and  on  through  the  autumn  the  pendant  clusters  of 
dainty  pods  are  highly  ornamental. 

342 


THE   NEW   MEXICAN   LOCUST   {Rohinia   Neo-iMexicunu) 
This  desert  locust  has  snort,  curved  spines  on  its  twigs,  and  its  new  growth  hears  glandular  but  not  viscid  hairs.     The  flowers 


THE    CLAMMY    LOCUST   {Robinia   viscosn) 
Glandular  hairs  cover  all   the   new   shoots  of  this  tree.     The  sticky  exudation  is  shiny,  making  the 
are  beautifully  shaded   from  deep   to  pale  pink 


look  wet.     The  flowers 


THK    YKLLOW-WOOD  {Cladrastis  lutea) 

fhis  tree  is  "Queen  of  Beauty"  among  the  pod-bearers.  Smooth  bark  like  that  of  the  beech,  a  wide,  graceful  head  of 
dim,  pendulous  branches,  and  broad,  polished  leaflets  are  but  a  proper  background  for  the  white  blossoms.  They  occasionally 
cover  the  tree  like  a  cloud  in  June,  fleocv  and  fragrant  for  miles.     The  delicate  pods  are  thin  and  contain  few  seeds 


The  Pod-bearers 

The  virgilia  has  no  bad  habits;  it  is  hardy  in  the  dimate  of 
Boston;  it  thrives  in  many  different  soils;  it  is  easily  propagated 
by  seeds  or  root  cuttings;  it  is  a  handsome  lawn  or  park  tree  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  it  ought  to  be  in  gardens  up  and  down  the 
land — increasingly  planted  wherever  a  beautiful  native  tree  is 
desired  and  appreciated. 

Some  Little-known  Pod-bearers 

Brief  mention  may  be  made  here  of  a  number  of  relatives  of 
our  locust  trees  which  are  little  known  because  they  are  restricted 
to  small  areas  distant  from  the  Eastern  States  whose  forests  we 
know  som.ewhat  better  than  those  of  other  sections  of  this  great 
continent.  They  are  omitted  from  the  key  to  avoid  making  it  too 
complex  for  easy  use. 

The  Horse  Bean,  or  Retama  {Parkinsonia  aculeaia,  Linn.), 
native  to  the  valleys  of  the  lower  Rio  Grande  and  the  Colorado,  is 
a  small,  graceful  tree  with  drooping  branches,  which  are  clothed 
with  strong  spines,  long  leaf  stems  set  with  many  pairs  of  tiny 
leaflets,  and  bright  yellow,  fragrant  perennial  flowers.  In  the 
tropics  the  tree  is  ever-blooming.  In  Texas  it  rests  only  in 
midwinter.  The  pods  are  long,  and  constricted  between  the 
seeds.  As  an  ornamental  hedge  plant  this  tree  has  no  equal  in 
the  Southwest. 

The  Small -leaf  Horse  Bean  {Parkinsonia  microphylla, 
Torr.)  has  its  leaf  stems  as  well  as  leaflets  much  reduced.  It 
grows  in  complexly  gnarled  form  in  the  deserts  of  Arizona  and 
California.  The  yellow  flowers  are  much  smaller  than  those  of 
the  preceding  species;  the  few-seeded  beaked  pods,  larger.  This 
little  tree  or  shrub  has  its  branches  sharpened  into  stout  thorns, 
which  have  green  bark. 

The  Cat's  Claw  {Zigia  Unguis-cati,  Sudw.),  of  southern 
Florida,  has  persistent,  twice  pinnate  leaves,  each  division  bearing 
but  two  leaflets.  A  pair  of  spines  guards  the  base  of  each  leaf. 
The  flowers  are  in  compound  panicles;  the  pods  long,  thin,  and 
contorted  in  ripening.  The  shape  of  the  petals  is  described  by  the 
tree's  name. 

The  Texan  Ebony  (Zigia  flexicaule,  Sudw.),  of  southern 
Texas  and  Mexico,  is  a  beautiful,  acacia-like  tree,  with  feathery 
leaves,  racemed,  creamy,  fragrant  flowers  and  large,  woody  pods, 

343 


the  Pod-bearers 

not  quite  so  large  as  those  of  honey  locust.  These  pods  are 
cooked  and  eaten  when  half  grown.  The  ripe  pods  are  roasted, 
and  ground  to  make  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The  wood  is  valuable 
in  fine  cabinet  work,  and  for  posts  and  fuel.  It  deserves  the 
attention  of  gardeners  and  foresters  in  all  warm  temperate 
countries.  Professor  Sargent  considers  it  the  most  valuable 
ornamental  tree  native  to  Texas. 

The  Huisache,  or  Cassie  (Acacia  Farnesiana,  Willd.), 
belongs  to  a  great  tropical  suborder  of  the  pod-bearers  which 
is  widely  distributed  over  the  earth.  The  valuable  blackwood 
of  Australia  belongs  to  it  and  Acacia  Arabica,  of  Egypt  and 
southern  Asia,  which  yields  the  bulk  of  the  gum  arable  of  com- 
merce. Valuable  timber,  tan  barks,  dyes,  perfumes  and  drugs 
are  yielded  by  acacias.     As  ornamentals,  the  trees  rank  very  high. 

The  huisache  grows  wild  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  and  has 
become  established  in  Florida  and  the  other  Gulf  States,  having 
escaped  from  cultivation.  It  is  a  small,  spiny  tree,  with  graceful, 
spreading  branches,  and  pendulous  twigs  covered  with  feathery 
twice  pinnate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  numerous,  bright  yellow, 
in  heads,  and  very  fragrant.  The  thick  pods  contain  two  rows 
of  flattened  seeds.  In  Italy  this  species  is  cultivated  for  its 
flowers,  which  are  used  in  the  making  of  perfumes.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens  the  world  over,  and  has  generally  established 
itself  in  the  warmer  parts  of  every  continent.  It  yields  tannin, 
gums  and  valuable  lumber. 

The  Cat's  Claw  (Acacia  IVrightii,  Benth.),  of  western 
Texas,  is  less  graceful  than  the  huisache,  and  more  often  seen 
as  a  shrub.  The  yellow  flowers  are  borne  in  fmger-like  close 
racemes.  The  pods  are  large,  flat  and  irregular,  with  small,  oval 
seeds.  The  leaves  are  twice  pinnate;  the  spines,  short  and 
recurved. 

The  Cat's  Claw  (Acacia  Greggii,  Gray),  of  the  region  from 
western  Texas  to  California,  differs  from  A.  IVrightii  in  having 
its  pods  twisted,  and  its  seeds  larger  and  circular  in  outline. 

The  Frijolito,  or  Coral  Bean  (Sophora  secundiflora,  DC), 
is  a  small,  slender,  narrow-headed  tree,  with  persistent,  locust-like 
leaves,  and  fragrant,  violet-blue  flowers  in  small,  one-sided 
racemes.  The  pods  are  silky  white,  pencil-like,  and  the  seeds  are 
bright  scarlet.  The  tree  grows  wild  in  cafions  in  southern  Texas 
and  in  New  Mexico,  and  is  highly  recommended  by  Professor 

344 


The  Pod-bearers 

Sargent  for  cultivation  throughout  the  South.  It  is  a  close  rela- 
tive of  the  famous  Japan  pagoda  tree,  S.  Japonica,  of  universal 
cultivation. 

The  Sophora,  or  Pink  Locust  (Sophora  affinis,  T.  &  G.), 
local  in  Arkansas  and  Texas,  is  a  small  round-headed  tree,  with 
deciduous  leaves,  pink  flowers  and  small  black  pods,  tightly 
constricted  between  the  globular  seeds. 

The  Leucaena  (Leuccena  Greggii,  Wats.)  is  a  spineless  little 
tree,  with  fme,  twice-compound  foliage  like  the  acacias,  and  white 
flowers,  whose  structure  ranks  it  with  the  mimosas.  Its  shoots 
and  petioles  are  powdered  white.  The  tree  is  cultivated  from  the 
West  Indies  to  southern  California.  It  is  found  wild  near  Key 
West,  Florida,  and  in  western  Texas. 

The  Chalky  Leucaena,  or  Mimosa  (Leuccena  pulverulenta, 
Benth.)  grows  as  a  handsome,  round-headed  tree  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Grande  River  in  Texas.  Its  leaves  and  young  shoots  are 
thickly  covered  with  white  down  when  young.  The  feathery 
foliage  and  white  flowers  and  fruit  commend  it  to  cultivators. 

The  Green-barked  Acacia  (Cercidium  floridum,  Benth.) 
is  a  little,  gnarled  tree,  rare  in  western  Texas,  whose  leaves  are 
locust-like,  but  reduced  to  very  tiny  size  in  the  dry  air.  The 
whole  tree  is  invested  with  smooth,  green  bark  which  serves  the 
office  of  foliage.  The  spiny  twigs  are  sparsely  set  with  regular 
yellow  flowers  throughout  the  summer,  with  pointed,  few-seeded 
pods,  yellow  and  papery,  coming  on  after  them.  It  is,  on  the 
whole,  a  striking  looking  tree,  and  good  to  see  in  the  desert. 

The  Sonera  Ironwood  (Olneya  Tesota,  Gray)  is  a  small 
tree,  with  hoary,  spine-beset  twigs  and  locust-like  flowers,  leaves 
and  seed  pods.  It  has  very  hard  wood.  In  the  deserts  between 
Arizona  and  Lower  California  it  is  a  most  beautiful  object  when 
in  bloom.  It  sheds  its  red  bark  in  flakes  after  the  manner  of  the 
buttonwood. 

The  Jamaica  Dogwood  {I cUhyomeihia  Piscipula,  A.  S. 
Hitch.)  grows  in  southern  Florida,  a  conspicuous  and  beautiful 
tree  when  the  great  clusters  of  pink  pea-like  blossoms  hang  on  the 
bare  branches.  The  slender  brown  pods  have  four  wide,  papery, 
longitudinal  frills.  The  hard  wood  is  used  in  boatbuilding,  and 
the  bark  of  the  roots  contains  a  drug  like  opium.  The  natives  of 
the  West  Indies  have  from  ancient  times  used  this  bark  to  stupefy 
fish  they  were  trying  to  capture, 

345 


The  f>od-bearerS 

The  Mesquite,  or  Honey  Pod  (Prosopts  juUflora,  DC.)  is  one 
of  the  wonderful  plants  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions.  It  is 
found  as  a  tree  60  feet  high  along  the  rivers  of  southern  Arizona. 
It  ranges  from  Texas  to  southern  California,  and  north  to  Colo- 
rado and  Utah.  In  arid  situations  it  becomes  a  low  shmb,  often 
with  little  to  show  above  ground.  But  the  roots  develop  to 
amazing  size.  There  is  a  central  tap  root  that  goes  in  search 
of  water,  sometimes  60  feet  below  the  surface.  Secondary  roots 
go  out  in  all  directions,  and  form  a  labyrinth  of  woody  substance, 
which  in  quantity  furnishes  the  treeless  region  with  building  and 
fencing  material  and  good  fuel.  Oxen  drag  the  mesquite  out 
by  the  roots,  and  it  is  cut  into  posts,  railroad  ties  and  frames  for 
the  adobe  houses. 

The  leaves  are  like  those  of  our  honey  locust,  but  much 
reduced  in  size.  The  tree  furnishes  little  shade.  But  young 
shoots,  leaves  and  the  greenish,  fragrant  flowers  which  come  in 
successive  crops  from  May  to  July,  are  all  cropped  eagerly  by 
cattle.  So  are  the  long,  slim,  sweet  pods  which  are  also  used  as 
food  by  Indians  and  Mexicans.  The  sharp,  spiny  branches  of 
this  shrub  make  it  a  good  hedge  plant,  and  the  complex  root 
system  makes  it  invaluable  for  the  holding  of  sand  dunes.  Alto- 
gether the  mesquite  is  one  of  the  most  useful  trees  in  the  silva 
of  this  country.  Aborigines  in  the  American  desert  might  well 
worship  it  as  the  Hindoos  do  a  related  species. 

The  Screw  Bean,  or  Screw-pod  Mesquite  (Prosopts 
puhescens,  Benth.),  with  hoary  foliage,  grows  in  the  same  region, 
and  differs  from  the  true  mesquite  chiefly  in  having  its  pods 
spirally  twisted. 


346 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday.  Pags  &  Comtany 

CLAMMY    LOCUST     (  Robinia  viscosc2) 


CHAPTER   XLI:    THE  LIGNUM-VIT;€ 

Family  Zygophyllace/e 

The  Lignum-vitae  is  Guaiacum  sanctum,  Linn. — The  chief 
reason  for  mentioning  this  tree  is  that  its  wood  is  one  of  the 
toughest  and  hardest  known  to  commerce.  It  is  very  close 
grained,  and  varies  from  dark  green  to  yellowish  brown.  It  is 
used  for  sheaths  of  ships'  blocks,  pulleys,  cogs  and  other  bearings 
in  machinery,  and  also  for  tenpin  balls.  The  heart  wood,  chipped 
and  heated,  yields  a  medicinal  gum. 

The  tree  grows  on  the  Bahamas,  the  Antilles  and  the  Florida 
Keys.  It  is  squatty  and  gnarled,  but  beautiful  in  its  silvery 
bark,  little,  lustrous,  ash-like  leaves  and  delicate  blue  flowers 
which  keep  on  opening  for  weeks.  The  fruit  is  a  little  fleshy 
5-celled  capsule  of  bright  orange  colour. 

The  West  Indian  Guiacum  officinale,  Linn.,  ranks  with  the 
species  just  described  in  commercial  importance.  No  distinction 
is  made  between  the  two  woods  in  the  trade. 


347 


CHAPTER   XLII:    THE   PRICKLY  ASH  AND  THE 
HOP  TREE 

Family  Rutace.€ 

The  rue  family  is  best  known  through  the  genus  Citrus, 
which  includes  oranges  and  lemons.  It  is  a  large  botanical  group 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  all  of  which  have  bitter  aromatic  sap,  and 
an  oil  distributed  in  glandular  dots  all  over  the  leaves. 

The  Prickly  Ash,  or  Toothache  Tree  {Fagara  Clava- 
Herculis,  Small)  has  all  the  characteristics  suggested  by  its  names. 
Its  compound  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  ash  except  that  these 
alternate  on  the  twig,  while  ash  leaves  are  always  opposite.  The 
twigs  are  set  with  sharp  prickles,  each  raised  on  a  corky  base. 
In  Arkansas,  where  the  tree  forms  thickets  of  considerable  extent, 
it  is  also  called  "tear-blanket"  and  "wait-a-bit"! 

There  is  an  acrid,  resinous  juice  in  the  twigs,  leaves  and 
bark  which  is  used  as  a  stimulant  in  medicine.  The  bark  of  the 
roots  is  especially  bitter.  The  Negro  in  the  South  chews  a  piece 
of  prickly  ash  bark  to  cure  the  toothache.  "Sting-tongue"  and 
"pepperwood"  he  calls  it,  for  it  produces  a  burning  sensation 
and  a  copious  flow  of  saliva.  Possibly  it  is  as  a  counter-irritant 
only  that  it  relieves  the  pain.  Belief  in  its  curative  powers  is 
widespread;  the  collecting  of  its  bark  has  almost  exterminated 
the  species  along  the  southeastern  coast. 

The  prickly  ash  in  its  best  estate  looks  like  a  well-grown 
apple  tree,  and  often  grows  over  40  feet  in  height.  It  is  found 
along  streams  in  sandy  soil  from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to 
Texas  and  Arkansas.  As  a  rule  it  is  under  25  feet  in  height. 
The  small,  greenish  flowers  are  clustered  on  the  ends  of  branches. 
The  birds  are  fond  of  the  aromatic  seeds  which  hang  out  of  the 
seed  cases  in  the  autumn. 

The  prickly  ash  of  the  North  is  Fagara  Americanum,  a  shrub 
found  on  mountain  slopes  from  Quebec  west  to  Nebraska  and 
Missouri,  and  south  to  Virginia.     It  will  easily  be  recognised  by 

348 


The  Prickly  Ash  and  the   Hop   Tree 

its  abundant  prickles  and  bitter  taste.  Its  leaves  have  fewer 
leaflets  than  the  Southern  species,  and  the  flowers  are  borne  in 
small,  sessile  clusters  in  the  axils  of  last  year's  leaves. 

Fagara  flava,  Kr.  and  Urb.,  is  the  "satinwood"  so  much 
sought  for  in  the  West  Indies.  It  once  grew  on  all  the  Florida 
Keys,  but  is  now  extinct  on  all  but  three  of  them.  Its  wood  has 
a  beautiful  satiny  lustre  when  polished,  and  when  fresh  sawed  has 
the  odour  of  the  true  satinwood  of  the  East  Indies. 

Fagara  Fagara,  Small,  is  a  shrubby  tree  of  this  genus  which 
is  found  growing  in  southern  Florida  and  along  the  Texas  coast. 
It  is  known  as  the  wild  lime. 

The  Hop  Tree,  or  Wafer  Ash  (Ptelea  irifoliata,  Linn.)  is 
a  pretty,  slender  tree,  widely  distributed  over  this  country. 
From  Ontario  its  range  covers  the  Eastern  States  from  New 
York  to  Florida,  throughout  the  Gulf  States  and  north  in  the 
forests  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  into  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  A 
related  species,  P.  angustifolia,  found  in  Mexico,  Colorado  and 
California,  also  occurs  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 

It  is  interesting  to  ask  why  this  little  tree  has  been  so  success- 
ful in  the  American  forests.  We  go  to  the  tree  for  an  answer. 
It  chooses  to  grow  in  the  shadow  of  taller  trees.  The  seeds  are 
plentiful  and  vigorous,  so  bitter  no  animal  eats  them,  and  they 
are  winged  for  long  flight.  These  are  reasons  enough  for  its 
success  in  life.     Besides,  the  roots  send  up  suckers. 

Warned  of  its  scattering  habits,  one  hesitates  to  introduce 
it  into  a  garden.  But  look  at  that  one!  A  neighbour  has  planted 
it  among  the  high  shrubs  that  form  the  background  of  his  fine 
perennial  border.  From  a  little  distance  the  pale  green  fruit 
masses  against  the  dark  foliage  remind  one  of  a  hop  vine  in  its 
midsummer  glory,  but  genuine  hops  are  quite  unlike  the  elm-like 
discs  on  this  hop  tree.  There  is  a  satiny  sheen  on  the  dainty 
leaves  that  make  us  desire  a  tree  of  it  for  the  foliage  alone.  They 
look  like  ash  leaves  reduced  to  three  leaflets,  and  given  an  extra 
polish  by  way  of  compensation.  Clean  and  shiny  and  circular, 
the  seeds  are  models  of  form  and  finish,  and  in  their  tropical 
abundance  they  remain  to  adorn  the  tree  even  after  the  leaves 
fall.  There  is  no  question  but  that  a  hop  tree  finds  its  best  setting 
in  a  shrubbery  border,  especially  where  the  surrounding  greens 
need  lightening.     In  such  company  it  is  a  continual  delight. 

Ptelea  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  elm— its  seeds  look  like 
349 


The  Prickly  Ash  and  the  Hop  Tree 

our  elm  keys,  grown  large  and  plump  and  smooth.  These  are 
sometimes  used  instead  of  hops  in  the  brewing  of  beer,  for  there 
is  a  tonic,  bitter  principle  contained  in  all  parts  of  the  tree,  espec- 
ially in  the  bark  and  fleshy  roots. 

The  flowers  of  the  hop  tree  are  numerous  in  terminal  clusters, 
but  they  are  so  small  and  green  they  are  rarely  noticed.  They 
appear  in  May  and  June. 

Baretta  (Helietia  parviflora,  Benth.) — ^This  small  tree  or 
shrub  grows  nowhere  but  along  the  lower  Rio  Grande  River  in 
Texas.  Its  3-parted  leaves,  bitter  bark  and  winged  seeds  suggest 
its  relationship  to  the  other  members  of  the  rue  family.  Its 
winged  seeds,  four  on  a  stem,  suggest  maple  keys  in  miniature. 

Torch  Wood  {Amyris  Elemijera,  Linn.) — Slender  as  is 
this  little  south  Florida  tree,  it  is  prized  for  fuel,  for  its  wood  is 
hard  and  close  grained,  and  full  of  an  aromatic  oily  balsam. 
Its  twigs  are  often  burned  to  give  a  perfume  in  the  room.  The 
leaves  are  much  like  those  of  the  box  elder,  opposite  and  of  three 
leaflets. 


350 


CHAPTER   XLIII:    THE   PARADISE   TREE   AND 
THE   AILANTHUS 

Family  Simarubace.^ 

The  Quassia,  or  Paradise  Tree  {Simaruba  glauca,  DC.) 
is  the  nearest  American  relative  of  the  ailanthus  tree,  which  is 
no  stranger  to  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  States.  It  grows  in 
lower  Florida  and  in  the  West  Indies — a  low,  round-headed 
tree  whose  graceful,  pinnate  leaves  are  dark  red  when  they  first 
appear,  soon  becoming  dark  green  and  shining  above,  and  pale 
beneath.  For  weeks  in  spring  the  immense  loose  clusters  of  tiny 
yellow  flowers  spread  like  a  delicate  veil  over  the  treetop.  Stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  trees  both  bear  panicles  often  2  feet  across. 

In  the  autumn  the  fertile  tree  burns  bright  with  the  scarlet 
fruit,  which  are  full  grown  as  early  as  the  end  of  April.  These 
remain  all  summer,  turning  purple,  and  falling  in  autumn.  They 
are  as  large  as  wild  plums. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  trees  in  tropical  gardens, 
as  its  name  implies.  A  related  species  in  the  islands  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  yields  a  tonic  drug,  quassin,  used  in  the  treatment 
of  malaria.  The  Florida  tree  has  bitter  sap,  and  it  is  popularly 
believed  that  to  drink  water  from  a  cup  made  of  its  wood  is  a 
cure  for  chills  and  fever. 

The  Ailanthus  {Ailanthus  glandidosa,  Desf.)  is  an  immigrant 
from  China  which  has  sprung  into  popularity  as  a  city  street 
tree.  A  Long  Island  nurseryman  introduced  the  tree  in  1820. 
New  York  City  and  Brooklyn  planted  the  saplings  extensively 
Smoke  and  dust  do  not  seem  to  injure  their  great,  fern-like  leaves. 
They  throve  in  sterile  and  worn-out  soil,  shading  hot  pavements 
and  clothing  waste  places  with  verdure. 

Then  came  the  blossoming,  and  the  inch  worm!  The  stam- 
inate  trees  had  a  rank  odour,  and  the  pollen  annoyed  people 
with  catarrh.  Caterpillars  revelled  on  the  luxuriant  foliage,  and 
dropped  upon  passersby.    A  tide  of  feeling  against  these  trees 

351 


The  Paradise  Tree  and  the  Ailanthus 

swept  the  cities.  An  effort  was  made  to  get  rid  of  them.  But 
no  such  effort  can  be  made  unanimous.  The  caterpillar  nuisance 
was  soon  controlled  by  the  birds.  It  was  found  that  only  stam- 
inate  trees  are  malodorous,  and  the  blossoming  period  is  soon 
over.  Pistillate  trees  can  be  guaranteed  to  planters  by  taking 
cuttings  for  nursery  stock  from  pistillate  trees  only.  The  ailanthus 
is  now  rated  at  its  real  value.  It  is  certainly  a  luxuriant  tree 
and  especially  adapted  for  city  planting.  The  dead,  stiff  appear- 
ance of  the  tree  in  winter  is  forgiven  when  spring  sets  the  sap 
astir  once  more. 

Ailanthus  leaflets  are  plain  margined  except  for  a  tooth  or 
two  near  the  base.  The  long  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  sumachs. 
The  opening  leaves  and  later  the  ripening  fruit  clusters  exhibit 
most  beautiful  variations  of  rich  colour — pinks,  reds  and  bronzes. 
Somebody  is  sure  to  harbour  a  seedling  tree  whose  pollen  fertil- 
ises the  pistillate  flowers  of  a  whole  neighbourhood.  A  fruiting 
tree  in  late  summer  looks  like  a  great  hydrangea. 

The  vigour  of  ailanthus  seedlings  is  amazing.  Suckers  ten 
feet  high  shoot  up  in  one  season.  They  appear  in  the  most 
unexpected  places.  The  tilting  rafts  on  which  the  seeds  are 
borne  carry  them  with  the  wind,  and  lusty  young  trees  come  up  in 
crannies  of  city  back  yards,  covering  unsightly  objects  with  their 
graceful  plumes  of  green.  I  have  seen  seedlings  throw  up  leafy 
shoots  8  feet  long  and  an  inch  through,  bearing  leaves  nearly  a 
yard  long — all  in  one  season.  But  these  are  youngsters,  growing 
in  exceptionally  rich  soil.  Such  lusty  growers  are  peculiarly 
subject  to  accidents.  The  wind  breaks  off  limbs,  and  the  trunks 
become  riddled  with  decay. 

Short-lived  as  ailanthus  trees  are,  they  soon  replace  them- 
selves. ThHr  popularity  is  not  likely  to  decline.  The  traveller 
in  Europe  will  fmd  them  in  evidence  in  the  parks  and  along  the 
boulevards  of  Paris  and  other  cities.  In  Peking  they  are  favourite 
shade  and  ornamental  trees,  for  the  ailanthus  is  the  Chinaman's 
"Tree  of  Heaven." 

An  effective  use  of  the  ailanthus  is  to  plant  a  few  seeds  along 
a  fence  or  boundary  line.  Cut  back  the  young  trees  to  a  few 
feet  high  each  spring,  and  a  beautiful  leafy  screen  will  result. 


352 


CHAPTER   XLIV:     THE   MAHOGANY   AND  THE 
GUMBO   LIMBO 

I.  Family  Meliace^ 

The  Mahogany  (Swtetenta  Mahogani,  Jacq.)  is  the  true 
mahogany  whose  heavy,  brownish-red  wood  is  so  highly  valued 
by  the  makers  of  elegant  furniture.  In  Central  America  and  in 
the  West  Indies  it  grows  to  great  size,  and  is  remarkable  in  having 
huge  buttresses  extending  out  from  the  base  of  its  lofty  trunk. 
In  the  Florida  Keys  it  attains  but  medium  size,  and  the  greed 
of  lumbermen  usually  sacrifices  the  half-grown  trees.  It  is 
known  as  "Madeira,"  and  is  used  in  boat  building. 

Nurserymen  in  Florida  and  southern  California  offer  small 
mahogany  trees  for  ornamental  planting.  The  potted  specimens 
bloom  when  quite  young.  The  tree  has  graceful,  slender  branches, 
delicate,  shiny,  ash-like  leaves,  and  light  sprays  of  tiny  white 
flowers.  The  fruits  are  heavy,  brown,  4-valved  capsules  as  large 
as  lemons  and  full  of  winged  seeds. 

The  wood,  beside  being  beautiful  in  colour  and  in  pattern 
of  grain,  becomes  richer  in  tone  with  age,  and  seems  impervious 
to  decay.  The  finest  grades  of  this  wood  grow  on  upland  lime- 
stone soil.  The  Florida  trees  do  not  furnish  this  first-grade 
lumber. 

The  China  Berry,  Chinese  Umbrella  Tree,  or  Pride  of 
India  {Melia  A^ederach,  Linn.),  is  a  relative  of  the  mahogany. 
It  came  from  China  into  European  and  American  gardens  long 
ago.  It  grows  easily  from  seed,  and  rapidly  becomes  a  most 
admirable  shade  tree.  In  April  it  bears  a  profusion  of  fragrant, 
lilac-coloured  flowers,  succeeded  by  yellowish  berries.  The 
leaves  are  bright  and  luxuriant,  and  remain  so  until  late  in  the 
autumn,  when  they  are  gradually  shed. 

The  variety  umhraculiformis  is  the  one  most  commonly 
planted.  It  is  known  as  the  Texas  umbrella  tree.  The  only 
fault  I  find  with  this  tree  is  the  shortness  of  its  trunk  and  the 

353 


The  Mahogany  and  the  Gumbo  Limbo 

density  of  its  leaf  thatch.  It  cuts  off  the  hfe-giving  breezes  too 
often  and  too  well.  The  native  Floridian's  one-story  house  set  low 
in  the  midst  of  his  garden  soon  has  its  windows  and  doors  choked 
by  the  "China  trees"  that  were  set  too  close  to  each  other  and  to 
the  house. 

2.  Family  Burserace^c 

The  Gumbo  Limbo  (Bur sera  Simaruha,  Sarg.),  sole  arbores- 
cent species  of  the  single  genus  of  its  family  represented-  in  the 
United  States,  is  a  tree  very  commonly  met  with  in  southern 
Florida.  It  is  the  only  native  tree  that  sheds  its  leaves  in  the 
autumn.  This  habit  it  shares  with  the  ubiquitous  China  tree  of 
the  Southern  garden.  Winter  reveals  a  round-headed  tree,  with 
stout  horizontal  limbs,  trunk  and  branches  covered  with  reddish- 
brown  bark,  which  peels  off  in  thin  flakes  of  irregular  sizes.  The 
soft  wood  easily  falls  a  prey  to  disease  and  insect  injury;  a  tree 
50  feet  high  often  falls  to  pieces  from  these  causes.  The  species 
reminds  one  of  willows  in  its  ability  to  sprout  from  the  stump 
and  from  fragments  of  any  size  set  in  the  ground.  Fence  posts 
are  soon  clothed  in  verdant  foliage  if  cut  from  a  gumbo  limbo  tree 
and  driven  at  once.  Screens  and  hedges  are  made  by  sticking 
twigs  into  the  ground. 

Gumbo  limbo  is  a  popular  street  and  lawn  tree;  its  ash-like 
leaves,  very  new  and  fresh,  make  a  grateful  summer  shade. 

The  flowers  appear  with  the  leaves  in  early  spring.  They 
are  borne  in  lateral  elongated  clusters;  the  individual  blossoms 
are  imperfect  and  inconspicuous  in  size  and  colour,  the  two  sorts 
on  separate  trees.  The  fruit  looks  like  a  green  berry  as  it  develops, 
but  it  breaks  in  ripening  in  a  dry,  3-valved  pod,  each  cell  of  which 
contains  two  triangular  red  seeds. 

Beside  its  horticultural  uses,  the  tree  is  valuable  for  a  resinous 
gum  which  exudes  from  wounds  in  the  trunk.  This  is  made  into 
varnish,  and  was  formerly  used  in  the  treatment  of  gout.  The 
Florida  "cracker"  makes  tea  of  the  leaves  when  "store  tea"  is 
not  at  hand. 


354 


CHAPTER  XLV:  THE  SUMACHS  AND  THE 
SMOKE  TREE 

Family  Anacardiace/E 

I.  Genus  RHUS,  Linn. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs  with  stout,  pithy  branchlets,  and 
viscid,  usually  milky,  juice.  Leaves  alternate,  usually  pinnately 
compound.  Flowers  minute,  greenish,  polygamo-dioecious,  in 
compound  panicles.     Fruit  a  small,  dry  drupe. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  pinnate,  of  9  to  3 1  leaflets,  deciduous. 

B.  Fruit  whitish,  in  loose,  drooping,  axillary  panicles. 

(R.  Vernix)  poison  sumach 
BB.  Fruit  red,  in  erect,  compact  terminal  panicles. 

C.  Branches,    fruit    clusters    and    leaf   stalks    densely 
hairy;  leaflets  11  to  31 ;  juice  milky. 

{R.  hirta)  staghorn  sumach 
CC.  Branches,  fruit  clusters  and  leaf  stalks  pubescent; 
rachis  winged;  leaflets  9  to  21 ;  juice  watery. 

(R.  copallina)  dwarf  sumach 
AA.  Leaves  simple,  evergreen. 

(R.  tntegrifolta)  western  sumach 

The  sumachs  form  a  temperate  zone  genus  of  a  great  tropical 
family,  comprising  fifty  genera  and  400  species.  There  are  about 
120  species  of  the  genus  Rhus;  they  are  most  abundant  in  South 
Africa.  Sixteen  species  are  found  in  North  America,  only  four 
of  which  are  ever  trees.  Of  these,  none  compare  in  economic 
importance  with  the  sumach  cultivated  in  southern  Europe, 
whose  leaves  contain  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid,  and  are 
regularly  gathered  and  dried,  and  used  in  the  tanning  of  fme 
leathers.  The  pistachio-nut  tree,  from  Asia  Minor,  now  cultivated 
in  southern  California,  is  a  relative  of  our  roadside  sumachs,  as 
is  also  the  turpentine  tree  of  southern  Europe.  They  belong  to 
the  genus  Pistacia,  and  are  both  commercially  important. 

355 


The  Sumachs  and  the  Smoke  Tree 

The  Japanese  lacquer  tree  (Rhus  vernicifera,  DC.)  exceeds  all 
other  species  in  value;  its  sap  is  the  black  varnish  used  in  making 
lacquered  wares.  Each  year  about  1 30,000  gallons  of  this  valuable 
substance  are  gathered  in  Japan  and  China.  Each  little  tree 
yields  but  a  few  ounces,  and  is  killed  by  the  draining  process. 
The  acrid  juice  of  R.  Vernix,  our  poison  sumach,  is  milky  and 
turns  black  on  exposure  to  the  air,  forming  a  substance  very 
much  like  the  lacquer  varnish. 

Staghorn  Sumach,  Hairy  Sumach  {Rhus  hirta,  Sudw.) — 
A  low,  flat-topped  tree,  30  to  35  feet  high,  with  branches  stout, 
erect,  forked  many  times,  and  densely  velvety.  Bark  smooth, 
brown;  hair  on  branches  soft,  long,  and  changing  from  pink  to 
green  the  first  year;  later,  dark,  short;  shed  the  third  or  fourth 
year.  JVood  light,  coarse,  soft,  brittle,  but  satiny  when  polished, 
green  streaked  with  orange.  Buds  pointed,  in  summer  covered 
by  leaf  base,  in  winter  almost  buried.  Leaves  pinnate;  leaflets 
II  to  3 1 ,  narrow,  pointed,  serrate,  dark  green  above,  pale  to  white 
beneath;  velvety;  autumn  colours  scarlet,  orange  and  purple. 
Flowers,  June,  inconspicuous,  greenish,  in  dense,  conical,  hairy 
clusters,  the  two  sorts  on  separate  trees.  Fruit  tiny,  globular 
acid  drupes,  densely  hairy,  red,  in  large,  compact  panicles,  which 
remain  through  the  winter.  Preferred  habitat,  uplands  and 
gravelly  banks.  Distribution,  southern  Canada  to  Winnipeg; 
south  to  Georgia  and  Mississippi.  Uses  :  Planted  as  an  orna- 
mental for  its  foliage  and  fruit.  Wood  used  for  walking  sticks, 
and  for  inlaying  boxes,  tabourettes  and  other  fancy  articles. 
Twigs  used  as  pipes  to  draw  maple  sap  from  the  trees. 

This  largest  of  Northern  sumachs  is  constantly  seen  on 
railroad  embankments,  in  fence  rows,  and  along  the  highways 
of  wooded  regions.  In  the  summer  its  fern-like  foliage  covers 
all  the  ugliness  of  the  most  unsightly  bank,  and  lifts  among  the 
green  its  fine  clusters  of  ruddy  or  pink  blossoms.  In  the  fall 
these  are  lost  sight  of  amid  the  glory  of  the  leaves,  which  turn 
to  all  shades  of  orange  and  purple  and  red.  For  weeks  they 
flame  and  glow  in  the  soft  autumn  sunshine,  then  fade  and  fall, 
and  the  bare  antlered  branches,  like  candelabra,  hold  aloft  the 
pointed  red  fruit  clusters  which  burn  on  with  gradual  abatement 
to  the  middle  of  winter. 

The  glory  of  the  staghorn  sumach's  colouring  makes  it  one 
of  the  most  desirable  of  ornamental  trees  for  fall  and  winter 

356 


THK    SlACiHORN    SUMACH    {Rhus    hiria) 
Foliage,  fruit,  and   all  the  younger  branches   of  this  much-forked  sumach  tree,  are  dei 
petioles  dilate  at  the  base,  and  their  detachment  leaves  a  circular  scar.     The  winter  bud 
and  it  never  sees  the  light  until  the  leaf  falls.     The  foliage  turns  to  vivid  red  in  autumn, 
ter,  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.     The  species  is  an  admirable  cover  for  rocky  slopes 


sely  clothed  with  stiff  hairs.  The 
s  capped  by  this  conical  leaf  base. 
The  fruits  persist  late  into  the  win- 


THE  POISON  SUMACH  {Rhus  Vernix) 
White  berries  in  drooping  clvisters,  growing  with 
•mooth  foliage  of  brilliant  autumn  colouring  in  swampy 
ground  set  apart  the  deadliest  of  the  sumachs.  Touch- 
ing the  plant  is  far  worse  than  handling  poison  ivy. 
The  twigs  are  pale  grey  La  winter,  dotted  thickly  with 
lenticels  (breathing  pores) 


THE  DWARF  SUMACH  {Rhus  copallina) 
This  tree  is  shrubby  in  the  North.  The  new  growth  is  coated  with 
fine,  silky  down.  The  leaves  are  lustrous  and  smooth  above,  and 
lined  with  soft  hairs.  The  central  leaf  stalk  is  wirg-niargined 
between  the  pairs  of  leaflets.  The  twigs  are  brown  and  marked 
with  breathing  pores.  The  prominent  leaf  scars  give  the  twigs  a. 
zigzag  appearance. 


Pistillate  flowers 


THE   SMOOTH    SUMACH  {Rh 


This  is  rarely  a  trer  at  all,  hut  is  familiar  as  a  roadside  shrub.  The  foliage  and  flower  cluster  are  smooth,  the  stems 
coated  with  a  pale  bloom.  The  ruddy  leaves  and  fruit  glow  brightly  against  duller  backgrounds  in  autumn  and  winter.  A 
pleasant  beverage  is  made  of  the  acid  fruits.     This  is  one  of  the  best  sumachs  for  decorative  planting,  especially  for  autumn  effects 


The  Sumachs  and  the  Smoke  Tree 

colour  effects.  Its  habit  of  spreading  by  root  suckers  makes 
it  objectionable  for  planting  except  in  situations  where  the 
trees  can  spread  unchecked,  and  the  massed  effect  of  the 
foliage  can  be  enjoyed  at  some  distance.  The  fern-like 
leaves  are  much  larger  if  the  plants  are  cut  back  severely 
each  spring.  For  screen  and  border  shrubs  this  species  is 
very  satisfactory. 

The  Dwarf,  Black,  or  Mountain  Sumach  (Rhus  copallina, 
Linn.),  is  the  soft,  velvety  species,  fully  as  handsome,  if  not  quite 
as  large,  as  the  preceding  one.  it  grows  all  over  the  eastern  half 
of  the  United  States  and  beyond  the  Mississippi  to  the  foothills 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Usually  a  shrub,  it  rises  to  30  feet  in 
height  in  the  mountains  of  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  It  is 
the  latest  of  all  the  sumachs  to  bloom.  Its  long  pinnate  leaves 
are  lined  with  soft  hair,  and  the  central  leaf  stem  is  winged  on 
each  side  between  the  pairs  of  leaflets.  These  are  the  most  beau- 
tiful leaves  to  be  found  in  the  sumach  family.  They  turn  in 
autumn  to  dark,  rich  reds. 

In  the  South,  the  leaves  are  gathered  in  summer  in  considerable 
quantities,  for  they  are  rich  in  tannin,  and  when  dried  and  pulver- 
ised, are  used  for  tanning  leather.  A  yellow  dyestuff  is  also 
extracted  from  them. 

The  Poison  Sumach  (Rhus  Vernix,  Linn.),  "one  of  the 
most  beautiful,  but  unfortunately  the  most  poisonous  of  the 
sumachs,"  ranges  from  New  England  to  Minnesota,  south  to 
Georgia,  and  across  to  Texas.  It  is  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the 
poison  ivy,  or  the  poisonwood  of  Florida,  both  of  which  are  near 
relatives.  Though  widely  distributed,  it  always  grows  in  swampy 
land,  and  as  its  leaves  and  flowers  proclaim  it  a  sumach,  people 
ought  to  learn  to  suspect  it  because  of  its  habitat.  Only  red- 
fruited  sumachs  are  safe  to  touch.  This  species  has  greyish- 
white  berries.  The  clusters  droop;  in  harmless  sumachs  they 
stand  erect. 

White  berries  in  drooping  clusters  in  swampy  ground  warn 
the  collector  to  pass  the  poison  sumach  by,  no  matter  how  alluring 
its  brilliant  foliage.  There  is  certain  poisoning  for  those  who 
are  rash  enough  to  touch  it. 

The  ^Veste^n  Sumach,  or  Mahogany  (Rhus  integrifolia, 
Benth.  &  Hook.),  is  entirely  different,  of  course,  from  the  true 
mahogany,  a  lumber  tree  of  the  tropics.    This  is  a  low,  stout- 

?57 


The  Sumachs  and  the  Smoke  Tree 

trunked  evergreen  tree  which  forms  thickets  along  the  coast 
bluffs  of  Lower  California  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  leaves 
are  simple,  oval,  and  often  toothed  like  the  holly.  Its  flowers  are 
in  scant  terminal  clusters,  white  or  rosy,  succeeded  by  large,  red, 
hairy  berries.  A  cooling  drink  is  sometimes  made  of  the  acid, 
fatty  exudations  of  these  berries,  and  the  wood  makes  good  fuel. 
The  Smooth  Sumach  (R.  glabra,  Linn.)  is  rarely  given 
rank  as  a  tree,  though  it  sometimes  almost  deserves  it.  Like 
the  staghorn,  this  species  has  serrate  leaflets  and  dense,  erect 
clusters  of  red  fruit.  But  it  is  smooth  instead  of  hairy,  except 
its  fruits,  and  its  twigs  have  a  pale,  glaucous  bloom.  This  is 
one  of  the  best  species  for  decorative  planting.  Its  foliage  is 
clean  and  fme,  and  turns  to  rich  colours  in  fall.  Its  large  fruits 
last  late  into  winter.  The  berries,  bark  and  leaves  are  used  in  the 
treatment  of  fevers.  A  cooling  beverage,  pleasantly  acid,  is 
made  of  the  unripe  fruit  in  summer.  This  species  is  found 
everywhere  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  extends  to  British 
Columbia  and  Arizona.  It  is  oftenest  seen  in  situations  chosen 
also  by  the  staghorn  sumach. 

2.  Genus  METOPIUM,  P.  Br. 

The  Poison  Wood,  or  Hog  Gum  (Metopmm  Meiopium, 
Small),  a  beautiful  little  West  Indian  sumach,  breathes  poison 
from  its  flowers  and  leaves  not  unlike  that  exhaled  by  Rhus 
toxicodendron,  the  poison  ivy.  The  bitter,  poisonous  juice  exudes 
as  a  gum  from  cracks  in  the  thin,  orange-brown  bark.  In  lower 
Florida  the  tree  is  abundant  along  the  coast,  and  on  the  Keys. 
There  is  an  old  account  that  says:  "Wild  Hogs,  when  wounded, 
by  natural  instinct  come  to  this  tree,  where  by  rubbing  its  balsam 
on  their  wounds,  they  are  cured."  Its  leaves  are  pinnate,  some- 
what ash-like,  and  the  drooping  clusters  of  glossy,  orange-red 
berries  have  given  the  tree  the  name,  Coral  Sumach. 

3.  Genus  COTINUS,  Linn. 

The  American  Smoke  Tree  (Cotinus  Americamis,  Nutt.) 
shows  by  its  pithy  stems,  aromatic,  resinous  juice,  and  general 
habit,  its  kinship  with  the  sumachs,  which  are  better  known. 

358 


The  Sumachs  and  the  Smoke  Tree 

The  large,  simple  leaves,  4  to  6  inches  long  and  half  as  wide,  are 
not  like  sumach  leaves;  the  flowers,  however,  are  carried  aloft 
in  terminal  panicles,  each  sort  on  separate  trees,  and  these,  as 
well  as  the  individual  nutlets,  are  sumach-like.  In  a  panicle  only 
one  flower  in  a  hundred  sets  seed,  so  as  a  fruit  cluster  it  is  a  very 
scant  one.  Instead  of  fruits  these  panicles  show  a  peculiar 
feathery  development  of  the  bracts.  These  graceful  and  delicate 
plumes,  tinted  pink  to  green,  form  in  the  aggregate  a  great  cloud 
of  rosy  haze  or  smoke,  that  makes  it  a  thing  of  beauty  in  the 
late  summer.  Then  it  earns  its  common  names,  smoke  tree  and 
mist  tree. 

The  species  ranges  from  Tennessee  to  Oklahoma,  and  south 
into  Alabama  and  Texas.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  gardens,  but 
it  cannot  compete  in  hardiness  nor  in  vigour  nor  showiness  with 
the  much  more  commonly  cultivated  Coiinus  Cotinus,  Sarg.,  the 
Venetian  sumach,  or  European  smoke  tree. 


359 


CHAPTER   XLVI:     THE   HOLLIES 

Family  Aquifoliace/^ 

Genus  ILEX,  Linn. 

Trees  of  small  size,  or  shrubs.  Leaves  simple,  alternate, 
petioled.  Flowers  minute,  axillary,  dioecious  or  polygamous. 
Fruit,  a  berry-like  drupe. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Foliage  evergreen. 

B.  Leaves  spiny.  (/,  opaca)  American  holly 

BB.  Leaves  not  spiny. 

C.  Length  2  to  4  inches,  margins  mostly  entire. 

(/.  Cassine)  dahoon 
CC.  Length  i  to  2  inches,  margins  crenate. 

(/.  vomitoria)  yaupon 
AA.  Foliage  deciduous. 

B.  Leaves  blunt  pointed,  crenate,  i  ^  to  2^  inches  long. 

(/.  decidua)  swamp  holly 
BB.  Leaves  taper  pointed,  serrate,  3  to  6  inches  long, 

(/.  moniicold)  mountain  holly 

The  holly  family  is  distributed  in  every  continent,  and 
ranges  from  the  North  Temperate  to  the  South  Temperate  zones. 
Many  species  are  tropical.  They  are  all  trees  or  shrubs,  the 
centre  of  whose  distribution  seems  to  be  in  South  America.  Of 
the  175  species,  about  seventy  are  found  in  northern  Brazil. 

The  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  to  which  the  people  of  South 
America  are  addicted  as  North  Americans  are  to  tea  and  coffee, 
is  made  of  the  dried  and  powdered  leaves  of  two  holly  trees  of 
Paraguay.  Chief  of  these  is  Ilex  Paraguariensis.  These  are  the 
most  important  species,  in  a  commercial  sense.  "Verba  mate" 
has  a  remarkable  stimulating  effect  upon  the  human  system, 
fortifying  it  for  incredible  exertion  and  endurance.  Indulged  in 
to  excess,  it  has  much  the  same  effect  as  alcohol, 

China  and  Japan  have  thirty  different  species  of  hollies, 
360 


The  HoUiefi 

some  of  which  are  coming  into  cultivation  in  America.  Europe 
has  but  one  species.  America  has  fourteen,  four  of  which  assume 
tree  form;  the  rest  are  shrubby  "winterberries." 

There  are  1 53  distinct  varieties  of  the  European  Ilex  Aqui- 
jolium  in  cultivation.  No  more  popular  ornamental  is  grown. 
The  Englishman  looks  out  upon  his  bloomless  garden  in  winter 
time, 

"  And  sees  the  clustered  berries  bright 
Among  the  holly's  gay  green  leaves." 

It  is  more,  I  think,  than  a  poet's  fancy  that  holly  leaves  are 
dull  in  summer  in  contrast  with  other  foliage,  only  to  gleam 
brilliant  as  polished  leather  when  other  broad-leaved  trees  are 
bare.  The  fell-fare,  a  little  thrush,  eats  these  tempting  red 
berries  in  winter,  to  the  disgust  of  narrow-minded  gardeners. 

Ilex  is  the  name  by  which  the  holm  oak  of  southern  Europe 
has  always  been  popularly  known.  Its  leaf  resembles  that  of  the 
holly  with  which  it  grows  in  the  wild.  Linnaeus  dropped  the  old 
name,  Aqiiijolium  (sharp  leaf),  which  the  holly  had  been  called. 
The  European  species  became  Ilex  Aquijolium  and  the  oak  Quercus 
Ilex. 

Its  sharp  leaf,  far  more  spiny  and  deeply  cleft  than  that  of 
our  species,  and  the  lustrous  sheen  of  leaf  and  scarlet  berry 
make  the  European  holly  handsomer  than  the  American.  Its 
specific  name,  opaca,  meaning  dull,  reminds  us  of  the  inferiority 
of  the  latter. 

Holly  and  mistletoe  are  inseparably  linked  in  traditions  of 
the  English  Christmas.  The  Druid  feasts  gave  these  two  plants 
prominent  places  in  pagan  rites,  and  they  have  come  down  to 
modern  times  with  few  changes.  Old  chroniclers  and  ballad 
makers  kept  the  ancient  usages  fresh  in  mind,  and  to-day  the 
English  gentleman  re-enacts  the  customs  of  his  forefathers  right 
loyally,  as  he  celebrated  Christmas  with  all  his  tenantry  in  the 
great  hall. 

"The  mistletoe  hung  in  the  castle  hall 
And  the  holly  branch  hung  on  the  old  oak  wall^ 
The  baron's  retainers  were  blythe  and  gay 
Keeping  their  Christmas  holiday." 

Away  back  of  the  Christian  Era,  not  the  Druids  only,  but 
the  pagan  tribes  of  Continental  Europe,  especially  those  under 
the  rule  of  Rome,  sent  holly  branches  to  each  other  as  token  of 

361 


The  Hollies 

goodwill,  and  decked  their  dwellings  with  them  in  celebration  of 
the  feast  of  the  Saturnalia — "the  turning  of  the  sun."  The 
gradual  lengthening  of  the  days  in  late  December  mitigated  the 
cold  which  brought  so  much  suffering  to  rich  and  poor  in  the 
crude  dwellings  of  the  times.  Yuletide,  the  feast  of  the  Celtic 
sun  god,  Yaioul,  gradually  and  naturally  gave  way  to  the  later 
celebration  of  Christmas.  The  Aquijolmm  became  the  Christ- 
ihorn,  or  Christdorn — the  "holy  tree,"  afterward  called  "holly." 
It  was  regarded  by  devout  people  as  a  symbol  of  the  Saviour's 
crown  of  thorns. 

Though  only  half  hardy  in  the  latitude  of  New  York  and 
Boston,  many  varieties  of  Ilex  Aquifolium  are  to  be  found  in 
American  gardens,  and  where  necessary  are  tied  up  in  straw 
for  the  winter.  The  beauty  of  these  little  trees  amply  repays  all 
the  care  they  cost.  Just  one  of  the  American  species,  /.  opaca, 
might  be  confused  with  this  one. 

Hollies  are  multiplied  by  ripened  wood  cuttings,  by  grafting 
and  budding,  and  by  seeds,  which  germinate  the  second  year  after 
planting.  The  seedlings  require  transplanting  after  their  second 
year  of  growth.  Evergreen  hollies  must  be  stripped  of  all  their 
leaves  whenever  transplanted.  Young  trees  are  moved  with 
comparative  safety.     The  best  time  is  early  fall  or  early  spring. 

The  hollies  introduced  from  Japan  include  the  species  /. 
laiijolia,  a  large  tree  in  its  native  land,  with  long,  glossy  leaves 
and  large  red  berries  in  abundance.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  hardy  trees  in  the  family.  /.  Sieholdi,  is  a  slender 
shrub  with  dainty  leaves  and  scarlet  berries.  It  is  like  the  native 
black  alder,  but  smaller  in  all  its  parts.  Two  forms  of  this  species 
are  grown. 

Of  our  native  shrubby  hollies,  the  two  winterberries,  /. 
kevtgata  and  /.  verticellata,  are  far  the  most  ornamental.  The 
latter  is  the  black  alder,  found  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf,  and  west 
to  Wisconsin  and  Missouri.  Its  leaves  blacken  after  heavy 
frost,  but  the  abundant  red  berries  remain,  untouched  by  birds, 
late  into  the  winter.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  hardy  shrubs  for 
winter  brightness  in  the  shrubby  border.  Its  fruit-laden  branches 
gathered  in  the  wild  are  sold  for  Christmas  decorations. 

American  Holly  {Ilex  opaca,  Ait.) — A  slow-growing,  pyra- 
midal tree,  20  to  45  feet  high,  with  short,  horizontal  branches. 
Bark  grey,   warty;   twigs   brown.     V/ood  white,   close   grained,. 

362 


The  Hollies 

tough,  not  Strong.  Buds  short,  pointed,  brown.  Leaves  2  to  4 
inches  long,  oval,  leathery,  shiny,  with  wavy  margin,  veins 
ending  in  sharp,  stiff  spines;  persistent  three  years.  Flowers 
small,  white,  axillary  in  clusters,  dioecious.  Fruits  bright  red 
(rarely  yellow),  dry  berries,  containing  4  bony  nutlets,  remaining 
all  winter.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  woodlands.  Distribution, 
southern  Maine  to  Florida  and  throughout  Gulf  States;  north  into 
Indiana  and  Missouri.  Maximum  size  in  Texas.  Uses:  Valuable 
ornamental  and  hedge  trees.  Wood  used  as  engravers'  blocks,  for 
tool  handles,  whip  stocks,  walking  sticks  and  for  inlay  work. 
Branches  for  Christmas  greens. 

It  is  rare  to  fmd  a  wood  which  so  closely  imitates  ivory  in 
colour  and  texture  as  holly  wood  does.  This  makes  it  the  delight 
of  the  carver  and  decorator.  Scroll  work  and  turnery  employ  it. 
Trunks  of  it  form  the  rollers  by  which  calicoes  are  printed.  But 
the  Southern  woods  and  barren  fallow  fields  where  the  holly 
grows  are  invaded  every  fall  by  collectors  who  cut  the  trees 
down,  strip  them  of  their  twigs,  and  leave  the  trunks  to  rot  upon 
the  ground.  These  twigs  go  to  Northern  cities,  and  retail  dealers 
display  in  quantities,  as  wreaths  and  loose  clusters,  the  evergreen 
leaves,  bright  with  scarlet  berries.  In  the  remotest  village  one 
may  now  buy  a  sprig  for  his  buttonhole  to  usher  in  the  Christmas 
holiday.  The  supply  is  still  ample,  but  no  means  of  renewing  it  is 
being  practised,  and  Nature  will  not  be  able  to  keep  up  much 
longer  with  the  increasing  demand,  and  the  wasteful  methods 
of  gathering  the  annual  harvest.  It  will  not  be  long  before  the 
engraver  will  have  to  buy  holly  wood,  as  he  does  the  Eastern 
boxwood,  by  the  pound.  The  European  holly  and  the  American 
are  not  essentially  different  in  the  quality  and  appearance  of  their 
wood. 

The  Dahoon  (Ilex  Cassine,  Linn.)  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree 
which  grows  on  pine  barrens  and  in  low  woods  along  the  coast 
from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  into  Louisiana.  Its  evergreen 
leaf  is  shiny  above  and  twice  as  long  as  that  of  Ilex  opaca,  but  it 
has  only  occasionally  a  faint  suggestion  of  teeth  near  the  tip; 
and  it  has  no  spines  at  all.  The  twigs  and  midribs  of  the  leaves 
are  downy.  The  berries  are  dull  red.  A  white-stemmed,  narrow- 
leaved  variety,  myrtijolia,  is  quite  distinct  from  the  type. 

The  Yaupon  {Ilex  vomitoria.  Ait.)  is  a  shrubby  tree  of  spread- 
ing habit  with  very  small  oval,  evergreen  leaves  and  many  red 


The  Hollies 

berries.  It  grows  from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Texas 
and  Arkansas.  The  Indians  made  their  famous  "Black  Drink" 
by  boiling  the  leaves  of  this  tree.  This  nauseating  beverage  was 
persistently  drunk  for  several  days  with  the  notion  that  the 
system  was  thoroughly  cleansed  by  the  process.  This  purifica- 
tion was  a  yearly  ceremonial  in  which  the  whole  tribe  took  a  part. 

The  Swamp,  or  Meadow  Holly  {Ilex  decidua,  Walt.)  grows 
in  wet  soil  throughout  the  South,  its  northern  limits  being  Virginia 
and  Kansas.  Generally  a  shrub,  it  becomes  a  tree  30  feet  high 
in  Texas,  Arkansas  and  Missouri.  The  thin  brown  bark  is  cov- 
ered with  warty  outgrowths.  Its  most  striking  characteristic 
is  the  silvery  grey  bark  of  its  twigs.  The  deciduous  leaves  are 
tapering  at  the  base  and  blunt,  often  notched,  at  the  apex.  The 
red  berries  are  flattened. 

The  Mountain  Holly  {Ilex  monticola,  Gray.)  has  a  thin, 
serrated  leaf  that  might  be  mistaken  for  a  cherry  or  plum  leaf, 
except  that  it  is  usually  larger.  This  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
of  the  tree  hollies.  Its  fruit  is  as  large  as  a  cherry.  Unfortu- 
nately, leaves  and  fruit  fall  early,  so  they  cannot  be  used  for  deco- 
ration. The  tree  is  found  in  mountain  woods  from  New  York  to 
Alabama,  following  the  Appalachian  chain  to  its  southern  limits. 
The  species  is  shrubby  except  in  the  two  Carolinas. 


364 


CHAPTER   XLVII:     THE   BURNING  BUSH 

Family  Celastrace^ 

Evonymus  atropurpureus,  J  acq. — ^This  dainty  little  American 
tree  skirts  the  edges  of  deep  woods  from  western  New  York  to 
Montana,  and  south  to  Florida  and  Arkansas.  The  foliage  is 
not  noticeable,  and  the  tree  might  be  mistaken  for  a  wild  plum, 
except  for  its  fluted  ash-grey  bark.  The  close  observer  will 
see  that  the  leaves  are  opposite.  The  flowers  in  their  axillary 
clusters  spread  flat  their  four  purple  petals  to  support  a  square 
platform  that  bears  the  stamens  and  pistils.  They  are  suc- 
ceeded by  equally  strange-looking  fruits.  Four  flattish  lobes, 
deeply  separated,  turn  to  pale  purple  as  they  reach  full  size. 
The  whole  fruit  is  one-half  inch  across  in  October.  The  purple 
husk  parts  and  reveals  the  seed,  enveloped  in  a  scarlet  outer 
coat  that  fits  it  loosely.  The  delicate  pale  lining  of  the  purple 
envelope  makes  harmony  between  the  two  stronger  colours, 
and  the  plum-coloured  twigs  and  yellow  leaves  contribute  to  make 
this  indeed  a  burning  bush,  that  glows  brighter  as  the  advancing 
winter  opens  all  the  husks  and  displays  the  scarlet  seeds.  No 
brighter  dash  of  colour  can  be  added  to  gardens  or  shrubbery 
borders  than  this  tree,  which  shows  its  beauty  chiefly  in  the 
dead  of  winter.  It  does  not  require  botanical  knowledge  to 
recognise  that  the  climbing  false  bittersweet,  Celastrus  scandens, 
is  a  very  near  relative. 

The  European  Evonymus  is  called  spindle  tree,  for  its  wood 
has  long  been  used  in  making  spindles,  knitting  needles,  and 
other  small  articles  requiring  hard,  close-textured  wood.  Tooth- 
picks and  skewers  are  made  of  it,  and  the  English  often  call  the 
tree  prickwood  for  this  reason.  Our  species  is  locally  known 
as  the  wahoo.  Chinese  and  Japanese  species  are  now  planted  in 
American  gardens,  both  tree  forms  and  some  notably  valuable 
shrubbery  and  climbing  species.  Two  other  members  of  the 
same  family  are  found  in  America. 

Gyminda  Grisebachii,  Sarg.,  is  a  relative  of  the  wahoo  which 

365 


The  Burning  Bush 

grows  on  the  islands  of  southern  Florida.  Its  wood  is  hard  and 
black.  The  small  white  flowers  are  succeeded  by  blue  berries. 
Yellow  Wood,  Florida  Boxwood  {Schaefferia  frutescens, 
J  acq.) — ^This  rival  of  the  Old- World  boxwood  grows  on  the 
Florida  Keys,  though  the  greed  of  lumbermen  has  narrowed  its 
range  materially,  and  the  big  trees  have  been  cut  down  long  ago. 
It  has  hard,  close,  yellow  wood,  which  is  used  in  cabinet  work 
and  for  fine  furniture.  The  tree  is  quite  a  handsome  one,  with 
persistent  leaves,  and  yellow  flowers  followed  by  scarlet  berries. 
It  is  a  common  tree  in  the  West  Indies,  where  its  lumber  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce.     It  is  chiefly  exported  to  England. 


366 


CHAPTER  XLVIII:    THE  MAPLES 

Family  Acerace.^ 

Genus  ACER,  Linn. 

Trees  valuable  for  timber  and  ornament.  Leaves  simple 
(except  Negundo),  opposite,  palmately  veined  and  lobed,  decidu- 
ous. Flowers  inconspicuous,  racemed  or  in  corymbs.  Fruits 
paired,  winged  samaras. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  simple,  palmately  lobed. 

B.  Bloom  before  the  leaves  in  lateral  clusters;  fruit  ripe  in 
May  or  June. 
C.  Flowers  red;  leaves  shallowly  lobed,  serrate,  pale 
beneath.  (A.  rubrum)  red  or  swamp  maple 

CC.  Flowers    greenish    yellow;    leaves    deeply    5-cleft, 
silvery  white  beneath. 

(A.  saccharinum)  silver  maple 
BB.  Bloom  after  the  leaves,  from  terminal  buds;  fruit  ripe 
in  autumn. 
C.  Petals  present  in  flowers. 

D.  Flowers  in  erect,  compact  racemes. 

{A.  spicatum)  mountain  maple 
DD.  Flowers  in  loose,  droopmg  racemes. 

E.  Leaves  8  to  12  inches  across,  deeply  5-lobed. 

(A.  macrophyllum)  broad-leaved  maple 
EE.  Leaves  5  to  6  inches  across,  3-lobed  at  apex; 
bark  stripped  with  white  lines. 

{A.  Pennsylvanicum)  striped  maple 
DDD.  Flowers  in  drooping  terminal  corymbs. 
E.  Leaves  7  to  9-lobed,  circular. 

{A.  circinaium)  vine  maple 
EE.  Leaves  3-lobed  or  divided. 

{A.  glahrum)  dwarf  maple 
CC.  Petals  wanting;  flowers  in  corymbs. 
D.  Corymbs  without  stalks. 
E.  Leaves  pale  beneath. 

367 


The  Maples 

F.  Lobes  of  leaves  blunt,  pubescent  beneath; 
margins  wavy, 

(A.  Floridanum)  sugar  maple 
FF.  Lobes  of  leaves  sharp,  smooth  beneath; 
margins  toothed. 

(A.  Saccharum)  sugar  maple 
EE.  Leaves  green  beneath,  pubescent. 

F.  Branchlets   slender;   leaves    thin,    bright 
yellow-green. 

(A.  leucoderme)  sugar  maple 
FF.  Branchlets  stout,  orange  coloured;  leaves 
thick,  drooping,  dull  green. 

{A.  nigrum)   black  maple 
DD.  Corymbs  on  short  stalks;  leaves  3-lobed,  pale 
and    pubescent    beneath;    lobes    with    large 
rounded  teeth. 

{A.  grandidentatd)  large-tooth  maple 
AA.  Leaves  pinnately  compound,  leaflets  3  to  5;  flowers  dioe- 
cious. {A.  Negundo)  box  elder 

Opposite  leaves  palmately  veined  and  lobed,  and  paired 
keys  with  long  wings — these  characters  are  the  hallmark  of  the 
maple' family  the  world  over.  No  amount  of  "improvement" 
blots  these  out  of  the  most  ultra  new  variety.  No  other  tree  has 
both  leaves  and  fruits  likely  to  be  confused  with  a  maple's. 

The  genus  Acer  comprises  between  sixty  and  seventy  species, 
well  scattered  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  China  and  Japan 
are  the  original  home  and  the  centre  of  population  for  them, 
having  about  thirty  native  maples.  Twelve  species  are  found 
in  the  Himalayas,  and  twelve  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor.  Nine 
are  native  to  North  America.  Of  these,  two  are  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  one  among  the  Rocky  Mountains,  five  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  continent,  and  there  is  one  species  "at  large." 

Red  or  Scarlet  Maple,  Swamp  Maple  (Acer  rubrum, 
Linn.) — A  spreading,  symmetrical  tree,  80  to  120  feet  high, 
oftener  less,  slender  with  erect  branches.  Bark  flaky,  in  plates, 
dark  grey;  paler  branches;  twigs  red.  fVood  pale,  brownish 
red,  hard,  close  grained.  Buds  opposite,  blunt,  red;  flower  buds 
clustered  on  side  spurs.  Leaves  variable  in  size,  3  to  6  inches 
long,  not  so  wide;  with  3  to  5  triangular  lobes,  separated  by 
triangular  sinuses;  margins  twice  cut-toothed;  lining  whitish, 
often  downy;  petioles  long,  slender,  often  red;  autumn  colours 
scarlet  and  crimson.     Flowers:   pistillate  red,  staminate  orange, 

?68 


«      "^    -I 


The  Maples 

in  earliest  spring  before  the  leaves;  on  same  or  different  trees. 
Fruit,  May,  smooth,  paired  samaras,  i  inch  long;  wings  divergent, 
hung  on  slender  pedicels,  3  to  4  inches  long,  seed  germinating 
immediately;  rarely  the  next  spring.  Preferred  habitat,  swampy 
ground,  borders  of  streams.  Distribution,  Eastern  States  to 
Wisconsin,  Nebraska  and  Texas.  Most  common  in  lower  Miss- 
issippi Valley.  Uses:  Valuable  ornamental  and  shade  tree. 
Wood  used  for  gun  stocks,  tool  handles,  oars,  furniture  and 
miscellaneous  woodenwares.  Excellent  for  fuel.  Occasional  curly 
and  bird's-eye  logs  used  for  veneering  in  cabinet  work. 

"The  maple  puts  her  corals  on  in  May, 
While  loitering  frosts  about  the  lowlands  cling, 
To  be  in  tune  with  what  the  robins  sing, 
Plastering  new  log  huts  'mid  her  branches  ^rey; 
But  when  the  autumn  southward  turns  away, 
Then  in  her  veins  burns  most  the  blood  of  spring. 
And  every  leaf,  intensely  blossoming, 
Makes  the  year's  sunset  pale  the  set  of  day." 

— Lowell. 

Who  shall  know  the  red  maple  better  than  this  poet  of 
New  England?  Yet  it  must  be  a  sadly  belated  tree  that  blooms 
in  May.  Her  May  corals  are  the  dainty  keys  which  swing  in 
graceful  clusters  from  the  twigs,  each  one  red  as  any  cock's  comb. 

It  is  fine  to  watch  the  spring  come  on  in  a  region  where  the 
red  maple  grows.  Late  in  March  a  rosy  cloud  lies  on  the  wooded 
marshes  and  stream  borders.  Up  the  hillsides  the  same  colour 
tells  where  there  is  a  clump  of  these  trees.  The  grey  branches 
glow  with  their  "crimson  broidery"  long  before  any  but  the  pop- 
lar trees  and  pussy  willows  show  their  blossoms. 

Go  as  early  as  you  will  to  examine  these  maple  flowers, 
the  bees  are  there  before  you.  Their  motive  is  a  selfish  one, 
but  while  they  swing  from  one  bell  to  another  in  quest  of  nectar 
they  dust  with  pollen  the  red  forked  tongues  of  the  fertile  flowers. 
This  insures  the  setting  of  seed.  The  reddest  flowers  are  the 
fertile  ones;  the  sterile  ones,  fringed  with  yellow  stamens,  are 
orange  coloured.  The  two  sorts  are  isolated  on  separate  branches; 
often  on  separate  trees.  As  the  leaves  appear,  the  colour  deepens. 
The  lengthening  bud  scales  and  the  opening  leaves  are  deep 
crimson  at  first.  Then  come  the  ruddy  fruits,  which  set  the 
trees  aglow,  and  which  fall  in  early  summer,  leaving  only  the 
red  veins  of  the  leaves  to  bear  the  colours  of  the  tree  until  late 

369 


The  Maples 

August  or  September.  Then  of  a  sudden  the  tree  stands  clothed 
in  scarlet!  It  was  not  so  yesterday.  And  one  by  one  the  leaves 
fall  while  yet  fresh  and  smooth. 

There  is  no  more  desirable  tree  for  the  home  grounds,  for 
parks  and  roadsides  than  the  red  maple.  It  is  quick  and  sure 
to  grow  in  the  East  if  the  soil  is  moderately  rich  and  moist.  Young 
trees  are  trim  as  beeches  in  their  snug  pale  grey  bark.  The  frame 
of  the  tree  is  admirably  adapted  to  resist  breaking  in  the  wind. 
The  branches  are  short,  numerous,  erect,  not  heavy,  nor  spread- 
ing enough  to  be  torn  loose  from  the  trunk  as  the  silver  maple's  so 
often  are.  The  tree  is  beautiful  at  all  ages  and  through  all  seasons, 
and  it  has  no  bad  habits. 

,  As  it  comes  quickly  from  seed  in  the  woods,  there  can  be  no 
objection  to  taking  up  woodland  saplings  for  home  planting.  Or 
they  may  be  obtained  from  nurseries.  If  seeds  are  desired, 
collect  and  plant  them  in  early  summer;  they  will  not,  as  a  rule, 
germinate  if  kept  until  the  following  spring.  Nature  gives 
helpful  suggestions.  The  woodland  carpet  and  the  neighbouring 
cornfield  show  a  forest  of  tiny  red  maples  under  six  inches  high 
by  the  middle  of  summer. 

Unfortunately,  the  silver  maple,  a  quick,  cheap  and  sure 
grower,  has  been  exploited  by  nurserymen  to  the  overshadowing 
of  the  claims  of  its  handsomer  but  more  exacting  relative.  It 
is  rare  to  see  a  red  maple  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Mississippi, 
though  its  natural  range  covers  these  states  to  western  Iowa, 
and  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Ohio  River  and  following  the 
"Father  of  Waters"  it  becomes  a  dominant  tree  in  wet  land. 
Nurserymen  near  Chicago  complain  that  it  is  hard  to  get  good 
seed;  that  the  tree  grows  very  slowly  at  first,  and  the  dangers 
of  drought  and  hard  winters  make  the  cost  of  one  red  maple 
equal  to  that  of  ten  silver  maples.  One  of  these  days  people 
will  realise  that  it  is  ten  times  more  beautiful.  Then  the  study 
of  its  preferences  and  peculiarities  will  pay  the  nurseryman,  and 
the  tree  will  be  more  generally  and  successfully  planted  to  super- 
sede the  silver  maple  in  the  moist  soil  and  humid  air  of  the  North 
Central  States.  It  is  a  foregone  conclusion  that  a  swamp-loving 
tree  would  die  of  thirst  on  the  plains.  Nebraska  and  Kansas 
have  tried  in  vain  to  introduce  it. 

Nobody  knows  what  red  maple  log  is  going  to  reveal  the 
beautiful  curly  and  bird's-eye  grain  when  sawed  into  boards. 

370 


The    Maples 

The  sharp  eye  of  the  lumberman  detects  it,  and  the  boards  are 
put  aside.  They  are  worth  far  more  than  plain,  sound  lumber 
of  the  same  species.  Hard  maple  and  red  maple  are  the  kinds 
most  likely  to  display  this  variation  from  straight  grain.  Some 
lumbermen  boast  that  they  can  "spot"  the  standing  trees; 
others  declare  that  there  is  no  outward  sign  that  is  dependable. 
Injury  to  the  bark  tends  to  set  a  trunk  to  sprouting.  Often  a 
multitude  of  small  twigs  cover  a  considerable  area,  close  together, 
and  have  only  vigour  enough  to  keep  their  terminal  buds  poked 
outside  the  bark — sometimes  not  even  that — but  they  still  live. 
Each  is  the  centre  of  a  series  of  wood  rings  which  are  revealed 
when  cut  and  polished  as  "birds'  eyes"  of  the  maple  that  veneers 
a  bureau  or  a  dressing  table.  Curly  grain  is  not  so  easily  accounted 
for.  The  wood  fibres  are  longer  than  in  straight  grain,  and  lie 
upon  each  other  in  ripples.  Beech  often  shows  this  grain,  as 
well  as  maples  and  birches.  There  seems  to  be  no  explanation 
of  the  cause  and  method  of  its  formation.  In  beauty  curly 
maple  often  excels  the  more  striking  "bird's-eye"  wood. 

To  saw  a  bird's-eye  log  in  the  ordinary  way  would  be  to  lose 
most  of  the  beauty  of  the  grain,  which  can  be  got  only  by  tan- 
gential sawing.  A  special  method  used  is  to  take  short  lengths 
to  a  saw  which  cuts  a  thin  layer  from  the  surface  of  the  revolving 
log.  Thus  a  thin,  spiral  sheet  that  will  measure  one  hundred 
or  more  feet  when  spread  out  can  be  pared  from  a  single  log 
section  before  the  saw  reaches  the  central  pith.  Steamed  and 
pressed  this  veneer  wood  shows  every  eye  it  ever  had. 

Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum,  Linn.;  Acer 
dasycarpum,  Ehr.) — A  large  tree,  80  to  120  feet,  with  wide  spread- 
ing top,  trunk  soon  dividing  into  long  limbs,  ending  in  slender, 
drooping  twigs.  Bark  reddish  brown,  furrowed,  surface  roughly 
scaly;  twigs  reddish,  smooth.  Wood  hard,  pale  brown,  close 
grained;  brittle;  easy  to  work.  Sap  sweet.  Whiter  buds:  leaf 
buds  pointed,  red,  in  pairs;  flower  buds  blunt,  red,  clustered  at 
nodes.  Leaves  4  to  7  inches  long,  deeply  5-cleft  by  narrow 
sinuses,  irregularly  toothed;  smooth,  pale  green,  white  beneath, 
pubescent  along  veins;  yellow  in  autumn;  petioles  long,  red, 
flexible.  Flowers,  March  to  April,  before  leaves,  greenish  yellow, 
without  petals,  on  spurs  or  in  axils  of  last  year's  leaves;  fertile 
and  sterile  on  different  branches  or  oiten  on  separate  trees.  Fruit, 
May,  in  pairs  of  winged  samaras,  i^  to  3  inches  long,  on  short 

371 


The  Maples 

pedicels,  pubescent  and  green  when  young,  becoming  smooth; 
germinating  soon  after  they  fall.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist 
soil.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  to  Dakota;  south  to  Florida 
and  Oklahoma.  Rare  on  Atlantic  seaboard  and  on  mountains. 
Uses:  Popular  ornamental  and  shade  tree,  especially  useful 
west  of  Mississippi  River.  Wood  used  for  flooring  and  cheap 
furniture.     Sap  boiled  occasionally  for  sugar. 

The  silver  maple  is  a  tree  to  count  upon,  if  one  is  in  search 
of  a  suitable  species  to  plant  on  a  Western  prairie  that  has  uncertain 
rainfall.  It  has  ingratiated  itself  with  people  living  farther 
east,  who  might  better  choose  elms  and  other  maples.  It  is  a 
lazy  man's  tree,  for  it  comes  vigorously  from  seed,  and  bears 
transplanting,  even  when  there  are  radical  changes  in  soil  and  in 
climate  to  be  met.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  soon  giving  ample  shade. 
But  rapid  growth  implies  brittle,  weak  wood,  as  a  rule.  Slow- 
growing  trees  like  elms  should  always  be  alternated  with  soft 
maples,  to  replace  them  after  their  brief  race  is  run. 

The  habit  of  a  tree  must  be  considered  when  choosing  a 
place  to  plant  it.  It  is  unwise  to  plant  silver  maples  close  to  a 
house,  as  they  have  great  horizontal  spread,  and  the  long,  weak 
limbs  are  easily  broken  by  ice  and  wind  storms.  Old  trees  are 
often  cut  back  to  a  few  main  stubs  above  the  trunk.  A  new  top 
is  soon  formed  by  suckers  that  rise  from  the  stubs,  but  the  tree's 
symmetry  is  forever  lost. 

Local  names  often  confuse  the  two  Eastern  early  blooming, 
early  fruiting  maples.  They  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  their 
mode  of  growth,  flowers,  fruits  and  leaves.  Red  maple  limbs  are 
small  and  rarely  droop;  those  of  the  silver  maple  curve  downward, 
but  the  twigs  ascend.  The  brilliant  colour  belongs  to  the  red 
maple;  the  deep-cleft,  silver-lined  leaves  to  the  silver  maple.  The 
little,  smooth,  long-stemmed  keys  of  the  red  species  differ  dis- 
tinctly from  the  large,  short-stemmed  fruits  of  the  other,  which 
are  woolly  until  almost  ripe.  In  winter  even,  buds  and  twigs 
of  the  red  maple  are  vividly  red. 

The  Broad-leaved  Maple,  Oregon  Maple  (Acer  macro- 
■phyllum,  Pursh.) — A  large,  stout-limbed  tree,  loo  feet  high,  with 
compact  head  and  drooping  lower  branches.  Bark  brown, 
furrowed  and  with  plate-like  scales;  twigs  reddish,  with  milky 
juice.  Wood  reddish  brown,  soft,  light,  close  grained,  susceptible 
of  a  satiny  polish ;  often  having  curly  and  bird's-eye  grain.     Winter 

372 


THE  SILVER    MAPLE  {Acer  sacchannum) 
ti  the  v^eakncss  of  ^vood  and  bark  combine  to  make  this  quick-growing  species  a  prey  to  winds.  _  The 


top  contmually  needs  corrective  pruning.    The  twigs  bear  opposite  leaves  and  buds. 
ones  to  be  had  as  easily,  if  one  wishes  to  plant  trees 


It  is  a  good  tree— but  there  are  many  better 


SII.NKR    MAPLE    (Jeer   uucluir,,. 


The  flowers  come  i.ut  before  the  leaves  in  March  or  early  April.  They  may  be  on  separate,  or  on  the  same  trees.  The 
red-forked  tongues  of  the  pistillate  flowers  soon  wither,  and  the  horns  of  the  keys  rise.  The  staminate  flowers  are  yellow.  The 
keys  are  more  or  less  spreading.  They  are  fuzzy  until  nearlv  ripe.  They  fall  in  May  or  earlier,  and  must  germinate  forthwith 
or  they  die.     The  deeply  cut  leaves  are  silver-lined 


The  Maples 

huds:  axillary  small;  terminal  larger,  red,  scaly.  Leaves  deeply 
cut,  by  deep,  narrow  sinuses,  into  5  lobes,  each  of  which  has  wavy 
margin,  indented  into  secondary  lobes;  petioles  10  to  12  inches, 
slender;  blades  8  to  12  inches  broad  and  long,  dark  green,  lustrous 
above;  paler  beneath;  turn  orange-yellow  in  autumn.  Flowers 
yellow,  fragrant,  in  long  racemes  in  late  spring.  Fruits  paired 
samaras,  ripe  in  autumn;  i^  inches  long,  with  hairy  nutlets,  but 
smooth  wings,  slightly  divergent.  Preferred  habitat,  banks  of 
streams  and  rich  bottom  lands.  Distribution,  south  coast  of 
Alaska  to  San  Diego,  California,  Uses:  Valuable  ornamental 
and  timber  tree.     Wood  used  for  furniture  and  interior  finish. 

The  great  leaves  that  distinguish  this  species  make  it  a 
favourite  on  the  Pacific  slope.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  hardy 
north  of  Philadelphia,  and  does  better  in  Europe  than  in  our 
Eastern  States,  It  really  is  happiest  in  the  bottom  lands  of 
southern  Oregon,  where  it  forms  forests  and  attains  tremendous 
proportions.  One  must  see  it  at  home  in  order  to  appreciate 
this  maple. 

John  Muir,  writing  of  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  says:  "In  a  few  favoured  spots  the  broad-leaved 
maple  grows  to  a  height  of  a  hundred  feet  in  forests  by  itself, 
sending  out  large  limbs  in  magnificent  interlacing  arches  covered 
with  mosses  and  ferns,  thus  forming  lofty  sky  gardens,  and 
rendering  the  underwoods  delightfully  cool.  No  finer  forest 
ceiling  is  to  be  found  than  these  maple  arches." 

The  wood  of  the  broad-leaved  maple  ranks  highest  of  all 
deciduous  lumber  trees  on  the  west  coast.  It  is  equal  to  the  best 
maple  of  the  Eastern  States, 

The  Vine  Maple  (Acer  circinatum,  Pursh.)  grows  from 
British  Columbia  into  northern  California,  and  from  the  low 
bottom  lands  to  an  altitude  of  1,000  feet,  but  always  along 
streams.  In  the  lowlands  it  throws  up  several  stems  from  the 
root,  which  droop  as  they  grow  as  if  their  weight  overcame  their 
strength.  Branches  that  spring  from  these  prostrate  stems 
strike  root,  and  soon  the  interlacing  trunks  and  the  branches 
they  bear  cover  the  ground  to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else. 

The  vine  maple's  leaf  is  thin  and  almost  circular,  with  a  heart- 
shaped  base,  and  7  to  9  triangular,  cut-toothed  lobes,  uniform 
in  size  and  shape.  In  summer  they  are  green,  with  prominent 
veins  and  veinlets,  and  pale  linings.     In  autumn  they  turn  to 

?73 


The  Maples 

orange  and  scarlet.     The  flowers  are  borne  in  terminal  umbels, 
and  the  samaras  are  smooth,  with  widely  divergent  wings. 

Sugar  Maple,  Rock,  or  Hard  Maple  (Acer  Saccharum, 
Marsh.;  Acer  saccharinum,  Wangh.;  Acer  barbatum,  Michx.) — A 
large,  handsome  tree,  75  to  120  feet  high,  with  many  upright 
limbs  forming  an  oval  or  oblong  head.  Sap  sugary.  Bark  grey, 
deeply  fissured.  Wood  reddish  brown,  close  grained,  tough,  hard. 
Leaves  broad,  4  to  5  inches  across,  3  to  5-lobed,  each  lobe  with 
straight  sides  and  peaked  apex,  which  has  3  to  5  prominent  teeth 
with  curved  sinuses  between;  thin,  dark  green  above,  paler 
lining;  turn  to  yellow,  orange  and  red  in  the  fall.  Flowers,  with 
the  leaves  in  late  spring,  on  long  stems,  in  hairy,  thick  clusters, 
without  petals,  greenish;  monoecious  or  polygamous.  Fruits, 
October,  i  to  ij  inches  long,  smooth,  in  pairs,  on  stems,  i;^  to  2 
inches  long,  with  wings  only  slightly  diverging.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich,  moist  soil  in  valleys  or  uplands.  Distribution, 
Great  Lakes  to  Newfoundland;  south  along  mountains  to  Florida; 
west  to  Nebraska  and  Texas.  Uses:  Best  of  all  maples  as 
lumber  and  shade  trees.  Wood  used  for  flooring,  interior  finish 
of  houses,  saddles,  furniture,  boats,  shoe  lasts,  all  turned  wares 
and  fuel.    Shows  occasionally  curly  grain.   Sap  makes  maple  sugar. 

The  sugar  maple  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  and  valuable 
trees  in  the  eastern  forests  of  America.  It  leads  all  the  other 
maples — it  is  the  reliable,  conservative  member  of  the  family, 
slower  than  many  of  them,  and  less  brilliant,  but  with  staying 
qualities — an  absolutely  dependable  tree.  Soft  maples  come  and 
go.  These  come  and  stay — standing  always  "proud  and  tall 
under  their  leafy  crowns."  They  are  hardy,  clean  and  vigorous. 
They  turn  gradually  to  gold  and  reds  in  the  fall,  and  drop  their 
burden  of  foliage  without  haste. 

Hard  maple  lumber  outranks  all  other  species,  and  as  fuel 
it  is  surpassed  only  by  hickory.  Its  ashes  yield  potash  and 
alkali  in  large  percentages.  Fresh  unleached  hard  maple  ashes 
are  highly  esteemed  as  fertiliser  for  orchards  and  vegetable 
gardens. 

Wise  men  were  they  who  set  hard  maples  along  the  boundary 
lines  of  their  farms  in  earlier  days.  They  now  have  avenues  to 
be  proud  of.  And  they  have  also  a  source  of  revenue,  for  these 
low-branched,  isolated  trees  give  abundant  flow  of  sap  in  the 
early  spring. 

374 


THE    SUGAR    MAPLE  {Acer  .v. 
This  tree  leads  all  the  other  maples— it  is  the  reliable,  conservative  member  of  the  family.     Beautiful  for  shade  and  ornament, 
it  yields  sugar,  lumber  and  fuel  of  high  quality,  and  finally  its  ashes  make  the  best  of  fertilisers 


3  Fruiting  braaon 


THE    SUGAR    MAPLE  {Acer  Sacchurum . 

The  blossoms  appear  in  May  ;  the  soft,  hairy  flower  clusters  are  greenish.  Some  Howers  (pistillate)  thrust  out  forked 
tongues.  Others  (staminate)  i-xtrude  a  Ininch  of  stamens.  The  leaf  is  thin  and  liark  green  with  pale  lining.  The  smooth,  plump 
seeds  ripen  in  October.     Tlic  twigs  are  slender  and  smooth  and  dotted  with  pale,  breathing  pores 


The   Maples 

The  Black  Maple,  or  Black  Sugar  Maple  (Acer  nigrum, 
Michx.),  is  now  counted  a  distinct  species,  but  was  long  regarded 
as  a  variety  of  Acer  Saccharum.  The  best  year-round  character 
to  look  for  is  the  orange  colour  of  the  stout  branchlets.  The 
tree's  head  is  less  compact  and  has  a  duller,  darker  green  foliage 
mass  than  that  of  the  hard  maple.  The  leaves  vary  much  in 
size  and  shape,  but  in  general  have  three  pointed  lobes  with 
broad,  shallow  sinuses  and  scantly  toothed  or  unbroken  margins; 
the  basal  sinus  is  often  closed  by  the  overlapping  of  its  sides. 
The  leaf  is  usually  green  on  both  sides,  and  smooth,  with  hairy 
tufts  along  the  principal  veins  below,  and  on  the  petioles.  The 
drooping  of  the  leaves  is  very  noticeable,  as  if  the  stout  petioles 
were  too  weak  to  support  their  burden.  The  samaras  differ  from 
those  of  the  previous  species  in  having  more  widely  divergent 
wings. 

The  black  maple  predominates  over  A.  Saccharum  in  the 
Western  prairie  states.  It  is  the  sugar  maple  of  South  Dakota  and 
Iowa.  In  the  East,  it  is  a  rare  tree.  It  ranges  from  Montreal 
to  Ontario  and  to  the  Dakotas,  and  from  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont  south  to  lower  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri  and  eastern 
Kansas.  It  is  an  admirable  shade  and  sugar  tree,  and  its  wood 
has  the  characteristics  of  the  rock  maple. 

The  Florida  Maple  {Acer  Floridanum,  Pax.)  is  smaller 
than  our  Northern  hard  maple,  and  differs  from  it  in  its  small 
3-lobed  leaves,  with  blunt  or  faintly  3-lobed  apexes,  and  pale, 
hairy  linings.  The  fruits  are  also  small.  This  tree  varies  con- 
siderably, and  grows  along  streams  and  swamps,  throughout  the 
Gulf  States. 

The  Large-toothed  Maple  {Acer  grandidentaia,  Nutt.) 
resembles  the  last  species,  but  its  leaves  are  leathery  and  have 
very  wide  sinuses  and  very  short  petioles.  It  is  found  on  the 
mountains  from  Montana  to  Mexico. 

The  two  species  named  above  are  considered  by  some  authors 
to  be  varieties  of  the  Eastern  rock  maple. 

Three  Little  Maples 

There  are  a  few  members  of  the  great  maple  family  which 
do  not  share  the  lofty  aspirations  of  the  majority.  They  are 
to  be  sought  in  thick  forests  of  mixed  hardwoods,  and  they  do 

37  s 


The  Maples 

much  to  make  our  walks  through  such  a  wood  delightful.  With 
the  viburnums  and  the  ground  hemlocks  they  spread  their  leafy 
branches  "amidst  the  cool  and  silence,"  and  the  sun  rarely 
looks  in  upon  them. 

The  Mountain  Maple  (Acer  spicaium,  Lam.)  is  usually 
shrubby  in  habit;  very  rarely  it  reaches  30  feet  in  height,  and  a 
maximum  trunk  diameter  of  6  to  8  inches.  Its  green  bark  is  not 
striped,  a  character  which  at  any  season  distinguishes  it  from 
the  striped  maple.  The  lobes  of  its  leaves  are  taper  pointed,  and 
their  margins  coarsely  saw-toothed.  The  petioles  are  long  and 
slim  and  scarlet  throughout  the  summer.  The  flowers  are  small, 
greenish  yellow  with  long,  narrow  petals;  they  are  clustered  in 
racemes  that  stand  erect  in  the  axils  of  the  fully-expanded  leaves. 
The  fruits  hang  in  clusters,  the  little  samaras  but  slightly  divergent, 
and  showing  clear  red  in  the  summer.  In  autumn  they  are  brown, 
while  the  foliage  takes  on  brilliant  shades  of  yellow  and  scarlet. 
After  the  leaves  fall  the  grey,  downy  twigs  are  bright  with  the 
winter  buds  only. 

The  Striped  Maple,  or  Moosewood  (Acer  Pennsylvanicum, 
Linn.)  grows  from  a  shrub  to  a  tree  40  feet  high,  best  always  in 
the  shade  of  taller  trees  and  usually  in  rocky  woods  that  cover 
mountain  slopes.  It  has  green  bark  that  breaks  as  the  stems 
increase  in  diameter  into  a  network  of  furrows,  which  expose  a 
pale  under  layer,  and  make  the  green  appear  to  be  delicately 
striped  with  white.     Sometimes  the  stripes  are  dark  brown. 

The  leaf  of  this  maple  is  unusually  large,  often  6  inches  in 
length.  It  is  about  as  broad  as  it  is  long,  with  three  triangular 
lobes,  whose  points  form  the  leaf's  broad  apex.  There  are  faint 
suggestions  of  two  basal  lobes  sometimes,  but  not  always.  The 
margin  is  finely  serrate,  and  the  petiole  grooved.  In  the  autumn 
the  leaves  turn  yellow.  The  yellow,  bell-like  flowers  in  long, 
pendulous  racemes  appear  among  the  leaves  in  May.  The 
samaras  are  larger  than  those  of  the  mountain  maple,  and  the 
wings  in  each  pair  are  more  widely  divergent. 

The  striped  maple  is  most  brilliant  in  colouring  when  its 
bud  scales  lengthen  in  late  April,  and  the  rosy,  down-covered 
leaves  appear.  The  stems  and  unfolding  shoots  are  delicate  and 
beautiful  enough  to  repay  an  artist  for  making  a  pilgrimage  each 
spring  to  the  place  where  this  budding  maple  blushes  unseen. 
It  is  hard  to  make  people  believe  that  all  this  exquisiteness  of 
376 


t*he  Mapled 

line  and  colour  and  texture  can  be  revealed  by  "a  common 
maple  that  grows  wild  in  our  woods." 

The  name,  moosewood,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  north  woods  the  green  shoots  are  browsed  by  the  deer  and 
moose,  "Goose  foot"  is  from  the  shape  of  the  leaf;  "whistle- 
wood"  from  the  easy  slipping  of  the  tough  bark  in  early  spring. 

This  little  tree  is  rare  in  cultivation,  though  it  is  more  inter- 
esting and  beautiful  even  than  many  an  expensive  exotic.  One 
may  easily  transplant  a  seedling  from  the  neighbouring  woods, 
and  it  thrives  in  good  garden  soil  if  not  too  dry.  A  shady  corner 
is  best,  but  there  is  a  good  specimen  growing  in  the  sunniest 
part  of  a  garden  I  know. 

The  Dwarf  Maple  (Acer  glabrum,  Torr.)  is  a  shrub  or  low 
tree  of  bushy  habit  which  grows  on  the  western  mountains  from 
Canada  to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  leaves  are  variable, 
one  type  being  a  three-lobed,  cut-toothed  form  not  unlike  the 
red  maple  leaf;  the  other  extreme  is  a  compound  leaf  made  of 
three  oval,  coarsely  toothed  leaflets.  They  vary  in  diameter 
from  one  to  five  inches.  The  flowers  are  usually  on  separate  trees 
as  in  the  box  elder.  The  fruits  as  well  as  the  leaves  are  smooth 
and  small,  with  wings  that  spread  but  little.  They  are  often 
ruddy  during  the  summer. 

Box  Elder,  Ash-leaved  Maple  (Acer  Negundo,  Linn.) — 
A  quick-growing,  sturdy  tree,  50  to  70  feet  high,  with  irregular 
spreading  top.  Bark  greyish,  regularly  furrowed;  twigs  purple, 
glaucous.  JVood  soft,  white,  weak,  close  grained.  Buds  opposite, 
blunt,  reddish.  Leaves  opposite,  compound,  of  3  to  5  pinnate 
leaflets,  irregularly  toothed  and  lobed;  smooth,  pale  beneath; 
yellow  in  autumn.  Flowers  open  with  leaves  on  separate  trees, 
fertile,  greenish,  in  drooping  racemes,  sterile,  in  clusters  on  pink, 
silky  pedicels.  Fruits  narrow,  flat,  winged  samaras,  i^  to  2 
inches  long,  in  pairs,  clustered  in  drooping  racemes;  ripe  in 
September,  but  hanging  until  early  spring.  Preferred  habitat, 
rich,  moist  soil,  by  streams  or  along  borders  of  swamps.  Dis- 
tribution, Vermont  to  Montana;  south  to  Florida  and  west  to 
Colorado  and  Utah.  Rare  east  of  Appalachian  Mountains. 
Uses:  Much  planted  for  shade  and  ornament.  Wood  inferior; 
used  for  cooperage  and  small  woodenwares. 

There  are  two  things  remarkable  about  the  box  elder:  its 
geographical  range,  natural  and  acquired,  and  the  variation  of 

377 


The  Maples 

altitudes  it  will  endure  with  cheerfulness.  Out  of  a  certain 
number  of  nursery  trees  you  may  plant  a  row  rising  gradually 
from  low  bottom  land  to  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  above  sea 
level,  and  they  will  all  thrive. 

It  is  the  nature  of  mankind  to  love  box  elders  for  growing 
v^'here  most  trees  refuse.  In  the  treeless  regions  people  had  no 
time  to  experiment  with  uncertain  trees.  Their  land,  taken  up 
under  the  homestead  laws,  had  to  show  so  many  acres  of  wood- 
land at  the  end  of  a  certain  time.  ,  So  box  elders  and  cotton- 
woods  and  soft  maples  went  in,  because  they  could  best  be  de- 
pended upon  to  grow.  The  windbreak  behind  the  settler's 
house  and  the  shr.de  trees  in  front  were  of  these  same  trees.  They 
grew,  but  they  c?'dn't  do  well. 

In  the  Middle  West  the  quick  growth  and  youthful  prettiness 
of  the  box  elder  have  led  people  to  keep  on  planting  it,  though 
the  early  day  of  planting  for  shelter  belts  and  windbreaks  is 
past.  The  result  is  that  in  many  a  village  the  majority  of  its 
trees  are  unsightly,  broken-down  box  elders  and  willows,  with 
a  few  fine  elms,  hard  maples  and  ashes  to  redeem  it.  It  is  high 
time  the  habit  of  planting  the  inferior,  temporary  kinds  of  trees 
was  overcome. 

In  the  interests  of  village  improvement  and  the  fostering 
of  a  love  for  better  trees  I  went  out  to  reason  with  a  neighbour 
who  had  come  over  to  beg  a  few  trees  to  plant  in  front  of  his 
new  house.  He  was  digging  a  volunteer  box  elder  out  of  our 
blackberry  patch,  when  I  expostulated,  offering  him  some  hand- 
some young  elms  instead.  Twas  throwing  words  away.  "  I 
told  yo'  paw  I'd  ruther  have  box  elders,  an'  he  said  I  could." 

"But  why  wouldn't  you  rather  have  the  elms?  You  can 
see  yourself  that  the  finest  trees  in  town  are  elms." 

"Yes,  they're  harnsome  trees — elms  is;  but  it's  the  shade 
I  want.  I  always  noticed  that  box  elders,  big  or  little,  has  the 
coolest  shade  of  any  trees  they  is." 

Before  such  subtle  distinctions  I  was  dumb. 

Japanese  Maples 

I  have  said  tnat  Japan  is  the  ancestral  home  of  the  maples. 
Two-thirds  of  the  forest  trees  in  the  islands  to-day  belong  to  the 
genus  Acer.    The  artistic  and  skilful  Japanese  gardeners  have 

378 


THE    STRIPED    MAPLE  (Jeer  Pent,s\!r<inicum) 

The  bell-shaped  flowetb  with  bright  yellow  petals  hang  in  graceful  clusters  below  the  opening  leaves  abi)ut  th 
May.     Pistillate  and  staminate  flowers  are  in  separate  clusters  on  the  same  tree 


THE    VINE    MAPLE   (.Ic-r   circiuatu, 


This  leaf  is  almost   circular   in  outline.     The 


I'e  strikes  root  with    its    prostrate  limt 
It   u-rosxs   in   the   Xorthwest 


thus  formini;    an    i^lpeI'etr,•ll^le   jungle. 


THE  JAPANESE  MAPLE 

(Acer  palmatum,  var.  dissectum) 

The    leaf   of    this    variety   has    been  redureil    by  cultivation 
to  a  mere  skeleton 


HE    DWARF    -\L-\PLE  (An-r   glahrum) 


This  tree  is  variable  in  its  leaf  forms,  even  to  producing  com- 
pound leaves.  They  vary  also  in  size.  It  is  smooth  throughout. 
Often  it  bears  flowers  separately,  like  the  box  elder.  It  is  native 
to  the  mountainous  West 


The  Maples 

developed  a  great  number  of  beautiful  garden  varieties.  These 
are  dwarf  forms,  almost  without  exception,  low  and  usually 
spreading  in  habit,  as  if  to  show  to  best  advantage  the  wonderful 
form  and  exquisite  colouring  of  the  foliage  and  fruits. 

Acer  palmatum  and  A.  Japonicum,  with  their  varieties, 
show  all  possible  gradations  from  a  broad  palm  to  the  merest 
skeleton  of  a  leaf.  The  Japanese  worship  beauty  such  as  these 
garden  maples  show;  and  in  the  autumn  when  each  careful 
gardener  has  brought  his  maples  to  their  utmost  perfection,  a 
grand  national  fete  is  celebrated.  The  people  dress  for  a  holiday, 
and  go  forth  "to  view  the  maples."  It  is  a  day  of  picknicking, 
combined  with  mushroom  gathering  and  a  sort  of  aesthetic  jubilee 
— as  much  a  time  for  rejoicing  as  the  spring  jubilee  of  the  cherry 
blossoms.  Japanese  maples  are  among  our  most  beautiful  exotics. 
They  are  quite  at  home  in  American  gardens,  and  there  is  nothing 
like  them.  Well  might  we  turn  pilgrims  like  the  Japanese,  and 
by  much  planting  and  close  watching  come  to  know  and  appre- 
ciate them. 

Acer  Japonicum,  the  type,  is  throughout  the  season  a  uniform 
rich  dark  purple.  Acer  Nikoense,  a  large  species,  has  vivid  scarlet 
autumnal  foliage.  Other  species  of  maples  are  imported  from 
eastern  Asia,  and  one  or  two  each  from  the  Himalayas,  the  Cau- 
casus and  North  Africa.     But  the  Japanese  lead  them  all. 

The  European  Maples 

The  Sycamore  Maple  (A.  pseudo-platanus)  is  the  most 
important  hardwood  tree  in  Europe.  It  ranks  with  our  hard 
maple,  and  with  a  Himalayan  species  of  great  lumber  value.  It 
is  the  wood  out  of  which  deal  tables  are  made. 

In  America,  where  it  is  planted  to  some  extent,  it  is  thrifty 
but  short  lived.  It  may  be  known  by  its  thick  5-lobed,  sycamore- 
like leaves,  with  crenate  margins,  and  the  long,  pendulous  racemes 
of  flowers  or  keys,  which  may  be  found  at  any  season  on  good- 
sized  trees.  It  is  chiefly  set  as  a  street  tree,  but  its  head  is  rather 
too  spreading  to  use  except  on  wide  avenues. 

The  Norway  Maple  (A.  plaianoides)  is  a  round-headed 
tree,  of  dense  foHage  which  turns  yellow  in  the  fall.  It  is  one 
of  our  best  exotic  maples,  growing  rapidly  and  to  great  size.  Its 
broad,    5-lobed   leaves   are   remotely   toothed,   and   smooth   and 

379 


The  Maples 

green  on  both  sides.  A  broken  petiole  or  growing  shoot  exudes 
a  milky  juice.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  in  flat  clusters,  followed 
by  thin,  paired  samaras  whose  wings  spread  in  opposite  directions. 
As  the  flowers  open  after  the  leaves,  the  samaras  are  late  in 
ripening,  and  they  germinate  the  following  spring.  Seeds  of 
this  species  may  be  gathered  and  shipped  without  losing  their 
vitality,  as  do  the  two  "soft  maples." 

The  Norway  maple  has  proved  itself  an  exceptionally  good 
species  for  the  Middle  West.  In  any  region,  it  holds  its  leaves 
much  later  than  other  maples,  which  is  a  strong  argument  in  its 
favour,  for  they  are  still  perfect  when  they  fall. 


There  was  a  time  in  Rome's  luxurious  days  when  men  went 
mad  over  tables  made  of  curly  maple.  Not  of  the  sycamore 
maple,  the  standard  hardwood  of  Europe  to-day,  but  of  the 
lesser  maple,  Acer  campesiris,  the  maple  of  the  field.  It  out- 
ranked even  the  precious  Arrah,  or  citron-wood,  in  popularity 
among  the  Imperial  "smart  set."  The  best  trees  grew  on  the 
nether  slopes  of  the  Alps;  and  the  curly  wood  came  from  trees 
disfigured  with  knobs  and  swellings.  There  were  two  kinds: 
one,  dark,  which  came  in  logs  large  enough  to  saw  into  tables; 
the  other,  white,  far  more  beautiful,  but  always  in  such  small- 
sized  pieces  that  only  curious  and  dainty  articles  could  be  made  of 
it.  Often  it  was  worked  down  so  thin  that  when  polished  it  was 
transparent,  and  showed  its  beautiful  patterns  as  if  they  were  in 
a  pane  of  glass. 

"The  Pavonaceous  maple"  was  that  rare  grain  whose  elegant 
curls  and  undulations  imitated  the  eyes  of  a  peacock's  tail. 
Workers  in  maple  wood  ranked  with  jewellers  and  goldsmiths. 
They  made  tables  with  the  most  beautiful  colours  and  patterns 
revealed  by  their  polished  tops.  For  such  a  table  Cicero  paid 
ten  thousand  sesterces.  It  showed  curious  "spots  and  macula- 
tions"  in  the  natural  grain  which  imitated  the  colours  and  shapes 
of  tigers  and  panthers!  One  of  the  Ptolemies  had  a  circular 
table  three  inches  thick  and  four  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  for 
which  he  gave  its  weight  in  gold!  Fifteen  hundred  thousand 
sesterces — $60,000 — paid  by  this  emperor  for  a  single  table, 
probably  represents  the  limit  to  which  this  extravagance  was 
carried. 

380 


The  Maples 

A  common  phrase,  which  we  use  without  understanding 
its  meaning,  originated  at  this  time.  The  women  matched  their 
husbands  in  lavish  expenditures.  "When  the  men  at  any  time 
reproached  their  wives  for  their  wanton  extravagance  in  pearl 
and  other  rich  trifles,  they  were  wont  to  retort,  and  turn  the  tables 
upon  their  husbands."  Evelyn,  from  whom  I  quote,  makes 
this  statement  on  the  authority  of  Pliny. 


381 


CHAPTER   XLIX:    THE   BUCKEYES 

Family  Hippocastanace^ 

Genus  ^SCULUS,  Linn. 

Trees  with  ill-smelling  bark  and  soft  wood.  Leaves  palm- 
ately  compound,  opposite,  large.  Flowers  perfect,  large,  showy, 
in  panicles.  Fruit  a  nut;  one  or  two  of  them  in  a  3-celled,  3- 
parted  husk. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Flowers  yellow;  leaflets  5  to  7. 

B.  Husk  spiny  or  rough;  stamens  long. 

(/£.  glabra)  ohio  buckeye 
BB.  Husk  smooth;  stamens  short. 

(/E.  ociandra)  sweet  buckeye 
AA.  Flowers  white;  leaflets  5. 

B.  Fruit  smooth,  pear  shaped. 

(/£.  Calijornica)  California  buckeye 
BB.  Fruit  spiny,  globose.     (Exotic.) 

(/£.  Hippocasianum)  horse  chestnut 
AAA.  Flowers  red;  leaflets  5;  fruit  smooth. 

(/E.  ausirina)  buckeye 

There  are  but  few  of  our  native  tree  families  whose  leaves 
are  set  opposite  upon  the  twigs.  The  horse  chestnut  family  is 
one  of  thern.  This  is  an  important  family  trait,  wherever  it 
occurs;  it  is  shared  by  the  ashes,  maples,  dogwoods,  catalpas, 
viburnums  and  elders.  Of  these  six  the  first  and  last  have 
compound  leaves.  So  a  tree  with  opposite  and  compound  leaves, 
if  a  native,  is  almost  sure  to  be  an  ash,  an  elder  or  a  buckeye. 
Ash  and  elder  leaflets  are  always  distributed  in  pairs  along  the 
sides  of  the  main  leaf  stalk.  The  buckeyes  all  bunch  their  leaflets 
at  the  end  of  the  leaf  stem.  They  are  palmately  compound, 
while  those  of  the  ash  are  pinnately  compound.  This  simple 
and  easy  mode  of  identifying  opposite-leaved  trees  is  set  forth 
more  graphically  in  the  Key  to  the  Families. 

382 


The  Buckeyes 

Buckeyes  are  distinguished  by  large  winter  buds,  showy 
flowers  in  pyramidal  racemes,  large  handsome  foliage,  and  large 
nuts  in  3-valved  husks. 

Every  continent  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  has  its  buckeyes. 
There  are  eleven  species  in  all.  Of  these  America  has  four  in  her 
own  right;  the  horse  chestnut  of  Asia  Minor  is  much  oftener 
planted  in  this  country  than  the  native  kinds.  Indeed  this 
species  is  the  most  cosmopolitan  of  trees,  being  found  in  the 
parks  of  cities  in  all  regions  where  the  climate  permits  it  to  thrive. 
It  is  a  hardy  immigrant,  springing  up  spontaneously  in  some 
sections  of  our  Eastern  States. 

The  name  "buckeye"  is  traceable  to  the  brown  nut  marked 
with  white,  which  suggested  to  somebody's  fancy  the  eye  of  a 
deer.  "Horse  chestnut"  employs  the  word  horse  to  indicate 
that  the  fruit,  which  resembles  the  familiar  edible  chestnut,  is 
unfit  for  human  food.  One  nibble  will  prove  to  anyone  its 
rank  quality.  These  nuts  lie  untouched  by  squirrels  through  the 
most  trying  of  winters.  A  strange  circumstance  is  that  the  name 
/Esculus  was  the  classical  name  of  an  oak  tree,  and  it  is  very 
similar  in  form  to  the  Latin  word  which  means  edible.  Acorns 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  diet  of  primitive  peoples,  but  it 
is  hard  to  imagine  an  edible  horse  chestnut.  Bitter,  astringent 
bark  and  seeds  are  characteristic  of  the  whole  family. 

In  Mexico  and  Central  America  grow  two  species  of  the 
genus  Billia,  trees  with  three  leaflets  instead  of  five  or  seven. 
Otherwise,  the  trees  are  like  the  buckeyes,  and  are  included  in  the 
family.  The  maples  with  their  opposite  leaves  are  near  relatives 
of  the  buckeyes. 

Ohio  Buckeye,  Fetid  Buckeye  (/Esculus  glabra,  Willd.) 
— Tree  20  to  70  feet  high,  with  small,  spreading  top;  odour  fetid; 
twigs  brown,  pubescent,  becoming  smooth.  Bark  grey,  broken 
into  plates.  Wood  white,  shading  into  brown  sap  wood,  light, 
soft,  and  difficult  to  split.  Winter  buds  pointed,  §  inch  long,  not 
resinous;  scales  elongating  to  2^  inches  in  spring,  becoming 
light  coloured.  Leaves  opposite,  yellow-green,  of  5  (rarely  7) 
obovate,  smooth  leaflets.  Flowers  April  and  May,  in  terminal 
clusters,  small,  pale,  yellow-green.  Fruit,  October,  i  to  i^ 
inches  in  diameter,  globular,  3-valved,  very  prickly  when  green, 
becoming  less  so  when  ripe;  nut  brown,  with  pale  spot  on  side. 
Preferred  habitat,  moist  woods  along  river  banks.     Disirtbuiion, 

383 


The  Buckeyes 

Alleghany  Mountains  from  Pennsylvania  to  Alabama;  west  to 
Michigan  and  Oklahoma.  Uses:  Wood  used  for  artificial  limbs 
and  small  wares. 

This  tree  was  found  most  abundantly  in  Ohio  by  the  botanical 
explorer,  Michaux,  and  though  it  grows  more  plentifully  farther 
west,  Ohio  will  always  be  called  "the  Buckeye  State."  The 
tree  is  gradually  becoming  rarer,  for  the  strong,  disagreeable 
odour  exhaled  by  its  bark  impels  people  to  cut  it  down.  There 
is  nothing  about  the  tree  to  offset  this  disadvantage.  Its  flowers 
are  inferior  to  those  of  other  species.  Only  the  special  use  to 
which  its  wood  is  put — the  making  of  artificial  limbs — seems  to 
justify  this  ill-favoured  tree  in  the  eyes  of  practical  people.  Its 
vigorous  nuts  are  too  bitter  to  be  eaten,  and  thus  it  seems  to  be 
well  fitted  to  hold  its  own  in  the  woods. 

The  Yellow,  Sweet,  or  Big  Buckeye  {Aisculus  octandra, 
Marsh.),  grows  on  mountain  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies,  from 
western  Pennsylvania  south  into  Georgia  and  Alabama,  and  west 
to  Iowa  and  Texas.  It  is  a  handsome  large  tree,  with  leaves 
of  five  slenderly  elliptical  leaflets,  more  or  less  pubescent  below 
and  on  the  veins  above.  The  showy  yellow  flowers  are  elongated 
into  tubes.  The  husks  of  the  nuts  arj  smooth.  This  species  lacks 
the  disagreeable  odour  of  the  Ohio  buckeye,  and  its  nuts,  though 
distasteful  to  people,  are  eaten  by  cattle.  Paste  made  from 
these  nuts  is  preferred  by  bookbinders.  It  is  strong  in  two 
senses:  it  holds  well,  and  destructive  insects  will  not  eat  it. 

The  California  Buckeye  (/Esculus  Calijornica,  Nutt.)  is  a 
close,  wide-topped  tree,  30  to  40  feet  high,  with  leaves  much 
like  the  horse  chestnut's,  large,  compact  clusters  of  white  or 
rose-coloured  flowers,  and  smooth  pear-shaped  fruits.  Its 
winter  buds  are  pointed  and  resinous.  The  upper  Sacramento 
Valley  is  its  northern  limit.  It  is  found  along  the  coast  and  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierras  as  far  as  Los  Angeles  County. 
It  is  occasionally  seen  in  European  gardens. 

A  red-flowered  buckeye  {/Esculus  austrina,  Sarg.)  has  but 
recently  been  assigned  a  place  among  the  species  of  this  genus. 
It  is  a  small  tree,  often  scarcely  more  than  a  shrub.  Its  thin 
bark  is  pale,  the  leaves  have  five  leaflets,  but  the  distinctive 
character  is  the  bright  red  flower  cluster,  with  stamens  protruding 
from  the  tubular  corollas.  Later,  the  pitted  husk  of  the  fruit, 
and  the  two  thin-shelled  nuts  within  it  are  good  characters. 

384 


THE    BOX    ELDER  {Acer  Xegundo) 

The  only  maple  with  a  compound  leaf  is  this  one.  The  opposite  buds 
and  leaves  and  the  key  fruits  are  family  characteristics.  These  keys  load  the 
leafless  pistillate  trees  well  into  winter.  The  wind  scatters  them,  but  the  curved 
Stems  persist  until  summer 


lil.ACK    MAIM.K  {.ic 
A  winter  twie 


Fruit  and  leaf 


THE    OHIO    BUCKEYE  (.Hsculus  ^Lihr,,) 

Five  smooth  leaflets  compose  each  h-af.     The  flowers  are  yellowisli  green,  with  stamens  curved  and  extended.     They  open  after 

the  leaves  in  May,  and  the  3-valved   spiny  husk  liberates  the  nut  in  October.     The  wood  is  used  for  artificial  limbs 


The  Buckeyes 

The  tree  occurs  from  Missouri  to  Texas  and  from  near  Memphis, 
Tennessee,  to  northern  Alabama. 

/Escula  carnea  is  a  garden  species  produced  by  crossing  our 
shrubby  red  buckeye,  A.  Pavia,  with  the  horse  chestnut,  A. 
Hippocasianum.  The  handsome  hybrid  tree  is  20  to  30  feet  high, 
with  leaves  like  the  horse  chestnut  and  flowers  flesh  coloured  to 
scarlet.  The  colour  is  derived  from  the  smaller  species,  but  size, 
foliage,  waxy  winter  buds,  and  slightly  prickly  fruit,  as  well 
as  its  hardiness,  come  from  the  larger  one.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  kinds  for  ornamental  planting. 

The  Horse  Chestnut  (Aisadus  Hippocasianum,  Linn.)  came 
originally  from  southern  Asia,  and  has  for  centuries  been  a  favourite 
tree  for  avenues  and  parks  in  Europe.  In  America  it  grows 
with  even  greater  vigour  than  in  the  Old  World.  It  is  one  of 
the  trees  commonly  planted  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  has  escaped 
from  cultivation  in  many  places. 

Longfellow's  "spreading  chestnut  tree"  was  a  horse  chestnut. 
He  called  the  tree  by  the  name  popular  in  England,  where  the 
word  "horse"  is  ordinarily  left  off.  The  most  aged  and  imposing 
specimen  trees  are  to  be  seen  in  our  Eastern  cities,  or  near  them. 
The  trees  reach  their  best  development  in  more  open  country 
away  from  choking  dust  and  smothering  pavements.  It  is  by 
no  means  the  most  desirable  of  trees,  but  it  improves  on  ac- 
quaintance. 

If  you  are  in  a  city  with  a  bare  horse-chestnut  tree  outsid« 
your  window,  look  at  it.  See  the  great  varnished  brown  buds 
that  tip  the  stout  twigs.  There  are  small  buds  on  the  sides  in 
pairs,  but  these  are  evidently  subordinates.  The  twigs  are 
generally  forked.  This  tells  that  a  flower  cluster  came  out  of 
an  end  bud  and  the  growth  of  the  twig  had  to  be  carried  up  by  a 
pair  of  side  buds.  The  whole  treetop  is  a  great  complex  system 
of  candelabra — each  main  branch  curves  up,  then  down,  then  up 
again  to  hold  all  its  tips  erect. 

In  late  winter  a  subtle  change  comes  over  the  horse-chestnut 
buds.  They  glimmer  with  an  unwonted  light  as  if  warned  from 
within  of  a  great  change  about  to  take  place.  When  the  warm 
days  come  they  swell  and  loosen  their  waxy  scales,  showing  the 
silky  grey  down  that  lines  them,  and  the  close-packed  leaves 
inside.  If  one  would  see  a  miracle  he  must  watch  the  quick 
unfolding  of  the  leaf  bundle,  the  lifting  of  the  pale  green  silvery 

385 


The  Buckeyes 

tent  and  the  spreading  of  the  young  leaves  into  erect  umbrellas 
all  over  the  treetop.  During  this  brief  period  the  trees  are  en- 
chanting. I  wish  every  house-pent  human  being  could  stop 
\Vork  and  sit  with  folded  hands  and  absorb  the  beauty 
and  inspiration  of  this  spectacle.  A  brief  hour  and  it  is 
over;  the  leaflets  rise  and  go  about  their  duties,  leaving 
with  us  only  a  memory  of  their  hour  of  adorable  appealing 
babyhood. 

The  horse-chestnut  tree  in  bloom  is  a  superb  sight — "a 
pyramid  of  green  supporting  a  thousand  pyramids  of  white!" 
Each  blossom  of  the  dense  cluster  has  in  its  throat  dashes  of 
red  and  yellow,  and  the  curving,  yellow  stamens  are  thrust  far 
out  of  the  ruffled  border  of  the  corolla.  If  they  were  rare  flowers, 
they  would  be  admired  as  orchids  are  now. 

Few  of  the  flowers  set  seed,  as  few  have  perfect  pistils. 
The  cluster  does  quite  enough  if  it  matures  one  or  two  burs. 
In  fall  the  small  boy  assails  the  trees,  knocks  off  and  husks  the 
smooth  brown  nuts,  and  how  glowing  and  soft  are  the  colours 
of  them!  They  are  "Conquerors"  in  games  which  recur  as 
regularly  among  town  children  in  the  autumn  as  do  games  of 
marbles  and  the  flying  of  kites  in  the  spring. 

The  fall  of  the  horse-chestnut  leaves  is  a  sudden  and  absolute 
surrender.  When  the  time  comes,  the  leaflets  and  the  stem 
that  bore  them  fall  separately.  The  leaf  has  evidently  expected 
to  come  apart,  for  the  joints  are  perfect:  there  is  no  tearing  nor 
breaking  involved  in  the  process. 

The  base  of  the  leaf  stalk  leaves  a  scar  on  the  twig  which 
is  strikingly  like  the  print  of  a  horse's  hoof.  This  may  have 
given  its  name  to  the  tree.  Or  was  it,  as  Gerarde  explains, 
"for  that  the  people  of  the  east  countries  do  with  the  fruit  thereof 
cure  their  horses  of  the  cough,  shortness  of  breath,  and  such  like 
diseases"?  More  probably  the  coarse,  large,  uneatable  nuts 
are  responsible;  many  rank-growing  plants  unfit  for  human 
food  are  similarly  named,  e.  g.,  horse  mint,  horse  nettle,  horse 
sugar. 

The  great  fault  of  the  horse  chestnut  is  that  it  is  continually 
dropping  something.  The  bud  scales  first  make  a  considerable 
litter;  then  the  flowers  fall  like  snow.  The  unripe  fruits  drop  in  all 
stages,  and  the  leaves  that  choke  to  death  in  the  crowded  interior 
turn  rusty  yellow  and  drop  all  summer.     It  also  casts  too  dense 

386 


The  Buckeyes 

a  shade,  and  in  some  regions  is  stripped  of  its  foliage  by  caterpillars 
covered  with  tufts  of  white  hairs — the  larvae  of  the  tussock  moth. 
Few  people  who  take  thought  will  choose  this  tree  when  elms  and 
hard  maples  can  be  had  for  planting. 

Family  Sapindace/E 

Some  interesting  relatives  of  the  buckeyes  are  to  be  found 
in  the  soapberry  family,  which  comprises  over  one  hundred 
genera,  chiefly  tropical  plants.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
and  the  fruits  are  drupes  or  capsules.  Five  deserve  mention 
here. 

The  Spanish  Buckeye  {Ungnadia  speciosa,  Endl.)  is  a 
small  tree  with  alternate  ash-like  leaves  and  profuse  clusters  of 
rose-coloured  flowers.  It  grows  on  canon  sides  and  along  streams 
in  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  Few  trees  surpass  it  in  beauty  when 
blooming.  The  fruit  is  shaped  like  an  inverted  top,  deeply 
3-lobed,  and  contains  three  shiny  seeds  smaller  than  buck- 
eyes. 

The  Soapberry  (Sapindus  Saponaria,  Linn.)  has  the  dis- 
tinction of  bearing  "sope  berries  like  a  musket  ball  that  washeth 
as  white  as  sope."  So  writes  an  early  explorer  of  southern 
Florida.  The  berries  produce  a  good  lather  in  water.  The 
Asiatic  sort  have  long  been  used  for  washing  silks  and  rare  woollen 
fabrics,  such  as  cashmere  shawls.  The  stem  of  the  ash-like 
leaf  is  winged  with  a  narrow,  leaf-like  web  throughout  its  length, 
as  is  that  of  our  familiar  smooth  sumach  of  the  roadside 
thickets. 

The  Wild  China  Tree  {Sapindus  margtnatus,  Willd.) — A 
tree  of  medium  size  which  grows  from  Louisiana  to  Kansas  and 
southern  Mexico,  has  leathery  leaves  with  wingless  stems,  and 
yellow  berries  which  have  the  same  saponaceous  principle.  This 
tree  is  especially  valuable  for  its  wood,  which  is  tough  and  hard, 
and  divides  into  plates,  or  annual  layers.  These  are  separated, 
stripped,  and  woven  into  baskets  to  use  in  gathering  the  cotton 
crop. 

The  Ironwood,  or  Inkwood  (Exoibea  paniculaia,  Radlk.), 
grows  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Florida.  It  is  a  small  tree  whose 
hard  red  wood  is  used  for  piles  and  boats,  because  it  seems  to  bo 
immune  from  the  attacks  of  the  ship-worm.     Its  leaves  h:.\'i 

387 


The  Buckeyes 

2  to  4  oval  leaflets.    The  minute  flowers  are  in  panicles,  and  the 
fruit  is  a  juicy,  i -seeded,  purple  berry. 

The  ^Vhite  Ironwood  {Hypelate  irijoliata,  Schwartz.) — 
A  rare  species  on  the  Umbrella  Keys,  and  in  Cuba  and 
Jamaica,  it  is  esteemed  as  timber  and  devoted  to  boat  building. 
Its  wood,  though  hard,  is  far  from  white.  The  leaves  have  three 
obovate  leaflets;  the  minute  flowers  are  succeeded  by  sweet, 
black  berries,  each  enclosing  a  thick  pit. 


388 


CHAPTER   L:     THE   BUCKTHORNS 

Family  Rhamnace.^ 

Genus  RHAMNUS,  Linn. 

Ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  with  bitter  juice.  Leaves 
simple,  alternate,  entire  or  toothed.  Flowers  inconspicuous, 
greenish,  in  axillary  clusters.     Fruit  berry-like,  black  or  red. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  deciduous.     (Eastern.) 

(R.  Caroliniand)  Indian  cherry 
AA.  Leaves  evergreen,  or  nearly  so.     (Western.) 
B.  Length,  |  to  i^  inches,  holly-like. 

{R.  crocea)  evergreen  buckthorn 
BB.  Length,  i  to  7  inches,  deciduous  or  persistent. 

{R.  Purshiand)  cascara  buckthorn 

The  buckthorns  are  small,  ornamental  tree  and  shrubs. 
There  are  sixty  species  of  them,  widely  distributed  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  with  a  few  tropical  species,  and  representatives  in 
South  Africa  and  Brazil. 

Of  our  three  natives,  the  Indian  cherry  is  rarely  seen  in 
cultivation.  When  people  plant  buckthorns  they  order  them  of 
nurserymen  who  offer  the  vigorous  English  Rhamnus  cathariica,  a 
clean-leaved,  handsome,  thorny  shrub,  beset  in  autumn  with 
black  berries  clustered  close  to  the  twigs.  Its  fruit  yields  a 
valuable  medicinal  principle,  oftenest  sold  in  the  form  of  a  syrup. 
The  bark  furnishes  a  yellow  dye.  Another  European  buckthorn, 
R.  jrangula,  appears  in  our  shrubbery  borders,  its  shining  leaves 
brightened  by  large  red  berries.  The  wood  of  this  species  makes 
valuable  charcoal  for  gunpowder. 

Morocco  leather  is  dyed  yellow  with  the  berry  of  a  French 
buckthorn.  Painters  get  their  "China  green"  from  two  Chinese 
species.  Jujube  paste  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  a  member  of 
this  family.    The  "Lotus-eaters"  of  ancient  literature  are  now 

389 


b 


The  Buckthorns 

believed  to  have  tasted — to  their  undoing — the  fruit  of  one  of  the 
buckthorns. 

Indian  Cherry,  Yellow  Buckthorn  {Rhamnus  Carolini- 
ana,  Walt.) — A  slender,  spreading  tree,  25  to  35  feet  high,  or  a  tall 
shrub;  branches  thornless.  Dark  ashy  grey,  blotched  with  black, 
shallowly  furrowed;  branches  grey.  Wood  hard,  light  brown, 
close,  brittle.  Buds  pointed,  small.  Leaves  deciduous,  alternate, 
elliptical,  acute,  faintly  serrate,  2  to  5  inches  long,  yellow-green 
above,  paler  beneath;  veins  yellow.  Flowers  small,  in  axillary 
umbels,  April  to  June.  Fruits,  September;  berry-like,  2  to  4- 
celled  drupes,  with  dry,  sweet,  black  flesh,  red  before  it  ripens. 
Preferred  habitat,  rich  bottom  lands  and  limestone  hillsides. 
Distribution,  Long  Island  to  Florida;  west  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas.  Uses:  Sometimes  planted  as  an  ornamental  for  its 
bright  berries.     Not  hardy  North. 

The  Cascara  Buckthorn  (R.  Purshiana,  DC.)  grows 
from  Puget  Sound  through  California,  and  east  to  Colorado  and 
Texas.  It  is  extremely  variable  in  size,  adapting  itself  to  different 
regions  and  climates  with  great  facility.  In  the  caiions  of  the 
Sierras  it  becomes  a  tree  40  feet  high;  on  the  exposed  mountain 
sides  and  on  the  arid  coast  of  California  it  dwindles  to  a  prostrate 
shrub.  Its  elliptical  leaves  are  usually  evergreen  or  half  ever- 
green; the  fruits  turn  red  on  ripening,  then  black. 

It  is  from  the  bark  of  this  tree  that  the  drug,  Cascara  Sagrada, 
is  obtained.  The  species  and  its  varieties  are  planted  in  shrub- 
beries for  their  pretty  foliage  and,  bright  fruits.  Forms  with 
deciduous  leaves  are  hardy  in  Massachusetts  gardens. 

The  Evergreen  Buckthorn  {Rhamnus  crocea,  Nutt.)  grows 
on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  in  California, 
south  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Sacramento  River.  It  is  more 
often  a  shrub  than  a  tree,  and  commonly  forms  thickets  on 
the  shaded  sides  of  ravines.  Its  leaves  are  almost  round  and 
spiny-toothed,  glossy  green  above  and  coppery  beneath.  Its 
scarlet,  pea-like  fruits  are  sweet  and  edible.  This  buckthorn  is 
frequently  seen  in  gardens  in  California.  It  is  not  hardy  in  the 
North,  but  deserves  introduction  into  the  Southern  and  Middle 
States. 

Numerous  related  genera  belonging  to  the  buckthorn  family 
are  found  in  the  Southern  States  and  in  California.  Among  them 
are  trees  of  unusual  interest  which  deserve  brief  mention  here. 

390 


yright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 


SCARLET    HAW     (  Crataegus  A rmldiana ) 

Branoh  taken  from  type  species  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum.  Boston 


The  Buckthorns 

Some  are  remarkable  for  the  hardness  of  their  wood,  others  for 
their  flowers. 

The  Red  Ironwood  (Reynosia  sepienirionalts,  Urb.),  called 
also  "Darling  plum,"  grows  wild  in  southern  Florida,  and  is 
cultivated  to  some  extent  for  its  fruit.  It  is  a  pretty  little  tree, 
clothing  its  heavy,  hard  wood  with  bright  red  bark.  The  purple 
or  black  plums  are  sweet  and  of  pleasant  flavour. 

The  Bluewood,  or  Logwood  {Condalia  ohovaia,  Hook.), 
grows  in  thickets  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  in  Texas 
and  is  especially  esteemed  as  fuel.  It  burns  with  an  unusually 
fervent  heat.  Its  leaves  are  dry  and  leathery,  obovate,  entire, 
and  scarcely  an  inch  long.  Its  twigs  end  in  sharp  thorns.  The 
sweet  berries  ripen,  turning  blue,  then  black,  during  the  long 
summer.  The  wood  is  red,  but  yields  a  bluish  dye.  It  is  an 
entirely  different  tree  from  the  logwood  of  commerce,  Hcema- 
toxylon  Campechianum,  which  grows  in  Central  America  and  the 
West  Indies  and  yields  a  colouring  matter  used  in  calico  printing 
and  in  the  preparation  of  lake  pigments. 

The  Black  Ironwood  (Krugiodendron  ferreum,  Urb.)  grows 
plentifully  in  second-growth  timber  in  southern  Florida  and  in 
the  West  Indies.  Its  velvety  green  twigs  are  covered  with  small, 
oval,  leathery  leaves,  and  in  autumn  with  solitary  black  berries. 
The  bark  is  pale  grey. 

This  species  is  notable  for  having  the  heaviest  wood  of  all 
American  trees.  A  cubic  foot  of  it  weighs  81.14  pounds.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.3020.  The  ashes,  after  a  stick  burns,  weigh 
8^  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight,  proving  a  remarkably  high 
percentage  of  mineral  substance  in  the  wood. 

The  California  Lilac,  or  Blue  Myrtle  (Ceanothus  ihyrsi- 
florus,  Esch.),  is  related  to  the  shrubby  New  Jersey  tea,  or  redroot 
of  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent.  But  it  is  a  California  species, 
and  there  we  shall  find  it  in  all  stages  from  a  small  shrub  on  the 
bleak  lower  coast  to  a  towering  tree  40  feet  high  among  the  red- 
woods, and  on  the  hillsides  of  Mendocino  County.  It  keeps  to 
the  western  part  of  the  state.  The  most  striking  feature  of  this 
plant  is  the  inflorescence.  The  twigs  end  in  clusters  of  small, 
blue,  fragrant  flowers  (rarely  white),  which  suggest  nothing  more 
than  our  garden  lilac  blooms,  in  miniature.  The  leaves  are 
small  with  peculiar  venation,  having  three  midribs  instead  of  one. 
From  this  native  species  have  been  derived  forms  of  showiei 

391 


A  he  Buckthorns 

bloom,  which  are  extensively  planted.     These  California  lilacs 
do  poorly  in  the  Eastern  States,  but  much  better  in  Europe. 

The  Spiny  Lilac  (Ceanothus  spinosus,  Nutt.)  grows  in 
canon  sides  in  southern  California,  and  a  velvety-branched 
species  (C.  arhoreus,  Greene)  is  found  only  on  the  Santa  Barbara 
Islands. 


392 


CHAPTER  LI:    THE  LINDENS 

Family  Tiliace^e 

Genus  TILIA,  Linn. 

Trees  with  mucilaginous  sap,  tough  inner  bark  and  broad, 
dense  head.  IVood  soft,  white.  Leaves  alternate,  deciduous, 
broad,  unsymmetrical,  toothed,  with  veins  branching  strongly 
on  side  next  to  petiole.  Flowers  creamy,  fragrant,  perfect, 
clustered  in  cymes;  borne  on  narrow  leaf-like  blades.  Fruit 
a  dry,  i  to  2-seeded,  globular  nut. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  green  on  both  sides. 

B.  Linings  of  leaves  nearly,  or  quite,  smooth;  fruit  ovoid. 

{T.  Americana)  American  linden 
BB.  Linings  of  leaves  pubescent;  fruit  globose. 

(T.  puhescens)  downy  basswood 
A  A.  Leaves  pale  below;  fruit  globose. 

{T.  heterophylla)  white  basswood 

The  genus  Tilia,  comprising  sixteen  recognised  species, 
ranges  widely  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  omitting  only  central 
Asia,  the  Himalaya  district,  and  western  America.  It  belongs 
to  a  tropical  family  of  which  it  is  the  only  northern  representative. 
America  has  three  Eastern  species  and  one  confined  to  Mexico. 
Three  other  little-known  forms  have  been  recently  admitted  to 
the  rank  of  species  by  Professor  Sargent. 

In  classical  Hterature  and  in  folk  lore  the  lindens  have  an 
honoured  place.  In  the  south  of  Europe  the  impressionable 
Greeks  and  Romans  loved  them  for  their  beauty  and  their  honey- 
laden  flowers.  The  hives  of  Hybla  were  sung  by  poets,  and  the 
honey  from  the  linden  trees  in  the  Lithuanian  forests  brought  a 
price  three  times  as  large  as  any  other.  Linnaeus  had  his  name, 
Carl  Linne  (afterward  Carolus  Linnaeus),  from  a  favourite  linden 
tree  that  stood  by  his  peasant  father's  house. 

393 


The  Lindens 

Scarcely  a  part  has  a  linden  tree  that  is  not  turned  to  good  use. 
Its  fagots  make  the  best  of  charcoal.  The  leaves  are  used,  fresh 
and  dry,  as  fodder  for  cattle.  The  flowers  furnish  nectar  to  bees, 
and  are  distilled  by  makers  of  perfumes.  An  infusion  of  fresh 
flowers  has  long  been  used  as  a  remedy  for  indigestion,  nervousness, 
and  for  coughs  and  hoarseness.  The  seed  balls  are  full  of  oil 
which  is  esteemed  equal  to  olive  oil  for  cooking  and  table  use. 
This  oil  is  also  used  in  perfumeries.  The  bark  of  young  trees 
makes  the  shoes  of  the  Russian  peasant.  Ropes,  fishnets  and 
mats  are  made  of  this  tough  "bast  fibre"  of  the  inner  bark.  It 
was  a  favourite  tying  material  in  nurseries  and  greenhouses  until 
the  more  adaptable  raffia  came  in  to  replace  it.  Basswood  is 
second  only  to  "tulip  poplar"  in  the  wood  carver's  esteem.  The 
wood  is  uniform  in  colour  and  texture,  does  not  split  easily,  and  is 
free  from  hard  knots  and  minor  imperfections.  Dryden  describes 
it  as 

"  Smooth  grained  and  proper  for  the  turner's  trade, 

Which  curious  hands  may  carve  and  steel  with  ease  invade." 

Sometimes  basswood  is  sawed  by  holding  a  short  section  of  a 
log  so  that  it  revolves  against  a  saw  blade.  The  wood  is  thus 
spirally  sawed;  that  is,  a  thin,  continuous  board  is  made  as  long 
as  the  log,  and  as  wide  as  the  spiral  path  of  the  saw  from  bark  to 
pith.  Sometimes  this  sheet  of  wood  is  loo  feet  wide.  Steaming 
and  pressing  prepare  these  curved  sheets  for  veneer  work.  This 
m.ethod  practically  eliminates  waste,  both  in  the  sawmill  and  in 
the  cabinet  shop. 

Famous  old  trees  in  Europe  include  the  Neustadt  Linden  in 
Wurtemburg.  Its  sheltering  boughs  formed  a  temple  of  justice 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  Public  questions  were  discussed  under  it. 
It  lived  to  be  almost  a  thousand  years  old,  with  a  crown  over 
loo  feet  in  diameter  and  a  trunk  42  feet  in  circumference.  Nearly 
200  columns  supported  it  in  its  dotage. 

American  Linden,  Basswood  {Tilia  Americana,  Linn.) — 
Tall,  stately  tree  with  spreading  round  top,  75  to  125  feet  high; 
trunk  2  to  4  feet  in  diameter.  Bark  brown,  deeply  furrowed, 
scaly;  inner  layer  tough;  branches  grey,  twigs  reddish.  Wood 
white  or  pale  brown,  soft,  tough,  close  grained,  free  of  knots; 
hard  to  split.  Winter  buds  smooth,  plump,  pointed,  dark  red. 
Leaves  alternate,  obliquely  heart  shaped,  serrate,  with  prominent 

394 


The  Lindens 

veins  and  paler  lining,  veins  branching  mainly  on  the  side  next  the 
petiole;  rusty  hairy  in  axils  of  side  veins  underneath.  Petioles 
3  to  4  inches  long,  slender;  blades  6  to  8  inches  long,  3  to  4  inches 
wide.  Flowers,  June,  July;  small,  perfect,  yellowish  white, 
very  fragrant,  full  of  nectar,  clustered  on  end  of  flower  stalk 
borne  on  narrow  leaf-like  blade.  Peculiar  petal-like  scale  opposite 
each  petal.  Fruit  a  cluster  of  woody,  pea-like  balls,  grey,  rather 
woolly,  round  or  ovoid;  seeds  2  to  3.  Preferred  habitat,  moist, 
rich  woodlands.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick  to  Dakota;  south 
to  Virginia,  along  mountains  to  Alabama;  west  to  Texas.  Uses: 
An  ornamental  and  shade  tree;  planted  for  bee  pasture.  Wood 
used  for  carriage  bodies,  bureaus,  chair  seats,  shoe  soles,  cooperage, 
wood  carving,  paper  pulp,  charcoal  and  fuel. 

No  American  tree  has  more  abundant  foliage  than  the  linden. 
The  branches  subdivide  into  very  many  twigs,  all  set  with 
plump  buds  in  winter.  These  develop  into  leafy  shoots  that 
lengthen  rapidly,  carrying  the  broad  leaves  out  where  there  is 
room  for  them  to  expand  fully.  A  dense  shade  is  cast  by  this 
roof  of  green,  and  cattle  ranging  in  mixed  and  open  woods  are 
likely  to  choose  this  tree  as  the  best  shelter  from  the  heat  and 
glare  of  dog  days. 

The  linden's  roots  are  large  and  fibrous,  penetrating  deeply 
and  widely  in  the  soil.  The  vigour  of  its  growth  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at.  It  is  not  dependent  on  transient  soil  conditions:  it 
draws  its  sustenance  from  the  deeper  sources.  Its  smooth  bark 
and  the  lusty  symmetry  of  its  frame  are  revealed  in  winter.  Its 
lines  are  gentle  curves;  its  twigs  are  stout  but  supple.  Its  whole 
character  suggests  the  quality  of  its  wood,  which  the  axe  cuts 
like  cheese.  Just  so  the  hickory  tells  by  its  winter  "expression" 
of  the  tough  fibres  its  shaggy  bark  conceals. 

The  linden  opens  late  in  spring.  But  watch  how  it  makes 
up  time,  when  the  ruby  buds  do  stir,  and  the  inner  scales  lengthen 
and  reveal  the  succulent  shoots.  The  flowers  wait  until  the  flood 
of  pink  and  white  has  subsided  in  the  orchard.  Then  they  open 
by  the  hundreds,  creamy  white  and  honey  laden,  and  we  enjoy 
them  with  the  bees.  Only  catalpa  and  chestnuts  will  bid  for  our 
attention,  and  the  appeal  of  the  fragrance  alone  is  strong  enough 
to  lead  us  to  the  tree.  The  blossoms  are  clustered  on  dainty 
pale-green  blades.  The  tree  is  illuminated,  the  broad  leaf  plat- 
forms lined  with  the  delicate  inflorescence.     A  bird  flying  over 

395 


The  Lindens  ' 

looks  down  upon  a  tree  covered  with  shingled  leaves.  It  is 
from  underneath  that  the  full  beauty  of  these  trees  must  now  be 
seen. 

In  midsummer  the  linden  grows  coarse.  The  great  leaves 
are  soft  and  attract  hordes  of  insect  enemies.  Plant  lice  cover 
them  with  patches  of  honey  dew,  and  the  sticky  surfaces  catch 
dust  and  smoke.  Riddled  with  holes  and  torn  by  the  wind,  they 
fall  in  desultory  fashion.  The  faded  yellow  does  not  please  as 
does  the  gold  of  beech  and  hickory  leaves. 

Before  they  lose  their  spring  freshness,  note  the  linden  leaf, 
so  you  will  always  recognise  it.  The  heart-shaped  blade  is  unsym- 
metrical — one  half  is  bigger  than  the  other.  The  bases  do  not 
match,  if  you  fold  a  leaf  on  its  midrib.  Then  look  at  the  veining. 
The  main  side  ribs  have  large  branches  only  on  the  lower  sides. 
Those  on  the  other  side  are  simple  and  small.  This  is  noticeable 
on  no  other  tree  as  it  is  in  this  one.  This  peculiarity  is  seen  in  the 
basal  half  of  the  leaf,  where  the  side  veins  are  of  good  size.  All 
lindens  show  this  characteristic.  It  is  one  of  the  marked  family 
traits. 

In  the  virgin  forests  of  the  Ohio  Valley  basswoods  vastly 
outnumbered  all  other  trees.  The  reasons  are  easy  to  discover. 
Vigorous  seeds,  winged  for  flight,  are  borne  in  profusion  by  these 
trees.  Their  seedlings  are  content  to  grow  in  the  shade.  Suckers 
grow  up  from  the  roots  of  a  tree  that  falls,  and  every  twig  the 
wind  tears  off  is  likely  to  strike  root,  and  soon  to  become  a  tree. 
Only  man  can  interfere  with  the  triumph  of  such  a  species  in  the 
unceasing  battle  in  the  forest.  He  has  distributed  Nature's 
equilibrium.  The  giant  lindens,  hundreds  of  years  old,  fell  under 
the  pioneer's  axe,  and  it  will  take  centuries  for  the  second-growth 
trees  to  reach  their  full  stature.  Let  us  hope  some  of  them  may 
be  permitted  to  live  their  lives  undisturbed,  just  to  shov^'  to 
coming  generations  what  the  linden  trees  of  the  Ohio  Valley  were 
in  the  old  days. 

The  White  Basswood,  or  Bee  Tree  of  the  South  (Tilia 
heterophylla,  Vent.),  is  an  exceptionally  handsome  tree,  for  its 
bright  leaves  are  pale  beneath,  often  lined  with  fine,  silvery 
down.  As  they  flutter  in  the  breeze  they  make  a  dazzling  play 
of  white  and  pale  green  against  a  background  usually  sombre 
with  hemlocks  and  mountain  laurel. 

The  white  basswood  is  a  lusty  forest  tree  with  a  preference 
396 


The  Lindens 

for  the  sides  of  mountain  streams.  It  occurs  at  Ithaca,  New 
York,  and  following  the  Alleghanies  south  from  Pennsylvania, 
extends  to  Florida  and  Alabama,  and  west  to  Illinois,  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  The  leaves  are  narrower  in  most  cases  than  those 
of  the  Northern  species,  but  they  vary  in  size  and  form,  averaging 
somewhat  larger  than  those  of  T.  Americana.  The  fruits  are 
globular,  with  two  seeds  in  each. 

The  Downy  Basswood  (7.  pubescens,  Ait.),  like  the 
Northern  species,  has  leaves  that  are  green  on  both  sides,  but  this 
species  is  distinguished  by  the  rusty  hairs  that  line  its  leaves 
and  coat  its  young  shoots.  It  is  a  small  tree,  with  leaves,  flowers 
and  fruits  reduced  in  size.  It  is  a  basswood  in  every  character, 
and  need  not  be  confused  with  the  other  native  species.  Its 
flower  blade  is  rounded  at  its  base,  while  the  others  taper  narrowly 
to  the  short  stem. 

This  little  basswood  follows  the  coast  from  the  Carolinas  to 
Texas.  It  occurs  also  in  Long  Island.  It  is  too  rare  to  have  any 
importance  as  a  lumber  tree,  and  it  is  not  a  desirable  species  for 
cultivation. 

A  large  tree,  with  pubescent  leaf  linings  and  flower  stalks, 
has  been  discovered  growing  in  various  localities  from  Montreal 
to  Georgia  and  Texas.  Collectors  have  assigned  it  to  Tilia 
pubescens,  because  it  is  a  hairy  species.  It  does  not  fit  the  de- 
scription, having  larger  features  throughout,  and  the  seed  bract 
being  narrowly  obovate,  tapering  to  the  base.  These  may  be 
merely  variations  from  the  type  species.  Professor  Sargent 
accepts  Nuttall's  name,  Tilia  Michauxii,  in  his  Manual.  The 
tree  is  little  known  as  yet. 

European  Lindens 

Under  the  Linnaean  and  trade  name,  Tilia  Europcea,  many 
different  species  of  lindens  have  been  imported  by  American 
nurserymen,  and  these  trees  are  widely  planted,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  States.  Tilia  vulgaris,  with  small  leaves  green  on  both 
sides,  is  a  favourite  avenue  tree,  beside  which  the  American  bass- 
wood  looks  coarse  indeed.  This  is  the  linden  that  lines  the  famous 
Berlin  thoroughfare,  "Unter  den  Linden" — which  so  disappoints 
the  average  tourist.  To  judge  the  lindens  of  the  Continent  by 
these  trees  would  be  like  judging  American  trees  by  specimens 

397 


The  Lindens 

that  grow  along  Broadway  in  New  York.  The  splendid  lime 
trees  in  the  rural  sections  of  France  and  Germany  and  in  the 
parks  show  the  linden  in  its  best  estate. 

In  America  some  fine  avenues  of  this  species  have  attained 
great  age  and  size.  The  season  of  1904  found  these  trees  loaded 
with  flowers  and  fruit,  under  a  leaf  crown  of  unusual  density 
and  beauty.  The  lower  limbs  lie  on  the  ground  when  the  tree 
makes  a  natural  growth,  and  the  platforms  of  foliage,  each  lined 
with  the  pendant  cluster  of  flowers,  fairly  dripping  with  nectar, 
form  a  symmetrical  cone  worth  going  miles  to  see.  The  ground 
under  these  trees  was  covered  with  discarded  petals  and  the 
weakest  of  the  flower  clusters,  but  the  limbs  above  still  bent 
under  the  burden  of  the  ripening  seed  balls.  The  leaves  remain 
much  later  than  those  of  the  native  basswoods. 

There  are  many  fine  specimens  of  Tilia  tomentosa  and  Tilia 
argeniea,  from  eastern  Europe,  now  coming  into  American  gardens 
and  parks.  These  species  deserve  more  extended  cultivation. 
Each  has  its  foliage  lightened  with  silky  leaf  linings.  The  weeping 
silver  linden,  Tilia  petiolaris,  is  an  elegant  tree  with  white-lined 
leaves. 

The  Broad-leaved  Linden  (Tilia  plaiyphyllos) ,  very  common 
in  European  parks  and  avenues,  soon  loses  its  foliage  in  dry 
weather  and  is  less  desirable  than  other  species  for  America. 
It  is  clipped  to  form  hedges  in  Europe;  the  alleys  of  the  Tuilleries 
gardens  were  made  of  it. 

Because  lindens  submit  patiently  to  pruning,  they  have  long 
been  clipped  into  grotesque  figures,  along  with  yev/  and  box. 
They  had  a  tremendous  vogue  while  the  formal  garden  was 
approaching  its  most  elaborate  development.  A  more  lasting 
popularity  was  vouchsafed  them  as  avenue  and  park  trees,  a 
popularity  which  dates  from  remote  times  and  is  still  unchecked. 
"The  Linden  spreadeth  forth  his  branches  wide  and  farre  abroad, 
being  a  tree  which  yieldeth  a  most  pleasant  shadow,  under  and 
within  whose  boughs  may  be  made  brave  summer  houses  and 
banquetting  arbours." 


398 


CHAPTER   LII:     THE  GORDONIAS 

Family  Theace/€ 

Genus  GORDONIA,  Ell. 

Two  very  interesting  and  beautiful  species  of  tiiis  genus  grow 
in  the  South  Atlantic  States.  They  are  flowering  trees  that 
rank  in  beauty  with  the  magnolias  which  they  resemble.  They 
belong,  in  fact,  to  the  camellia  family,  whose  flowers  are  famous 
in  horticulture.  The  tea  plant,  CamilUa  Thca,  of  commerce, 
itself  a  beautiful  flowering  shrub,  is  a. member  of  the  family,  and 
a  relative  of  our  gordonias. 

The  Loblolly  Bay  {Gordonia  Lasianihus,  Ell.)  grows  to 
be  a  tree  of  70  feet  in  height,  with  slender,  straight  trunk  and 
narrow,  compact  head,  in  swampy  land  from  tidewater  Virginia 
along  the  coast  to  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  most  frequent 
in  eastern  Florida  and  Georgia.  Its  leaves  are  evergreen,  leathery 
and  shining,  lanceolate  in  form  and  serrate  on  the  margins.  Its 
flowers  are  perfect,  with  fleshy  white  petals  spreading  out  like 
great  wild  roses  often  two  to  three  inches  across.  They  begin  to 
bloom  in  July  and  continue  several  weeks.  A  dry,  woody,  ovoid 
capsule  succeeds  the  flower.  In  it  are  2  to  8  square,  winged 
seeds. 

The  tree  thrives  in  cultivation,  though  at  best  it  is  short 
lived.  A  handsome  specimen  blossoms  freely  in  the  Arnold 
Arboretum  at  Boston. 

The  Franklinia  (G.  Altamaha,  Sarg.)  is  a  tree  rarely  seen 
over  15  to  20  feet  high  now.  Its  flowers,  larger  than  those  of  the 
loblolly,  bay,  open  in  September.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of 
the  other  species  in  form,  but  are  deciduous,  and  notable  for 
their  splendid  scarlet  in  autumn.  The  fruit  is  globular  and  the 
seeds  not  winged. 

In  1790  William  Bartram  found  this  tree  growing  in  groves 
along  the  Altamaha  River.  Specimens  were  sent  to  John  Bart- 
ram's  garden  in  Philadelphia,  and  from  there  were  introduced 

399 


The  Gordonias 


into  cultivation.  Strangely,  no  succeeding  explorer  has  ever 
found  the  trees  growing  wild,  though  careful  search  has  been 
made  to  rediscover  them.  The  only  specimens  known  are  in 
gardens,  lineal  descendants  and  sole  representatives  of  those 
Bartram  described. 


400 


THE   AMERICAN    LINDEN  {Tilla  Americana) 
The  broad  leaves  are  unsymmetrical  and  the  side  veins  branch   only  on  the  side   next  to  the  base  of  the  leaf.      The  flower 
clusters  spring  in  June  and   July  out  of  pale-green,  leafy  bracts.     The  drv  seed   balls  are  scattered  bv  wind  in  winter.     The  leathery 
bracts  aive  them  wings.     The  outer  twig  is  of  Tilia  heterophsU.i 


^^^ 


This  I'loruli.in  tn-c  sprca^is  ever  i:i,i,-ii. 
(iown  aerial  roots  that  biml  the  trcctop  to  tht 
diately  hecome  established. 

THE    WHITE    MANGROVE  {Lagumularia  raremo.a 

This    tree  mingles  with    the    others   of   its    naim-,    but    i 

not  a  true  mangrove  at  all.     It  is    the    buttonwooil.     It    ha 

no  aerial  nor  a  ching  roots,  but  relies  (.n  itf    Hrv,  flask-shapei 

seeds  for  multiplication 


1  \\(;R()\'E   (A' 
plains,   forming  ahnc 
in   all   directions.     Tl 


impassable  stii-lriu-s  of   arcl 
seeds  germinate  on   the    tre 


g  root.'-, 
then  fall 


)  THE    BL.\CK    MANGROVE  {Avic-nnia  nitida) 

It  has  grey-green,  thick  leaves,  and  bears  continuously 
its  small  white  flowers.  The  seeds  germinate  before  falling. 
There  are  no  aerial  roots,  but  a  grove  of  erect,  leafless,  often 
much-branched,     projections    .-"rise    from    the   roots.     These 


CHAPTER  LIII:     THE  MANGROVES 

The  true  mangrove  family,  Rhiiophoracece,  of  fifteen  genera, 
is  chiefly  confined  to  the  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World.  One 
genus  with  a  single  species  reaches  the  extreme  end  of  Florida. 
Two  other  species  of  the  genus  Rhizophora  are  found  in  tide 
pools  and  marshes  of  Asiatic  and  African  equatorial  waters. 
The  remarkable  habit  of  throwing  out  aerial  roots  from  trunks 
and  limbs,  and  of  germinating  its  seeds  before  they  fall  enable 
the  mangrove  to  extend  its  range  on  all  sides,  encroaching  upon 
the  surrounding  water  slowly  but  surely.  The  secondary  roots 
fasten  themselves  in  the  soil,  and  the  young  plantlets,  as  they  fall, 
strike  root  at  varying  distances  from  the  parent  tree.  The 
flotsam  and  jetsam  brought  in  and  out  by  tides  lodge  among  the 
network  of  roots  and  stems,  and  thus  new  soil  is  formed. 

Red  Mangrove  (Rhizophora  Mangle,  Linn.) — A  round-topped 
tree,  15  to  25  feet  high,  with  drooping,  aerial  roots.  Occasionally 
75  feet  high,  with  small,  narrow  head.  Bark  reddish  brown  or 
grey,  irregularly  broken  by  shallow  fissures;  branches  smooth. 
IVood  reddish  brown,  streaked  with  paler  brown,  hard,  heavy, 
close  grained.  Leaves  persistent,  thick,  oval,  blunt,  3  to  5  inches 
long,  dark  green  and  shining  above,  paler  beneath;  margins  entire. 
Flowers,  axillary,  perfect,  2  to  3  on  short  stalk,  petals  4,  yellow, 
hairy  inside;  ever-blooming.  Fruit  berry-like,  i  inch  long,  with 
leathery,  rough,  brown  skin;  4  calyx  lobes  curl  back  from  base, 
and  tube  of  developing  cotyledon  of  germinating  seed  protrudes 
from  apex.  Preferred  habitat,  along  coasts  and  rivers  in  wet  soil. 
Distribution,  Florida  from  Mosquito  Inlet  to  Cedar  Keys,  rounding 
the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula,  and  outlying  islands.  Uses: 
Wood  for  wharf  piles  and  fuel.  Bark  yields  tannin,  and  a  decoction 
of  it  is  used  as  a  febrifuge. 

This  is  the  true  mangrove  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  Florida 
coast,  found  also  along  the  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico  and  Lower 
California.  With  the  coral  polyp  it  co-operates  to  extend  the 
borders  of  island  and  mainland.  It  spreads  in  monotonous  green 
thickets  over  marshy  coast  plains  and  in  the  estuaries  of  rivers, 

40! 


The  Mangroves 

forming  almost  impassable  stretches  of  arching  roots,  accum.u- 
lating  rubbish  of  all  sorts  that  finally  lifts  the  level  above  the 
tide  and  makes  solid  ground  that  is  soon  covered  with  the  char- 
acteristic vegetation  of  the  tropics.  Mangrove  islands  of  varying 
sizes  now  dot  the  surface  of  shallow  bays  which  a  few  years  ago 
were  quite  destitute  of  islands. 

The  tree  reaches  its  greatest  height  on  dry  ground  back 
from  the  coast.  Here  the  trees  grow  tall  and  bare  of  limbs  for 
two-thirds  of  their  height,  and  almost  abandon  the  habit  of 
throwing  down  aerial  roots.  The  wood  is  used  for  fuel  and  built 
into  wharfs.     It  is  not  counted  a  valuable  tree. 

The  White  Mangrove,  or  Buttonwood  (Laguncularia  race- 
mosa,  Gaertn.),  is  not  a  true  mangrove  at  all;  it  belongs  in  a 
different  botanical  family,  and  is  related  to  the  aralias.  It 
mingles  with  the  mangroves,  but  lacks  the  aerial  roots  character- 
istic of  the  latter.  The  foliage  is  red  when  it  unfolds,  becoming 
dark  green  and  glossy.  The  flowers  are  small,  in  axillary  spikes. 
The  fruit  is  a  flask-shaped,  i -seeded  drupe  with  corky  flesh  and 
leathery  skin.  The  wood  is  hard  and  dark  brown,  except  for  the 
wide  white  sap  wood.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannic  acid,  and  were 
the  trees  located  in  less  miasmic  regions  they  would  soon  be  cut 
down  for  the  bark  alone. 

The  buttonwood  the  Floridian  esteems  as  a  fuel  tree  is 
Conocarpus  ereda,  Linn.,  whose  flowers  and  fruits  are  button-like. 
It  is  also  esteemed  for  its  bark  which  yields  tannin  and  a  tonic 
drug. 

The  Black  Mangrove  {Avicennia  niiida,  Jacq.)  is  an  ever- 
blooming  tree,  with  inconspicuous  white  flowers  and  a  dry,  i- 
seeded  capsule,  i  to  i  J  inches  long.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of 
the  true  mangrove  in  form,  but  have  a  grey-green  colour.  The 
tree's  habit  enables  it  to  make  soil  in  much  the  same  way.  The 
seeds  germinate  before  they  fall,  and  are  ready  to  root  as  soon 
as  they  lodge  in  the  mud.  The  roots  of  the  adult  trees  extend  far 
out  and,  branching,  send  up  a  grove  of  leafless  projections  a  foot 
or  two  above  the  tide  level,  thus  forming  a  network  that  holds 
the  soil,  and  soon  makes  land  out  of  what  was  a  tide-swept  marsh. 
No  aerial  roots  strike  downward  from  the  branches  of  this  tree. 

The  bark  of  the  black  mangrove  exceeds  that  of  Laguncularia 
racemosa  in  value  to  tanners.  It  is  certain  that  were  the  trees 
located  in  more  accessible  regions,  on  solid  ground  instead  of 

402 


The  Mangroves 

bottomless  swamps,  they  would  fall  a  prey  to  the  peeler's  axe. 
The  Floridian  depends  upon  a  smudge  of  punky  black  mangrove 
to  rid  him  of  mosquitoes  and  sandflies,  the  twin  scourge  of  the 
summer  nights.  The  range  of  this  tree  reaches  north  to  St. 
Augustine  and  Cedar  Keys.  From  the  southern  end  of  the 
peninsula  and  the  neighbouring  keys  it  extends  into  the  West 
Indies,  the  Bahamas,  and  on  to  Brazil. 

The  black  mangrove  is  a  tropical  member  of  the  verbena 
family,  well  known  to  us  in  its  herbaceous  representatives  that 
grow  in  Northern  gardens.  The  fiddlewood  of  lower  Florida 
(Ctiheraxylon  villosum)  is  its  nearest  relative.  The  most  important 
timber  tree  in  the  family  is  the  teak,  Tedoria  grandis,  which 
grows  in  tropical  Asia  and  the  East  Indies.  The  catalpas  in  the 
bignonia  family  are  also  close  tree  kin  of  the  black  mangrove. 


403 


I 


CHAPTER   XLIV:     THE   HERCULES'  CLUB 

Family  Araliace^ 

Genus  ARALIA,  Linn. 

Fifty  genera  of  aralias  compose  a  great  tropical  family.  The 
well-known  English  ivy  (genus  Hedera)  is  perhaps  the  most 
familiar  representative.  Of  the  five  native  species  of  aralia 
the  spikenards  and  sarsaparillas  are  pretty  generally  known, 
having  a  striking  luxuriance  of  growth  and  a  reputation  for 
medicinal  properties.  There  is  a  single  arborescent  species. 
One  tree  aralia,  the  angelica  tree  of  China  and  Japan,  is  cultivated 
in  the  Northeastern  States,  where  it  proves  hardy,  and  our 
native  tree  is  not.  In  appearance  the  two  species  are  much  alike, 
though  thornless  varieties  of  the  Chinese  tree  are  oftenest  met  in 
cultivation. 

Hercules'  Club  (Aralia  spinosa,  Linn.) — A  spreading, 
aromatic,  spiny  tree,  with  club-like  branches,  25  to  35  feet  high, 
or  an  unbranched  shrubby  cluster  of  shoots  from  underground 
stems,  6  to  1 5  feet  high  in  one  season.  Bark  dark  brown,  furrowed 
by  wide,  shallow  cracks  between  rounded  ridges.  Wood  light, 
brittle,  pale  brown,  soft.  Btids:  terminal,  large,  blunt;  lateral, 
flat,  small,  triangular.  Leaves  clustered  near  top  of  branch,  3 
to  4  feet  long,  i  to  2h  feet  wide,  twice  compound,  on  stout, 
spiny  petioles;  leaflets  oval,  pointed,  with  toothed  margins; 
yellow  in  autumn.  Flowers  white,  minute,  in  many-flowered 
umbels,  forming  compound  panicles  often  3  to  4  feet  high 
above  the  leaves  in  midsummer.  Fruits  few,  berry-like,  juicy, 
purplish.  Nutlets  5,  hard,  flattened.  Preferred  hahiiat,  deep, 
moist  soil  near  water  courses.  Distribution,  Pennsylvania  to 
southern  Missouri,  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Uses: 
Handsome  and  quick-growing  ornamental  tree.  Berries 
and  fleshy  roots  have  medicinal  properties,  used  in  home 
remedies. 

The  Hercules'  club  certainly  earns  its  name  when  an  under- 
404 


The  Hercules'  Club 

ground  stem,  stored  with  plant  food,  sends  up  its  lusty  shoots  in 
spring.  The  ailanthus,  in  its  most  ambitious  efforts,  never  threw 
up  such  tall,  thick  sprouts.  Fifteen  to  twenty  feet  these  un- 
branched  shoots  grow,  and  crown  themselves  with  umbrellas  of 
leaves,  twice  compound  like  those  of  the  Kentucky  coffee-tree, 
but  much  larger.  In  fact,  no  temperate  zone  tree  has  leaves  of 
such  dimensions,  though  the  oval  leaflets  are  moderate  in  size, 
and  people  are  likely  to  mistake  the  strong,  spiny  petiole  of  this 
leaf  for  a  branch. 

These  leaves  deserve  more  than  a  passing  comment.  They 
come  out  with  a  rich,  silky  bronze  sheen  in  spring,  and  turn 
to  red  and  gold  in  autumn.  They  sway  in  the  summer 
winds,  giving  the  tree  the  look  of  a  royal  palm  transplanted 
from  the  land  of  the  orange  and  citron.  I  have  seen  a  vacant 
lot  overrun  by  these  headstrong  yearlings,  and  there  is  no 
such  sight  outside  the  tropics  for  unrestrained  vegetable  ex- 
uberance. It  would  be  a  hardy  person  who  succeeded  in 
getting  a  piece  of  land  away  from  these  outlaws,  for  the 
stems  though  soft  and  brittle  inside,  have  a  tough,  horny 
covering,  and  spines  which  though  but  skin  deep  are  formidable 
weapons  of  defence. 

The  Hercules'  club  is  very  late  about  its  blooming,  which 
makes  it  horticulturally  more  valuable.  There  are  few  trees 
and  shrubs  in  flower  to  compete  with  this  one  when  the  cloud  of 
minute  white  flowers  settles  above  its  crown  of  leaves.  What 
they  lack  in  size  as  individuals  they  make  up  in  numbers. 
The  flower  cluster  matches  the  leaves  in  its  dimensions. 
The  purplish  berries  make  a  fine  showing  in  the  fall  and 
winter. 

This  tree  strongly  reminds  us  of  the  wild  sarsaparilla  and  the 
spikenard  of  our  woodland  rambles;  and  for  the  best  of  reasons. 
They  are  all  members  of  the  ginseng  family,  and  all  have  the  most 
extravagant  habits,  though  but  one  is  arborescent.  All  have 
a  well-earned  reputation  for  medicinal  properties.  The  little 
plant  from  which  the  family  name  comes  is  noted  the  world  over. 
The  Chinese  reverence  its  "man-shaped"  root,  and  pay  fabulous 
prices  for  it,  believing  that  it  cures  all  human  ills.  Since 
collectors  have  almost  exterminated  our  wild  ginseng,  it 
is  profitably  cultivated  for  export.  If  it  but  grew  as  do 
the    roots    of    Aralia     spinosa — but     then,    the     price    would 

405 


The  Hercules'  Club 

shrink    accordingly,    and    people    would    still     have     to    work 
for  a  living! 

The  name,  Hercules'  club,  is  also  applied  to  the  prickly  ash, 
Fagara  clava-herculis,  with  which  this  tree  may  become  confused. 
Comparison  of  descriptions  of  the  two  will  enable  one  to  distinguish 
them  without  difficulty. 


406 


THE   HERCULES   CLUB  {.Iralla  s(> 


This  aromatic,  spiny  relative  of  sarsaparilla  ami  ginseng  has  club-like  branches,  leaves 
feet  high.     In  the  North  it  is  a  rampant  shrub;  in  the  South  it 


yard  long,  and  a  flower  cluster  four 
a  little  tree 


THE    TUPELO  {Nyssa  syhatica) 

Short,  twiggv  branches  at  the  top  of  a  tall  trunk  make  a  very  picturesque  tree.     Tt  ranges  from  swamp  borders  to  high  mountain 

slones,  and  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  Texas 


CHAPTER  LV:    THE  TUPELOS  AND  THE 
DOGWOODS 

Family  Cornace.^ 

The  cornel  family  is  a  large  temperate  zone  group  comprising 
fifteen  genera,  a  few  of  which  are  tropical.  Comparatively  few 
species  are  arborescent.  Two  genera  in  the  United  States  have 
species  of  tree  habit.  They  both  include  ornamental  trees  with 
showy  flowers  and  fruit,  and  foliage  of  exceptional  beauty.  The 
wood  of  all  is  extremely  hard  and  close  textured. 

KEY   TO  GENERA 

A.  Leaves  alternate;  flowers  and  fruits  inconspicuous. 
I.  Genus  NYSSA,  Linn. 

THE    TUPELOS 

AA.  Leaves   opposite  (except  alterni folia);  flowers  and  fruits 
shovk'y. 

2.  Genus  CORNUS,  Linn. 

THE    DOGWOODS 


THE  TUPELOS 

Genus   NYSSA,  Linn. 

Trees  of  picturesque  habit,  with  twiggy,  contorted  branches; 
growing  in  wet  soil,  ^oo^  cross  grained,  tough.  Leaves  Sihernate, 
simple,  deciduous,  leathery.  Flowers  minute,  greenish,  in  short 
racemes  or  heads.     Fruit,  a  fleshy  drupe. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Stones  of  fruit  with  rounded  ridges;  leaves  broad,  blunt 
at  apex;  fruit  small.  (A/,  sylvaiica)  tupiii.c 

AA.  Stones  of  fruit  with  sharp,  winged  ridges;  fruit  large. 

-;.o7 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

B.  Leaves  blunt  pointed;  fruit  red. 

(N.  Ogeche)  ogeechee  lime 
BB.  Leaves  sharp  pointed;  fruit  purple. 

{N.  aqiiatica)  cotton  gum 

Tupelo,  Pepperidge,  Sour  or  Black  Gum  (Nyssa  sylvat- 
ica,  Marsh.) — A  medium-sized  tree  of  variable  shape,  50  to  100 
feet  high,  with  short,  rigid,  twiggy,  horizontal  branches.  Bark 
rough,  dark  grey,  broken  into  many-sided  plates;  on  younger 
trees,  pale  brown  or  grey;  branches  brown;  twigs  green  to  orange, 
often  downy.  Wood  heavy,  tough,  cross  grained,  soft,  not  durable 
in  contact  with  the  soil,  hard  to  work.  Buds  small,  brown,  with 
hairy  scales.  Leaves  alternate,  entire,  2  to  4  inches  long,  oval, 
leathery,  shining  above,  pale,  often  hairy  beneath,  turning 
scarlet  above  in  autumn.  Flowers,  May,  after  leaves,  yellowish 
green,  inconspicuous,  polygamo-dioecious ;  staminate  in  loose, 
pendant  heads;  pistillate  larger,  2  or  more  in  a  cluster.  Fruits, 
October,  i  to  3  in  cluster;  fleshy  drupes  ovoid,  blue-black,  sour, 
§  inch  long;  stone  ridged.  Preferred  habitat,  low,  wet  soil,  borders 
of  swamps,  rivers  and  ponds.  Distribution,  Maine  to  Florida; 
west  to  southern  Ontario,  Michigan,  Missouri  and  Texas.  Uses: 
Handsome,  hardy  ornamental  trees.  Wood  used  for  mauls, 
pulleys,  hubs,  rollers,  ox  yokes  and  woodenware. 

In  early  fall  the  rambler  in  the  woods  is  often  startled  to  see 
on  the  mossy  carpet  in  front  of  him  a  thick,  shining  leaf,  part  of 
which  is  still  deep  green  and  part  as  red  as  blood.  It  is  the 
tupelo's  signal  that  winter  is  on  the  way.  Look  up,  my  friend, 
and  the  branches  above  show  only  a  few  leaves  coloured  like  the 
one  you  found.  Come  again  in  a  week  or  two  and  the  tree  is 
ablaze  with  reds  of  every  shade.  1 1  is  a  pillar  of  fire,  indeed,  among 
the  yellowing  ashes  and  hickories;  only  the  reds  of  the  swamp 
maples  and  sumachs  cornpare  with  it  in  brilliancy.  Who  can 
fail  to  know  the  tupelo  in  the  glory  of  its  dying  foliage?  Certainly 
no  rational  being,  if  he  has  eyes  in  his  head,  and  the  tree  in  his 
neighbourhood.  The  sight  of  one,  and  a  few  sprays  of  its  lustrous 
leaves  to  put  up  behind  the  picture  frames  at  home,  are  well 
worth  a  Sabbath  day's  journey. 

"Tupelo"  is  the  pretty  Indian  name.  "Pepperidge"  cannot 
be  accounted  for.  It  is  probable  that  the  fiery  foliage  first  led 
people  to  suppose  this  tree  to  be  a  relative  of  the  sweet  gum. 
1  hey  grow  together — both  large  trees  in  the  bottom  lands  of  the 

408 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwcxids 

South.  This  "black  gum"  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
red  gum,  or  liquidambar,  as  far  as  the  colour  of  the  trunks  can  be 
made  out.  The  name,  "sour  gum,"  refers  to  the  fruit.  Linnaeus 
gave  to  this  water-loving  genus  the  name  of  Nyssa,  the  water 
nymph  who  reared  the  infant  Bacchus.  It  was  the  fashion  for 
the  old  botanists  to  give  new  plants  names  derived  from  classical 
mythology,  without  much  thought  of  appropriateness. 

The  foliage  of  the  tupelo  is  without  question  its  chiefest 
charm,  but  there  are  others  which  the  leaves  partially  conceal. 
The  winter  aspect  of  the  tree  is  strikingly  picturesque.  There  is 
a  central  axis,  such  as  we  see  commonly  among  evergreens  but 
seldom  among  broad-leaved  trees.  From  this  tapering  shaft  the 
slender  branches  spread  in  level  platforms  that  subdivide  into 
wiry,  angular  branchlets  and  end  in  a  dense,  flat  twig  system.  A 
young  tupelo  in  winter  has  as  much  rigidity  of  mien  as  a  young 
honey  locust. 

With  advancing  years  the  tupelo  loses  the  symmetry  of  its 
youth.  The  lower  branches  droop  dejectedly.  The  top  is  likely 
to  die.  When  the  wreck  blows  over  it  often  shows  a  hollow  butt, 
for  the  wood,  though  tough,  is  soft  and  quick  to  decay.  Where 
the  vitality  of  the  tree  is  low,  agencies  of  deterioration  are  quick 
to  follow  up  their  advantage.  Wood-destroying  fungi  in  the  soil 
rot  the  trunk  off  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  An  artist  studying 
the  expression  of  trees  in  winter  will  look  in  vain  for  a  more 
melancholy  figure  than  an  aged  tupelo,  smitten  by  untoward 
fates — the  very  King  Lear  of  the  forest. 

In  the  ponds  of  the  pine  barrens  in  the  Carolinas  a  two- 
flowered  tupelo  is  found,  variety  biflora.  It  is  smaller  than  the 
parent  species,  and  has  a  much  swollen  base,  with  large  roots  that 
hump  themselves  out  of  the  water.  Its  leaves  arc  smaller  than 
those  the  tupelo  bears  in  the  North. 

The  Ogeechee  Lime,  or  Sour  Tupelo  (Nyssa  Ogeche, 
Marsh.),  grows  in  the  river  swamps  that  line  the  coasts  of  South 
Carolina,  Georgia  and  northern  Florida.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  Ogeechee  Valley,  which  is  the  centre  of  its  limited  range. 
The  trees  are  small,  with  bushy  tops  and  hoary  grey  twigs,  which 
when  young  are  coated  with  silky  red  tomentum.  The  leaves  are 
4  to  6  inches  long,  oval,  and  firm  in  texture.  The  tree  is  a  striking 
figure  when  laden  with  its  red  fruits,  about  the  size  and  shape  of 
pecan  nuts.     They  hang  in  profuse  clusters  from  August  till  late 

409 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

autumn,  long  after  they  are  ripe  and  the  leaves  are  fallen.  These 
juicy  fruits  are  sour,  and  make  excellent  preserves.  It  must  be 
difficult  business  to  get  them,  for  the  trees  stand  in  water. 
Nevertheless,  the  demand  for  them  is  good,  and  justifies  the 
necessary  exertion. 

The  Cotton  Gum  (Nyssa  aquaiica,^  Marsh.)  is  the  large 
tupelo  of  the  swamps,  a  tree  with  an  unusually  broad  base,  an 
abundance  of  corky  roots,  and  a  superb  pyramidal  crown.  Trunks 
3  to  4  feet  in  diameter  and  80  to  100  feet  high  are  not  at  all  unusual. 
White  cottony  down  is  noticeable  throughout  the  treetop  as 
spring  growth  begins.  The  young  leaves  divest  themselves  of 
this  covering  as  they  mature,  except  as  a  lining.  These  leaves 
are  large,  oval,  often  remotely  toothed  or  lobed.  The  fruit  is 
purple,  and  hangs  on  long,  flexible  stalks  among  the  gay-coloured 
leaves  in  autumn.  It  has  not  the  popularity  of  the  Ogeechee 
limes,  for  the  flesh  is  thin  and  the  skin  is  tough.  The  lumber  is 
largely  used  for  fruit  crates,  broom  handles  and  other  cheap 
articles.  The  tree  is  seen  at  its  best  in  the  cypress  swamps  ol 
Louisiana  and  Texas. 

Ji'  THE  DOGWOODS 

N^y^  Genus  CORNUS,  Linn. 

Small,  slender-twigged  trees,  with  very  hard  wood.  Leaves 
simple,  entire,  opposite  (except  one).  Flowers  small,  in  dense 
cymes;  perfect.     Fruit  a  berry-like,  2-celled  drupe. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  opposite. 
B.  Fruit  red. 

C.  Flower  buds  covered;  bracts  4,  notched. 

(C.  florida)  flowering  dogwood 
CC.  Flower  buds  naked;  bracts  4  to  6,  not  notched. 

(C.  Nutialln)  western  dogwood 
BB.  Fruit  white  (rarely  dark  blue) ;  leaves  rough  above. 

(C.  asperifolia)  dogwood 
AA.  Leaves  alternate;  fruit  blue. 

(C.  aliernijolia)  alternate-leaved  dogwood 

The  dogwoods  include  about  thirty  species  distributed  over 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  with  a  single  species  in  Peru.     They 

410 


if 


THE    TUPELO  or    PepperiJgo  (.Vv^.wi  sylvatiro) 

Flowers  appear  after  the  leaves  in  May.  They  are  greenish  and  very  small.  Staminatc  trees  hear  crowded  heads  of 
stamens  only.  Pistillate  trees  bear  perfect  flowers,  l  to  3  in  a  cluster.  The  sour,  blue  berries  ripen  in  October.  The  foliage  is 
the  glory  of  the  tree,  dark-green  and  glossy  all  summer,  scarlet  in  autumn.     The  wood 


especially  dense  and  heavy 


THE  FLOWERING    DOGWOOD  {Comui  forida, 
Tie  6no««»  white  flowers  are  but  the  expanded  outer  scales  that  enclosed  the  winter  buds.      The  true  flowers  cluster  in   the 
centre,      me  snming  rca  Derr-.c5  in  v^cioocr  nvai  lae  brilliance  of  the  foliage.     The  grey,  checkered  bark  looks  like  rough  alligator 
skin.     The  tree  is  beautiful,  winter  or  summer 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

are  chiefly  shrubs,  a  few  small  trees,  and  all  hardy  and  ornamental, 
with  handsome  foliage,  flowers  and  fruits.  An  attractive  char- 
acter is  the  vivid  autumn  foliage. 

From  ancient  times  dogwoods  have  been  planted  as  orna- 
mentals about  homes,  and  in  parks  and  pleasure  grounds;  tonic 
drugs,  dyes  and  inks  have  been  derived  from  their  bark;  and  the 
wood  has  been  used  for  engravers'  blocks,  tool  handles,  and  in 
turnery.  The  name  Cornus  (from  cornu,  a.  horn)  calls  attention  to 
the  hardness  and  toughness  of  the  wood.  "Dogwood"  is  one 
of  those  unfortunate  popular  names  fastened  without  reason  upon 
a  family  of  beautiful  trees  and  shrubs.  In  the  good  old  times  it 
was  the  practice  in  England  to  steep  the  bark  of  a  certain  species 
and  wash  mangy  dogs  with  the  astringent  decoction.  Perhaps 
the  dogs  were  as  indignant  at  this  treatment  as  we  are  to  be 
persistently  reminded  of  it. 

There  are  eighteen  American  species  in  the  genus  Qirnus; 
one  is  the  little  herbaceous  bunchberry,  scarcely  six  inches  high, 
but  distinctly  a  near  relative  of  the  tree  dogwoods,  as  anyone  can 
see. 

Flowering  Dogwood  (Cornus  florida,  Linn.) — A  small, 
flat-topped,  bushy  tree,  15  to  40  feet  high.  Bark  dark  grey  or 
brown,  broken  into  squarish  plates;  branches  grey;  twigs  velvety, 
purplish  green.  JVood  heavy,  strong,  hard,  tough;  brown,  fine 
grained.  Buds  conical;  flower  buds  vertically  flattened.  Leaves 
opposite,  simple,  3  to  5  inches  long,  oval,  with  midrib  and  parallel 
side  ribs  indented  above;  whitish.  Flowers,  March  to  May,  before 
the  leaves,  in  close  clusters  at  ends  of  branches;  greenish,  small, 
tubular;  4  white  or  pink  involucral  bracts,  notched  at  tip,  sur- 
round the  flower  cluster.  Frtiit,  October,  ovoid,  scarlet  drupes, 
^  inch  long,  few  in  a  cluster;  seeds  2.  Preferred  habitat,  woodlands' 
and  rocky  hillsides.  Distribution,  Massachusetts  to  Florida; 
west  to  Michigan,  Missouri  and  Texas.  Uses:  Hardy  and 
handsome  ornamental  trees.  Wood  used  for  bearings  in  machin- 
ery, hubs,  tool  handles;  also  for  wood  engravings  and  wood 
carving.     Bark  yields  a  drug  like  quinine;  also  a  red  dye. 

The  striking  thing  about  the  flowering  dogwood  in  winter  is 
the  alligator-skin  appearance  of  its  grey,  checkered  bark.  This 
identifies  it  in  any  stretch  of  woodland  without  further  aid  to  the 
observer.  One  notices,  too,  the  greyness  and  the  platformed 
stratification  of  its  bushy  top,  from  whose  larger  branches  the 

411 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

twigs  rise  with  curious  bendings  so  as  to  hold  their  clustering  buds 
into  the  light.  The  tree  has  a  picturesque  waywardness  of  habit 
in  the  woods:  it  crouches  in  the  shadows  of  tall  trees,  and  leans 
out  to  reach  the  sunshine  that  sifts  through  the  forest  cover. 
The  twigs  are  thickly  set  with  buds,  formed  in  midsummer,  for 
the  flowering  dogwood  is  a  thrifty,  far-sighted  tree.  The  slim 
leaf  h»uds  are  inconspicuous  among  the  squat,  box-like  buds 
that  contain  the  flowers. 

I  need  not  tell  anyone  how  beautiful  a  dogwood  tree  is  when 
the  thick  cloud  of  white  or  pink-flushed  blossoms  covers  its  bare 
branches  to  their  utmost  twig.  It  is  a  sight  to  remember  to  the 
end  of  one's  days.  Perhaps  it  may  seem  pedantic,  and  even 
unkind,  to  say  here  that  the  beauty  of  the  tree  is  not  in  its  flowers, 
but  in  the  four  large  petal-like  scales,  or  bracts,  that  surround 
the  greenish  bunch  of  small,  tubular,  true  flowers.  In  winter 
these  four  bracts  enfold  the  flowers.  They  are  the  outer  envelope 
of  the  little  flattened  and  pointed  buds.  In  spring  these  bud 
scales  do  not  fall,  but  grow  at  an  amazing  rate.  Only  the  very 
tips  of  them  are  too  dry  to  grow.  They  form  the  peculiar  notch 
at  the  apex,  and  give  the  bract  an  artistic,  if  rather  irregular, 
twist. 

These  bracts  are  merely  leaves  changed  for  the  special  purpose 
of  notifying  the  little  mining  bee,  Andrena,  and  other  insects  of 
like  appetites,  that  there  is  nectar  in  the  flower  tubes  they  guard. 
Leafy  in  texture,  though  white  and  delicately  tinted,  these  bracts 
develop  before  the  flowers,  and  last  beyond  their  fading;  so  we 
enjoy  the  dogwood  bloom  for  weeks  in  spring  instead  of  days, 
merely.  This  is  the  fact  that  counts,  after  all,  and  the  added  one 
that  we  may  go  out  again  and  again  and  bring  home  sprays  of  the 
flowers,  and  yet  leave  the  tree  in  better  state  than  it  was  before, 
if  only  we  cut  judiciously,  where  the  top  is  thickest.  Dogwood 
trees  suffer  from  lack  of  pruning;  their  flowers  are  stunted  by 
crowding. 

The  grace  and  beauty  of  the  leaves,  with  their  channelled, 
curving,  parallel  veins,  must  strike  one  in  summertime.  Before 
they  change  colour  the  clustered  fruits,  standing  where  the  flowers 
stood,  burn  bright  against  the  leafy  background.  These  shining, 
waxy  berries  are  never  lost  to  view,  even  when  the  foliage  takes 
on  shades  of  crimson  and  scarlet.  They  deepen  and  intensify 
these  royal  colours  until  the  hungry  birds  have  taken  the  last  one. 

412 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

The  leaves  have  fallen,  and  left  behind  a  bare  grey  tree, 
set  with  multitudes  of  buds,  pledge  of  next  year's  flowers  and 
leaves  and  fruit.  The  artist  will  tell  you,  if  you  press  him  (for 
he  doesn't  force  his  notions  upon  his  friends),  that  the  dogwood 
wears  its  finest  colours  in  the  winter  time!  Go  out  into  the  woods 
in  late  February  or  early  March,  just  when  willows  and  aspens 
show  green — just  a  hint  of  it! — through  their  telltale  bark.  All 
the  other  early  trees  wear  that  "rapt,  expectant  look"  that 
precedes  the  bold  casting  off  of  bud  scales.  The  silky  twigs 
and  velvety  buds  of  the  dogwood,  alive  and  thrilling  with  the 
stir  of  the  sap,  show  marvellous  tones  of  olive  and  grey  and 
lavender,  with  deeper  purple  shadows  and  warm  hints  of  red. 
These  are  the  colours  that  Japanese  artists  revel  in. 

Most  people  miss  all  of  the  loveliness  of  graceful  line  and 
delicate  colour  harmony  revealed  by  leafless  trees.  I  am  happy 
to  say  it  is  a  curable  form  of  blindness.  By  taking  thought,  one 
can  learn  to  see  the  beauty  of  balance  and  symmetry  that  give 
strength  and  grace  to  the  frame  of  a  tree,  and  beauty  of  form  to 
the  dead  teazel  and  mullein  stalks  under  it.  One  can  learn  to  see 
the  purple  with  the  dun  in  the  autumn  grain  fields,  and  the  blue 
in  the  hemlock  shadows  on  the  snow.  We  may  not  all  be  painters, 
but  we  may  enter  into  some  of  the  joys  the  artist  finds  in  the 
common  things  about  us.  Next  spring  will  be  a  good  time  to 
watch  the  grey  bud  scales  expand,  turn  green,  then  pink  and 
white.  From  April  on  we  may  see  the  steps  by  which  the  miracle 
progresses. 

Flowering  dogwoods  do  not  grow  wild  in  any  country  but 
ours.  They  are  being  exterminated  in  many  places.  They  are 
cut  for  the  paltry  bit  of  lumber  yielded  by  their  spindling  trunks. 
It  ought  to  be  a  capital  crime  to  cut  a  single  one.  They  are 
destroyed  for  less  cause.  Here  is  an  example.  A  hermit  lived 
alone  in  a  strip  of  woods  along  a  little  Michigan  lake.  Me  loved 
trees  and  plants,  and  kept  this  area  a  veritable  Nature's  garden, 
and  willed  it  to  the  nearby  city  on  his  death.  The  park  com- 
missioners, when  they  had  spread  their  thanks  upon  the  records, 
took  immediate  steps  "to  put  the  grounds  in  shape."  Two 
strong  labourers  were  sent  in  to  clear  it  up.  They  cut  out  all  the 
dogwoods — "because*  they  didn't  trim  up  straight!"  Lower 
limbs,  small  trees  and  underbrush  were  all  sacrificed  to  make 
straight  the  paths  of  picnic  parties;  and  to  get  a  nice  sod  started, 

413 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

and  have  a  park!  The  gentle  donor  of  this  tract  would  have 
broken  his  heart  over  the  look  of  it  when  these  improvements  (?) 
were  completed.  Though  he  "leaned  out  from  the  gold  bar  of 
heaven,"  I  think  he  must  have  hurled  imprecations  down  upon 
the  stupidity  v/hich  undid  all  he  had  so  lovingly  and  intelligently 
done,  but  chiefly  upon  the  slothful  and  incompetent  commissioners 
who  trusted  such  work  to  such  hands.  Only  the  people  them- 
selves, intelligent  and  vigilant,  can  defend  themselves  from  such 
maltreatment,  and  save  from  destruction  natural  beauty  which 
belongs  to  all. 

The  Dogwood  (Cornus  Nuttallii,  Aud.),  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  occasionally  reaches  loo  feet  in  height  in  the  forest  opposite 
Vancouver  Island.  It  grows  tall  and  slim,  and  thus  does  not 
commend  itself  to  gardeners  as  its  Eastern  relative  does.  Its 
flowers  are  very  much  like  it  in  colouring  and  form,  though  much 
more  conspicuous  because  twice  as  large.  The  bracts  do  not 
cover  the  flowers  in  the  buds,  and  are  not  notched  at  the  tip 
when  developed.     There  are  often  six  instead  of  four  of  them. 

This  dogwood  seems  not  to  thrive  outside  its  native  woods, 
on  the  m.ountain  slopes  from  British  Columbia  to  southern  Cali- 
fornia. But  here  it  is  easily  first  in  a  land  of  splendid  flowering 
trees,  leaning  upon  the  sombre  evergreens,  in  its  snowy  spring 
robes  and  its  rich  scarlet  autumnal  garb — a  spectacle  never  to 
be  forgotten  once  it  is  seen. 

The  Rough-leaved  Dogwood  (C.  asperifolia,  Michx.)  has 
long  been  classed  among  the  shrubby  species.  It  becomes  tree- 
like in  southern  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas,  sometimes  reaching 
a  height  of  50  feet.  As  a  shrub  it  is  distributed  from  Ontario 
to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  and  south  into  the  Gulf  States. 

The  leaves  are  dark  green,  paler  below  and  often  softly 
pubescent,  but  made  rough  above  by  stubby  white  hairs.  This 
is  the  only  tree  dogwood  with  white  berries,  so  it  is  easily  identified 
by  leaf  and  fruit. 

Alternate-leaved  Dogwood  (Cornus  alterni folia,  Linn.) — 
A  small  tree  or  shrub,  15  to  30  feet  high,  with  low,  round  head 
made  of  layers  of  horizontal  branches.  Bark  smooth,  reddish 
brown;  twigs  reddish  green.  IVood  heavy,  hard,  fine  textured, 
brown.  Buds  pale  brown,  acute,  scaly.  Leaves  alternate,  3  to  5 
inches  long,  oval,  pointed,  entire,  whitish  beneath,  on  slim  petioles. 
Flowers  in  May,  creamy  white,  small,  in  flat  cymes,  i^-  to  3  inches 

414 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

across,  on  short  lateral  branches.  Fruits,  October,  dark  blue, 
berry-like,  J  inch  across,  on  red  peduncles;  nutlets  i  to  2,  grooved. 
Preferred  habitat,  moist,  well-drained  soil.  Distribution,  Nova 
Scotia  to  Minnesota;  south  to  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Uses: 
Handsome  ornamental  tree. 

Dogwoods  are  among  the  few  native  trees  with  simple  and 
opposite  leaves — this  is  a  fact  well  worth  remembering.  It  is  a 
key  to  many  secrets  of  the  woods.  The  most  uninformed  person 
can  know  by  this  simple  means  that  a  certain  tree  he  never  saw 
before  is  likely  a  viburnum,  a  maple  or  a  dogwood.  The  ashes 
and  buckeyes  have  opposite  leaves,  too,  but  they  are  compound. 
The  dogwood  we  are  now  considering  is  an  exception  to  the  rule 
of  its  family;  it  has  alternate,  instead  of  opposite,  leaves.  The 
blades  have  the  general  characteristics  of  the  other  dogwood 
leaves,  but  hang  on  longer  stems.  They  turn  in  autumn  to  the 
soft,  melancholy  blue-reds,  which  seem  to  belong  to  the  shadowy 
places  the  tree  commonly  frequents.  An  open  situation  is 
required  to  bring  out  the  tints  of  scarlet  and  orange — the  colours 
with  sunshine  and  laughter  in  them. 

On  the  margins  of  woods  this  platform  dogAvood  shows  to 
best  advantage  its  shelving  mode  of  branch  arrangement.  These 
striking  and  beautiful  tiers  or  platforms  of  branches,  leafy  to  the 
trunk,  considered  alone  would  make  this  tree  popular  as  an 
ornamental.  The  flowers  are  showy  by  their  numbers,  though 
they  lack  the  coloured  bracts  that  belong  to  the  other  two  dog- 
wood trees.  The  black  fruits  also  are  profuse  and  noticeable  upon 
their  coral-red  branching  stems. 

Shrubby  Dogwoods 

Our  American  woods  are  rich  in  shrubby  dogwoods,  whose 
beauty  earns  them  places  in  our  gardens  and  shrubbery  borders. 
There  is  the  white-berried  red-osier  dogwood  (C.  siolonifera), 
whose  many  smooth  stems  gleam  like  red-hot  pokers  in  the  winter 
sunlight  against  the  background  of  an  evergreen  hedge.  The 
little  kinnikinick,  or  silky  cornel  (C.  Amomiim),  adds  to  its 
purplish  stems  the  charm  of  silky  leaves,  with  white  flowers 
and  pale-blue  berries  in  broad,  loose  cymes.  Bailey's  dogwood 
(C.  Baileyi)  looks  grey  because  of  the  upturning  of  the  silk-lined 
leaves.    The  rich  red  of  its  twigs  in  winter  and  the  colours  of  its 

415 


L 


The  Tupelos  and  the  Dogwoods 

autumn  foliage  are  uncommonly  fine,  even  for  a  dogwood.  This 
species  is  not  quite  constant  in  its  characters  outside  of  Michigan. 
The  European  Dogwood,  or  Cornel  (Cornus  mas),  is  the 
carnelian  cherry  of  our  parks  and  gardens.  Its  button-like 
clusters  of  tiny  yellow  blossoms  cover  the  bare  branches  in  earliest 
spring,  preceding  even  the  forsythia  and  the  spice  bush.  The 
scarlet  fruits,  as  large  as  olives,  make  a  brave  show  against  the 
glossy  foliage  in  late  summer.  Dogwoods  of  exceeding  beauty 
come  from  Japan  and  from  the  Himalayas.  But  the  average 
American  turns  from  all  exotic  species,  no  matter  what  their 
charms,  to  his  own  Cornus  florida,  and  in  May  votes  it  the  most 
beautiful  of  flowering  trees. 


Ii6 


IHK    SOI  RWOOl)   {Owderulrum  arhoreum) 

This  is  a  heath,  as  the  lonj;  compound  raceme  of  prim  little  flower  hells  and  the  dry  little  seed  capsules  prove.  The 
foliage  is  a  heautif iil  bronze-green  in  spring  and  becomes  a  vivid  scarlet  in  autumn.  The  sour  tw  igs  and  leaves  allay  the  thirst 
of  hunters  lost  in  southern  woods.      Hardy  to  Boston,  this  little-known  species  deserves  wide  cultivation 


CHAPTER   LVI:     THE   HEATHS 

THE  RHODODENDRON  AND  THE  MOUNTAIN  LAUREL 

Family  ERicACEy^ 

Trees  usually  of  small  size  and  high  ornamental  value. 
Leaves  simple,  alternate,  mostly  evergreen.  Flowers  perfect, 
regular,  in  many-flowered  clusters.  Fruits,  dry  capsules  or 
berry-like  drupes. 

KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  evergreen  or  sub-evergreen. 

B.  Flowers  large,  showy;  fruit  a  5-celled  capsule. 
C.  Capsules  conical;  flower  clusters  terminal. 

I.  Genus  RHODODENDRON,  Linn. 

(R.  maximum)  great  rhododendron 
CC.  Capsules  globular;  flower  clusters  axillary. 

2.  Genus  KALMIA,  Linn. 

(K.  laiifolia) -MOiJUTMN  laurel 
BB.  Flowers  small,  in  compound  racemes;  fruit  a  fleshy 
drupe;  bark  shed  in  thin  scales. 

3.  Genus  ARBUTUS,  Linn. 
C.  Bark  red  to  brown;  leaves  oval. 

D.  Fruit  orange  red,  ^  inch  in  diameter. 

(A.  Meniiesii)  madron  a 
DD.  Fruit  dark  red,  \  inch  in  diameter. 

{A.  Xalapensis)  Mexican  madrona 
CC.  Bark  red  to  pale  grey;  leaves  lanceolate. 

{A.  Ari{onica)  Arizona  madrona 
AA.  Leaves  deciduous;  flowers  small,  numerous,  in   terminal 
compound  racemes;  fruit  a  conical  5-celled  capsule. 

4.  Genus  OXYDENDRUM,  DC. 

(0.  arbor eum)  sourwood 

The  heath  family  is  world-wide  in  distribution,  consisting 
of  more  than  fifty  genera,  with  over  a  thousand  species,  and 
modified    through    centuries    of    cultivation    into    unnumbered 

417 


The  Heaths  :  the   Rhododendron  and  the  Mountain  Laurel 

horticultural  varieties.  Heaths  are  perennials,  usually  woody, 
with  a  tendency  to  profuse  and  showy  bloom.  The  type  of  the 
family  is  the  Scotch  heather,  immortalised  in  song  and  story. 
A  very  few  genera  are  represented  by  tree  forms. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the 
English  first  took  possession  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  they 
introduced  into  England  heaths  from  Australia  and  South  Africa. 
Their  popularity  was  instant.  People  went  wild  over  them. 
They  became  the  dominant  feature  of  the  indoor  horticulture 
of  the  day — the  pride  of  the  English  gardener.  The  heydey  of 
these  heaths  is  past.  But  even  now,  in  London,  half  a  million 
little  potted  plants  of  a  single  species.  Erica  hyemalis,  are  sold 
each  Christmas.  An  average  plant  a  foot  high  bears  a  thousand 
tiny  flowers,  rosy  and  tipped  with  white.  It  is  good  for  a  month 
of  bloom,  and  costs  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  cents.  It  is  the 
poor  man's  Christmas  flower.  The  azaleas,  which  the  Belgian 
gardeners  have  brought  to  such  perfection  and  variety,  also 
belong  to  this  family. 


1.  Genus   RHODODENDRON,  Linn. 

Rhododendrons  have  a  hard  reputation.  Their  juice  is 
considered  poisonous  to  man  and  beast.  Honey  made  from  these 
flowers  was  believed  to  have  crazed  Xenophon's  retreating  host. 
Browsing  animals  were  hurt  by  tasting  the  leaves  and  shoots. 
In  his  Herbal,  Turner  wrote  of  the  Italian  rhododendron:  "I 
care  not  if  it  neuer  com  into  England,  seyng  it  in  all  poyntes  is 
lyke  a  Pharesy;  that  is,  beauteus  without,  and  within  a  rauenus 
wolf  and  murderer." 

The  American  rhododendrons  are  our  most  ornamental 
evergreen  shrubs.  Only  one  becomes  tree-like  in  size  and  habit. 
It  attains  its  greatest  height  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  the  Caro- 
linas  and  eastern  Tennessee.  Here  it  spreads  over  considerable 
areas,  often  forming  impenetrable  jungles  of  great  beauty,  winter 
and  summer. 

Great  Rhododendron,  Rose  "Bay  (Rhododendron  maximum, 
Linn.) — Evergreen  shrub  or  small  tree,  becoming  35  feet  high, 
with  dense,  broad  head  of  twisted  branches.  Bark  reddish  brown, 
scaly;    branches    rusty    tomentose    at    first,    becoming    greyish. 

418 


The  Heaths:  the  Rhododendron  and  the   Mountain  Laurel 

JVood  light  brown,  hard,  heavy,  fine.  Buds  scaly,  prominent; 
leaf  buds  small,  axillary,  on  flowerless  branches;  flower  buds 
large,  conical,  terminal.  Leaves  narrow  oblong,  tapering  to  a 
short  petiole;  apex  abruptly  pointed;  margin  entire,  leathery, 
stiff,  dark  green,  shining  above,  dull  whitish  beneath,  4  to  lo 
inches  long.  Flowers,  June,  in  large  umbels,  on  viscid  stems; 
corollas  irregular,  bell  shaped,  5-lobed,  i^  inches  across,  rosy, 
purplish  or  white,  with  hairy  and  spotted  throat;  stamens  8  to  12, 
curved;  pistil  simple,  with  5-celled  ovary  and  elongated  style  with 
5-lobed  red  stigma.  Fruit  a  woody,  5-celled  many-seeded  capsule. 
Preferred  habitat,  sandy,  peaty  or  loamy  soil,  in  somewhat  shady 
situations.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick  to  Florida;  west  to 
Lake  Erie,  through  Gulf  States  to  Louisiana  and  Arkansas. 
Mainly  along  mountains.  Rare  north  of  Pennsylvania.  Uses: 
Valuable  hardy  ornamental  evergreen.  Forced  for  winter  bloom 
as  potted  plants. 

Rhododendron  means  "rose  tree" — and  we  wisely  cling  to 
the  long,  sonorous  Greek  name.  The  common  English  name,  rose 
bay,  seems  trivial  applied  to  so  beautiful  a  plant.  The  traveller 
who  visits  the  southern  Appalachian  Mountains  in  early  summer 
sees  Rhododendron  maximum  in  its  best  estate.  Above  each 
umbrella-like  whorl  of  glossy  evergreen  leaves  appears  a  rounded 
cluster  of  white  or  rosy  blossoms,  dimmed  only  by  the  bright 
green  of  the  new  leafy  shoots  that  stand  out  between  the  flower 
clusters.  For  miles  these  tree-like  growths  illuminate  the  woods, 
as  their  shrubby  relatives,  the  azaleas,  do  in  woods  farther  north, 
where  the  rhododendrons  dwindle  in  size  and  in  numbers. 

Through  late  summer  the  green  capsules,  each  with  its  curv- 
ing style  atop,  mark  the  place  where  the  blossoms  were.  They 
hang  on  all  winter,  though  the  seeds  fall  in  autumn.  Against 
the  snow  the  broad  leaves  shine  brighter  than  all  other 
evergreens,  and  a  large  scaly  bud  in  the  centre  of  the  young 
shoots  conceals  and  promises  flowers  in  profusion  for  the  com- 
ing summer. 

R.  Catawbiense,  a  more  brilliant  species  in  bloom,  but  always 
a  shrub,  is  brought  by  the  carload  from  the  high  Alleghanies,  and 
planted  on  great  estates  in  the  North,  where  it  passes  R.  maximum. 
in  hardiness.  The  transplanting  of  these  rhododendrons  is  accom- 
plished with  a  loss  of  scarcely  i  per  cent,  if  done  by  responsible 
nurserymen. 

419 


The  Heaths:  the  Rhododendron  and  the  Mountain  Laurel 
2.  Genus  KALMIA,   Linn. 

Mountain  Laurel  {Kalmia  latijolia,  Linn.) — Evergreen 
shrub  or  tree,  becoming  30  feet  high,  with  dense,  round  head  and 
crooked  branches.  Bark  dark  brown  with  tinge  of  red,  scaly, 
branches  red  or  yellow,  smooth.  Wood  reddish  brown,  heavy, 
fme  grained.  Buds  large,  scaly,  sub-terminal  ones  contain  flowers; 
leaf  buds  small,  naked,  axillary.  Leaves  alternate  or  irregularly 
whorled,  oblong,  tapering  at  both  ends,  leathery,  stiff,  dark  green 
and  shining  above,  yellow-green  below;  3  to  4  inches  long,  on 
short  petioles;  evergreen,  falling  during  second  summer.  Flowers 
in  large  terminal  compound  corymbs,  on  viscid  peduncles;  perfect 
in  June;  calyx  5-parted,  on  lo-lobed  disc;  corolla,  saucer  shaped, 
rosy  or  white  with  purple  markings  in  short  tube,  10  tiny  pouches 
below  5-parted  border;  stamens  10,  with  anthers  in  pouches,  and 
filaments  bent  over  until  time  to  discharge  pollen,  when  they 
straighten;  pistil  i,  with  head  on  long  style;  ovary  5-celled. 
Fruit  a  globular,  woody,  5-celled,  many-seeded  capsule.  Preferred 
habitat,  cool,  moist,  well-drained  soil  that  contains  no  lime. 
Sheltered  situations  in  the  North.  Distribution,  Nova  Scotia  to 
Lake  Erie  (north  shore);  southward  through  New  England  and 
New  York,  and  along  Alleghanies  to  northern  Georgia.  Uses: 
Hardy  ornamental  evergreen.  Foliage  used  for  winter  decora- 
tion of  houses  and  churches,  and  to  trim  fruit  stands  in  city 
markets. 

Along  with  the  rhododendrons  in  June  and  July  the  mountain 
laurel  hides  its  shining  evergreen  leaves  with  flower  clusters  larger 
than  any  the  rhododendron  bears.  At  least  it  seems  so,  for  the 
clusters  lie  close,  cheek  by  cheek,  quite  subordinating  the  foliage, 
making  often  a  great  mass  a  foot  across,  upon  a  single  slender 
branch. 

Smaller  than  the  rhododendron  in  blooms,  the  laurel  shows 
more  exquisite  colouring,  and  more  interesting  and  beautiful 
forms  from  bud  to  seed.  First,  the  buds,  little  fluted  cones  of 
vivid  pink,  make  with  the  green  of  the  new  leaves  one  of  the 
finest  colour  combinations  to  be  found  in  any  shrub.  The  largest 
ones  open  first,  spreading  into  wide,  5-lobed  corollas  with  ten 
pockets  in  a  circle  around  the  base  of  each.  Ten  stamens  stand 
about  the  free  central  pistil,  and  the  anther  of  each  is  hid  in  a 
pocket,  its  filament  bent  back.     This  is  a  curious  contrivance, 

420 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Conn  any 

MOUNTAIN    LAUREL      {  Kalmia  latifolia ) 


The   Heaths  :  the   Rhododendron  and  the   Mountain   Laurel 

and  well  worth  looking  into.  There  is  a  bcc  lighting  on  the  border, 
and  probing  the  tube  of  the  corolla  for  honey.  Her  clumsiness 
makes  her  Nature's  agent  for  the  fertilising  of  these  flowers. 
As  she  steps  on  a  bent  filament,  it  straightens  itself  with  a  spring, 
the  hidden  anther  is  drawn  forth  and  bangs  against  her  furry 
body,  dusting-  her  well  with  the  pollen,  which  comes  in  a 
jet  out  of  a  small  pore  at  the  top  of  the  anther.  The 
mountain  laurel  is  not  self-fertile.  Only  insects,  gathering 
nectar  by  the  hour,  fertilise  these  flowers.  They  brush 
their  pollen-laden  bodies  against  the  erect  pistils,  thus 
bringing  about  cross-fertilisation  wherever  they  go.  A  net 
tied  over  a  mass  of  blossoms,  excluding  the  bees,  will  defeat 
Nature,  for  the  stamens  are  never  released,  though  the  pollen 
cells  are  ripe  and  waiting,  as  is  the  sticky  stigma  in  their 
midst.  No  seed  will  be  set,  though  all  about,  on  branches 
not  covered,  little  flattened  green  capsules,  each  waving  a 
curved  green  wand  aloft,  ripen  their  seeds  and  cast  them  in 
the  fall. 

The  mountain  laurel  is  being  stripped  from  its  native  hills  in 
wholesale  quantities:  first,  by  the  nurserymen,  for  the  decorative 
planting  of  private  estates;  second,  by  collectors  of  Christmas 
greens.  In  the  blossoming  season  the  bushes  are  mutilated  by 
thoughtless  persons — collectors  who  will  sell  the  flowers,  and 
thoughtless,  greedy  persons  who  "can't  stop  picking  because  they 
are  so  beautiful."  The  present  moment  is  the  only  portion  of 
time  these  people  consider. 

The  makers  of  wooden  spoons,  ladles,  rustic  furniture  and 
pipes  are  despoiling  the  Southern  woods  of  rhododendron  and 
laurel.  The  end  of  these  beautiful  heaths  is  not  so  far  oflF,  unless 
the  ruthless  destruction  of  them  in  the  wild  woods  can  be  checked. 
There  is  no  more  beautiful  garden  shrub  than  Kalmia. 
It  is  easily  propagated  from  seed  in  nurseries,  and  should  be 
obtained  from  these  sources.  It  is  hardy  and  thrifty  farther 
north  than  rhododendron.  Transplanting  from  the  wild  is  pre- 
carious business  with  heaths,  and  the  average  person  fails 
utterly. 

In  the  name  of  this  genus,  Linnaeus  commemorates  the 
devoted  labours  of  Peter  Kalm,  the  Swedish  traveller  and  botanist, 
through  whose  eyes  "the  father  of  botany"  saw  the  wonderfully 
rich  and  varied  flora  of  the  New  World. 

421 


The  Heaths:  the   Rhododendrons  and  the  Mountain  Laurel 
3.  Genus  ARBUTUS,  Linn. 

Madrona  (Arbutus  Men:(iesii,  Pursh.) — Evergreen  shrub 
or  tree  40  to  100  feet  high,  with  smooth,  reddish  brown  bark,  and 
smooth  red  branches.  IVood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  reddish  brown, 
close  grained.  Leaves  alternate,  persistent,  entire,  rounded  or 
heart  shaped  at  base,  oval  or  oblong,  3  to  4  inches  long,  smooth, 
shining  above,  glaucous  beneath.  Flowers  white,  in  erect  panicles, 
5  to  6  inches  long,  monopetalous,  ovate,  \  inch  long,  perfect. 
Fruit  a  globular,  many-seeded  berry,  ^  inch  long,  orange  red, 
edible.  Preferred  habitat,  well-drained  soil  in  situations  protected 
from  dry  winds.  Distribution,  coast  region,  British  Columbia  to 
California;  on  mountain  slopes  becoming  shrubby.  Uses: 
Valuable  ornamental  tree  in  warm-temperate  climates.  Wood 
used  for  furniture,  charcoal,  and  bark  for  tanning  leather, 

"The  Madroiia,  clad  in  thin,  smooth,  red  and  yellow  bark 
and  big  glossy  leaves,  seems  in  the  dark  coniferous  forests  of 
Washington  and  Vancouver  Island,  like  some  lost  wanderer 
from  the  magnolia  groves  of  the  South." 

No  American  tree  of  considerable  size  equals  this  one  in 
beauty  the  year  around.  It  bears  large  conical  clusters  of  white 
flowers,  above  the  vivid  green  of  its  leathery  leaves.  The  tree  is 
further  lightened  by  silvery  leaf  linings.  The  red-brown  trunk 
and  bright  red  branches  add  a  rich  colour  note,  which  is  intensi- 
fied when  the  copious  scarlet  fruits  appear  and  the  two-year-old 
leaves  turn  to  scarlet  or  orange  in  the  autumn.  Even  among 
the  redwoods  this  arbutus  is  a  tree  that  commands  attention  and 
admiration  at  every  season.  The  wood  tempts  the  charcoal 
burner  to  chop  down  trees  whose  beauty  ought  to  save  them 
from  destruction.  The  Japan  Current  makes  them  hardy  in  the 
west  coast  regions,  and  they  thrive  in  the  gardens  of  western 
and  southern  Europe. 

The  Mexican  Madroiia  (Arbutus  Xalapensis,  H.  B.  K.), 
similar  to  the  previous  species  in  essential  characters,  but  small 
in  stature,  has  wandered  up  along  the  mountains  from  Mexico, 
and  grows  scattered  along  the  limestone  hillsides  of  western 
Texas.  Handsome  as  it  is,  this  tree  is  not  yet  known  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  Mexicans  use  its  wood  to  make  stirrups.  It  is  also 
used  for  tool  handles  and  mathematical  instruments. 

The  Arizona  Madrona  (Arbutus  Art^onica,  Sarg.)  is  strik- 
422 


The  Heaths:  the  Rhododendron  and  the  Mountain  Laurel 

ingly  beautiful  in  the  contrast  of  its  white  trunk,  red  branches, 
and  lustrous  pale  green  leaves,  to  which  are  added  in  spring 
feathery  plumes  of  white  flowers,  and  in  the  fall  clusters  of  deep 
orange-red  berries.  It  grows  on  high  mountain  slopes,  but  has 
been  introduced  into  cultivation. 

The  Strawberry  Tree  (Arbutus  Unedo,  Linn.),  related  to 
our  Madronas,  is  cultivated  in  Southern  gardens.  This  brilliant 
little  European  tree  bears  in  the  fall  its  rosy  flowers  in  nodding 
clusters  along  with  its  large  scarlet  fruits.  It  is  hardy  in  warm- 
temperate  regions,  but  requires  shelter  from  the  wind.  It  is  also 
offered  by  dealers  in  red-flowered  varieties. 


4.  Genus  OXYDENDRUM,  D.C. 

Sourwood,  Sorrel  Tree  (Oxydendrum  arboreum,  DC.) — A 
slender-stemmed  tree,  15  to  60  feet  high,  with  oblong,  round- 
topped  head.  Bark  smooth,  reddish  grey,  scaly.  fVood  reddish 
brown,  heavy,  fine  grained,  hard.  Buds  axillary,  small,  partly 
hidden,  red.  Leaves  alternate,  deciduous,  membraneous,  oblong 
or  lanceolate,  entire,  3  to  6  inches  long,  smooth.  Flowers,  June 
or  July,  perfect,  in  panicles,  7  or  8  inches  long,  of  racemed  white 
bells,  narrowed  and  frilled  at  the  tops.  Fruit  a  downy  capsule, 
5-celled;  seeds  numerous,  needle-like.  Preferred  habitat,  moist 
woods.  Distribution,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Indiana;  south 
to  Florida,  Alabama,  Louisiana  and  Arkansas.  Uses:  Orna- 
mental tree,  valued  for  its  flowers  and  vivid  scarlet  autumn  foliage. 

This  little  deciduous  tree,  whose  sour-tasting  twigs  and 
leaves  temporarily  assuage  the  thirst  of  the  hunter  lost  in  Southern 
woods,  deserves  mention  for  this,  even  if  it  had  no  other  redeeming 
traits.  Besides,  the  tree  is  beautiful  in  its  bronze-green  spring 
foliage  and  its  long  compound  racemes  of  tiny,  bell-shaped  flowers, 
and  later,  in  its  autumnal  robes  of  vivid  scarlet.  It  is  a  heath  in 
all  its  characters  recognisable  by  its  prim  little  flower  bells  and 
the  dry  little  capsules  that  succeed  them.  Hardy  as  far  north 
as  Boston,  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  American  gardens,  and  in 
western  and  central  Europe. 


423 


CHAPTER   LVII:    THE   PERSIMMONS 

Family  Ebenace^ 

Genus  DIOSPYROS,  Linn. 

Round-headed  trees,  with  zigzag  branchlets  and  no  terminal 
buds;  wood  hard  and  close  grained.  Leaves  leathery,  entire, 
simple,  alternate,  deciduous,  flowers  dioecious,  axillary;  stam- 
inate  in  cymes,  pistillate  solitary  or  paired.  Fruit  a  large,  juicy 
berry,  i  to  lo-seeded. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves  4  to  6  inches  long,  pointed;  fruit  i  to  2  inches  in 
diameter,  orange  to  brown  when  ripe. 

(D.  Virginiana)  persimmon 
AA.  Leaves  f  to  i^  inches  long,  blunt;  fruit  \  to  i   inch  in 
diameter,  black  when  ripe. 

{p.  Texana)  black  persimmon 

The  ebony  family  has  five  genera,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  Diospyros.  This  genus  contains  180  species,  including 
among  them  the  two  temperate  zone  trees  in  America,  and  others 
of  horticultural  importance  in  Japan  and  China.  The  ebony  of 
commerce  comes  from  different  tropical  species.  D.  Ebenum, 
native  of  Ceylon  and  the  East  Indies,  produces  the  most  valuable 
wood.  Beside  lumber,  ebonies  furnish  fruit  trees  and  ornamentals 
planted  for  their  lustrous  foliage  and  decorative  fruits.  Some 
of  the  tropical  species  are  grown  in  Northern  greenhouses. 

Persimmon  (Diospyros  Virginiana,  Linn.) — A  slender, 
tall  tree  with  handsome  round  head,  rarely  over  50  feet  high; 
twigs  angular,  often  hollow.  Bark  broken  into  thick  scaly 
plates,  dark  grey  or  brown;  twigs  reddish,  pubescent,  becoming 
grey.  IVood  very  hard,  dark  brown,  with  pale  sap  wood,  fine 
grained,  tough,  like  hickory;  not  durable  in  soil.  Buds  small, 
pointed,  reddish.    Leaves  alternate,  simple,  oval,  pointed,  4  to  6 

424 


The   Persimmons 

inches  long,  thick,  shining  above,  paler  beneath;  petioles  short, 
stout.  Flowers,  June,  after  leaves,  dioecious,  small,  yellowish 
green;  staminate  in  3-flowered  cymes,  scarcely  opening;  pistillate 
solitary,  wide  open,  with  imperfect  stamens.  Fruit  a  reddish- 
yellow  berry  i  to  i^  inches  in  diameter,  pulpy,  sweet,  edible 
when  ripe;  astringent  when  green.  Preferred  habitat,  light,  sandy 
soil,  or  moist  woodlands,  fence  rows  and  abandoned  fields.  Dis- 
trihutwn,  Rhode  Island  to  Florida;  west  to  Kansas  and  Texas. 
Uses:  Worthy  of  planting  for  its  rich  green  foliage  in  late  summer, 
and  its  graceful  habit.  Comes  readily  from  seed,  but  is  trans- 
planted with  difficulty.  Fruit  shows  little  improvement  in  culti- 
vation. Wood  is  used  in  turnery,  for  shoe  lasts,  plane  stocks 
and  shuttles. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  fix  the  persimmon  tree  indelibly 
in  the  mind  than  to  yield  to  the  importunities  of  Southern  friends 
and  taste  the  fruit  before  it  is  ripe.  You  will  be  quite  willing 
after  that  to  wait  until  the  frost  (or  whatever  influence  it  is) 
mellows  the  puckery  little  plum.  A  traveller  in  the  colony  of 
Virginia  wrote  his  friends  in  England  about  "the  pessemins  that 
grow  on  a  most  high  tree."  He  describes  them,  with  a  fervency 
born  of  experience,  as  "harsh  and  choakie  and  furre  in  a  man's 
mouth  like  allam!"     Some  of  us  say,  "Amen!" 

Possibly  some  part  of  the  persimmon's  popularity  is  due 
to  its  exclusiveness.  Certainly  no  other  tree  keeps  its  fruit  so 
far  out  of  reach  of  eager  hands  and  thirsty  lips.  "  The  longest 
pole  takes  the  persimmon,"  is  a  proverb  that  has  passed  the  bounds 
of  the  Southern  States,  and  taken  on  a  much  broader  significance 
than  its  originator  probably  intended. 

The  persimmon  tree  is  not  confined  to  the  South,  though 
its  finest  proportions  are  reached  in  Oklahoma  forests,  and  it 
"feels  the  cold"  in  Ohio  and  New  York.  Northerners  are  likely 
to  content  themselves  with  a  taste  even  when  the  fruit  is  at  it3 
best.  It  is  strangely  different  from  other  things.  But  the 
Southerner  born  and  bred  knows  and  delights  in  this  native 
fruit.  The  Negro  revels  in  it,  and  begrudges  the  opossum  all  he 
steals,  forgetting  that  a  'simmon  tree  when  fruit  is  ripe  belongs 
to  the  first  comer.  "'Possums  an'  'simmons  come  together,  an' 
bofe  is  good  fruit."  This  statement  sums  up  the  feelings  of  the 
Negro  on  two  vital  topics.  The  opossum  camps  down  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  well-laden  persimmon  tree  and  fattens  on  its 

425 


The   Persimmons 

fruit;  but  the  defrauded  darkey  who  marked  that  tree  for  his 
own  can  afford  to  keep  his  temper.  The  fat  'possum  on  his 
table  on  Thanksgiving  day  is  especially  delicate  for  this  'simmon 
feast,  with  which  it  tops  off  the  season.  So  there  is  no  question 
but  that  he  laughs  best  who  laughs  last. 

The  'possum  is  a  nocturnal  beast,  and  he  likes  company. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  three  or  four  to  be  found  by  night  up  a 
persimmon  tree,  hanging  on  with  their  bare,  prehensible  tails, 
or  bracing  themselves  in  crotches  of  limbs,  within  reach  of  the 
soft  sugar  lumps  of  fruit.  They  are  lazy,  and  do  not  climb  up 
if  enough  fruit  is  to  be  found  under  the  tree  to  satisfy  their  appe- 
tites. In  a  near-by  rail  heap  or  a  hollow  tree  the  opossums  sleep 
off  the  effects  of  heavy  feeding,  and  return  to  their  quest  with 
zeal  the  following  night. 

The  following,  from  high  authority,  is  conclusive:  "Anyone 
who  has  hunted  quail  through  the  Carolinas  in  January  or  Febru- 
ary, when  the  fruit  still  hangs  on  the  trees  (as  it  occasionally  does 
in  the  woods  on  young  trees  only  six  to  eight  feet  high),  knows 
that  toward  the  end  of  a  long  day's  tramp  no  more  delicious  or 
refreshing  morsel  can  be  imagined  than  these  persimmons.  They 
are  thoroughly  ripe  then,  entirely  without  bitterness  or  astrin- 
gency,  sweet,  rich  and  juicy." 

It  is  tannin  in  the  fruit  that  gives  it  its  astringency.  This 
is  gradually  withdrawn,  probably  quite  independent  of  the  action 
of  frost.  The  orange  colour  comes  to  it  long  before  the  fruit  is 
ripe. 

The  Black  Persimmon,  or  Chapote  (Diospyros  Texana, 
Scheele),  is  a  scrubby  tree  that  covers  its  matted  top  from  Feb- 
ruary till  the  following  midwinter  with  dark,  leathery  leaves, 
which  are  narrow  and  scarcely  an  inch  long.  The  black,  insipid 
fruit  ripens  in  August,  and  its  juice  is  used  as  a  black  dye.  The 
wood  is  black,  often  streaked  with  yellow,  and  handsome  when 
polished.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  engravers'  blocks.  The  tree 
grows  in  western  Texas,  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  wood  of  our  two  persimmon  trees  somewhat  resembles 
that  of  their  esteemed  tropical  relatives,  the  ebony  trees  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies.  But,  as  often  is  true  of  temperate-zone 
species,  the  quality  is  inferior. 

In  Japan,  the  native  persimmon,  Kaki,  in  the  Japanese 
language,  has  been  improved,  until  there  are  numberless  horti- 

426 


THK    PKRSIMMON  {Diospyros    Virginiana) 
This  may  be  a  broad  tree  of  wayward  habit   or  a  tall  one  with  handsome,  round  head.    The  bark  is  broken  by  deep  fur- 
rows into  small  thick  plates.     Winter  buds  are  small  and  red.     The  yellow  flowers  are  borne  in  axils  of  leaves  m  June.     The 
pistillate  trees  bear  orange-coloured  berries,  \  Xo  \\  inches  in  diameter.     They  are  astringent  and  inedible  until  dead  ripe;  after 
heavy  frosts  they  are  sweet  and  luscious.     The  Negro  and  the  opossum  are  devoted  to  this  fruit,  and  arc  its  most  ardent  collectors 


:     A,  stoii'.-  4   li.irk  and  wood  5  {Sympiocos  tinctoria) 

THE    SILVER   BELL   TREE  {Mohrodendron  tetraptera) 

The    pale-green   4-winge(l  seed   cases  cluster   behind  the   leafy  shoots    in    summer — the  wonder    of    all    observers.      The  bark 
is  coarser  and  the  trunk  larger  than  in  the  Sweet  Leaf,  Symplocos  tinctoria 


'  The   Persimmons 

cultural  varieties.  They  bear  large,  luscious  fruits,  much  better 
in  all  respects  than  those  of  the  American  species,  'ihe  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington  has  successfully  introduced 
several  varieties  of  Kaki  into  the  Southern  States.  They  do 
best  when  grafted  upon  our  own  trees. 

Prejudice  against  persimmons  results  when  a  stranger  to 
the  fruit  attempts  to  eat  it  before  it  is  ripe.  The  handsome 
Japanese  sorts  are  often  ripe-looking  before  the  tannin  has  left 
them.  The  experienced  person  knows  that  there  is  no  fruit 
more  delicate  than  a  thoroughly  ripe  Kaki,  so  soft  it  mxizt  be 
eaten  with  a  spoon. 


427 


CHAPTER  LVIII :    THE  SILVER  BELL  TREE  AND 
THE  SWEET  LEAF 

Family  Styrace/E 

There  are  seven  genera  in  the  storax  family,  and  few  species, 
scattered  over  the  warmer  sections  of  the  north  temperate  zone. 
Benzoin  and  storax,  valuable  balsams  of  commerce,  are  obtained 
from  two  species,  one  in  the  Molucca  Islands,  the  other  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Europe. 

I.  Genus  MOHRODENDRON,  Britt. 

Small  trees  with  slender,  pithy,  pubescent  branchlets  and 
no  terminal  buds.  Leaves  simple,  alternate,  deciduous.  Flowers 
white,  bell-shaped,  conspicuous.  Fruit  corky,  2  to  4-winged, 
2  to  4-celled,  with  I  seed  in  each  cell. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Fruit  2-winged;  corolla  deeply  lobed. 

{M.  dipterum)  snowdrop  tree 
AA.  Fruit  4-winged;  corolla  shallowly  lobed. 

(M.  ieiraptera)  silver  bell  tree 

Silver  Bell  Tree,  Snowdrop  Tree  (Mohrodendron  ieirap- 
tera, Britt.) — Tree  or  shrub  to  80  feet  high,  with  erect  branches 
and  narrow  head.  Bark  scaly,  brown,  with  shallow  furrows  and 
broad  ridges,  new  shoots  pubescent;  twigs  smooth.  IVood  pale 
brownish,  soft,  light,  close.  Buds  hairy,  small,  reddish,  blunt. 
Leaves  ovate,  oblong,  acuminate  entire,  2  to  4  inches  long,  dark 
green  above,  paler  and  stellate  pubescent  beneath,  pale  yellow  in 
fall.  Flowers  in  May,  white,  bell  shaped,  in  lateral  clusters  of  2  to 
4,  perfect;  stamens  8  to  16,  pistil  2  to  4-celled,  4  ovules  in  each 
cell.  Fruit  4-winged,  dry,  oblong  drupe.  Preferred  habitat,  well- 
drained,  rich  soil  in  sheltered  situations.  Distribution,  mountains 
of  West  Virginia  to  Illinois;  south  to  Florida,  northern  Alabama 

428 


The  Silver  Bell   Tree  and  the   Sweet  Leaf 

and  Mississippi  to  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  eastern  Texas.  Uses: 
A  beautiful  ornamental  tree  for  parks  and  private  grounds. 

If  the  snowdrops  from  the  garden  should  suddenly  quit  their 
sunny  corner  and  take  to  the  woods  and  you  went  out  to  find 
them,  you  would  be  sure  they  had  climbed  a  tree  and  were  looking 
down  at  you  with  that  same  meek  expression,  though  you  never 
looked  into  their  faces  before.  The  little  mohrodendron  tree 
knows  better  than  you  do  where  these  white  bells  come  from 
that  whiten  her  ruddy  twigs  so  completely  that  even  the  tuft  of 
opening  leaves  on  the  end  of  the  shoot  is  forgotten.  With  the 
opening  of  the  buds  little  flesh-coloured  flowers  appear  and  hang 
inconspicuously  down  for  a  considerable  time.  There  are  rosy 
tones  in  the  opening  leaf  buds  and  a  ruddy  glow  on  the  twigs 
themselves.  Sun  and  rain  work  slowly  but  surely.  The  corolla 
grows  to  full  size,  and  bleaches,  surrendering  its  colour  and  its 
leathery  texture.  The  sun  comes  out,  and  on  some  fine  morning 
the  carriages  that  have  driven  by  the  tree  each  day,  perhaps  for 
weeks,  are  stopped,  while  the  occupants  exclaim  upon  the  magic 
which  has  clothed  the  little  tree  in  a  bridal  veil — 

"Has    turned    it   white 
In  a  single  night," 

some  will  insist,  for  "we  would  never  have  missed  it."  Yet 
the  truth  is,  the  miracle  has  been  gradually  unfolding,  and  people 
in  carriages  do  miss  all  but  the  denouement  of  such  miracles. 
They  view  Nature  from  afar  off,  and  miss  a  great  deal  of  good 
fun  that  the  pedestrian  finds  for  himself. 

The  white  bells  fade  and  fall,  and  a  queer  little  green,  tapering 
thing,  with  four  thin  wings  in  lengthwise  lines,  ripens  into  the 
seed  case.  Among  the  leaves  these  pale-green  fruits  are  distinctly 
ornamental  throughout  the  season. 

"The  snowdrop  tree"  is  a  favourite  in  gardens,  and  is  per- 
fectly hardy  north  to  the  Great  Lakes.  It  is  easily  transplanted 
and  grows  in  bush  or  tree  form,  according  to  the  pruning  it 
receives.  A  variety,  Meehani,  of  handsome,  bushy  habit  and 
copious  bloom,  grows  about  12  feet  high.  It  looks  in  full  bloom 
somewhat  like  an  apple  tree.  The  flowers  are  smaller  but  more 
numerous  than  on  the  parent  tree,  and  the  corollas  are  more 
open  and  bowl  shaped.  The  variety  has  thus  far  failed  to  set 
perfect  seed. 

429 


The  Silver  Bell  Tree  and  the  Sweet  Leaf 

A  Snowdrop  Tree  (A/,  dipiera,  Britt.)  inhabits  swampy 
land  along  the  south  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  and  follows  the 
Mississippi  to  Arkansas.  It  is  hardy  in  cultivation  no  farther 
north  than  Philadelphia.  It  is  smaller  in  stature  than  the  silver 
bell  tree,  but  has  larger  leaves  and  more  showy  flowers.  Between 
the  two  species  the  chief  difference  is  that  two  of  the  seed's  wings 
in  this  one  have  become  obsolete,  leaving  it  two  winged,  di-piera. 
The  other  species  has  four-winged  seeds,  expressed  in  the  Greek 
word  ietra-ptera. 

2.  Genus  SYMPLOCOS,  L'Her. 

Trees  with  pithy  branchlets,  forming  open,  round  head. 
Leaves  half  evergreen,  simple,  alternate,  entire,  oval.  Flowers 
small,  perfect,  white,  bell  shaped  in  axillary  clusters.  Fruit  a 
brown    berry.  (S.  tindoria)  sweet  leaf 

Symplocos  is  a  large  genus  of  trees  that  grow  wild  in  Aus- 
tralia and  in  the  tropics  of  Asia  and  America.  Many  species 
belonging  to  British  India  yield  important  dyes  and  drugs.  A 
species  from  Japan  has  recently  created  a  stir  in  horticultural 
circles  in  this  country.  It  has  profuse  white  flowers  that  look 
like  those  of  the  hawthorns,  hence  its  name,  S.  cratcegoides. 
These  racemed  flowers  give  place  to  berries  which  turn  on  ripening 
to  a  brilliant  blue,  which  make  the  shrubby  tree  a  most  striking 
and  beautiful  object  in  a  garden  in  the  fall.  The  only  American 
representative  of  this  genus  is  a  little  tree. 

Sweet  Leaf,  Horse  Sugar  {Symplocos  tindoria,  L'Her.) — 
A  small,  open-headed  tree,  lo  to  30  feet  high,  with  short  trunk 
and  slim,  ascending  branches.  Bark  ashy  grey  with  reddish  cast, 
warty.  Buds  ovate,  with  triangular  scales.  Leaves  leathery, 
dark  green  and  lustrous  above;  paler  and  pubescent  beneath; 
5  to  6  inches  long,  i  to  2  inches  wide,  tapering  at  base  and  apex; 
entire  or  remotely  toothed  on  margins;  petioles  short,  winged. 
Flowers  white,  fragrant,  in  close  axillary  clusters;  March  to  May. 
Fruit,  a  brown,  nut-like  drupe  with  i  seed.  Preferred  habitat, 
moist,  shady  woodlands.  Distribution,  Delaware  to  Florida; 
west  to  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  and  in  Gulf  States  to  Louisiana 
and  southern  Arkansas.  Uses:  Rare  in  gardens,  though  it 
deserves  attention  for  its  handsome,  sweet-tasting  foliage.  Bark 
of  stems  and  roots,  bitter  and  aromatic,  yields  yellow  dye  and  has 
tonic  medicinal  properties.     Horses  and  cattle  browse  the  foliage. 

430 


pyright,  1905,  hy  Doubleday,  Page  &  Comrany 


-LOWERS    OF   THE    SILVER    BELL    TREE     {Mohrodendron  tetravtera) 


1 


CHAPTER  LIX:   THE  ASHES  AND  THE    FRINGE 
TREE 

Family  Oleace.^ 

1.  Genus   FRAXINUS,  Linn. 

Valuable  timber  and  ornamental  trees.  Leaves  deciduous, 
pinnately  compound,  opposite.  Flowers  small,  inconspicuous, 
in  compound  panicles;  the  two  kinds,  except  in  A,  borne  on 
separate  trees.     Fruit  a  dry  seed,  winged  like  a  dart. 

KEY  TO  MOST   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

A.  Twigs  4-angled;  flowers  perfect. 

(F.  quadrangulata)  blue  ash 
AA.  Twigs  round;  flowers  dioecious. 

B.  Branchlets,  petioles  and  leaf  linings  smooth. 
C.  Buds  brown;  leaflets  stalked. 
D.  Leaves  whitish  beneath. 

E.  Wings  of  fruit  broad;  leaflets  blunt. 

{F.  Caroliniana)  swamp  ash 
EE.  Wings  of  fruit  narrow;  leaflets  taper  pointed. 

(F.  Americana)  white  ash 
DD.  Leaves  green  beneath.    (F.  lanceolata)  green  ash 
CC.  Buds  black;  leaflets  sessile.  (F.  nigra)  black  ash 

BB.  Branchlets,  petioles  and  leaf  linings  downy, 
C.  Twigs  slender;  keys  very  long  and  slender. 

(F.  Pennsykanica)  red  ash 
CC.  Twigs  stout;  leaves  pale  green. 

D.    Trunk  cylindrical.  (F.  Oregona)  Oregon  ash 

DD.  Trunk  bulging  at  base.    (F.  profunda)  pumpkin  ash 

Ash  trees  are  easily  distinguished  in  the  woods  by  the  opposite 
arrangement  of  their  pinnately  compound  leaves.  Hickories, 
walnuts,  and  other  trees  with  similar  leaves  will  be  found  to  have 
an  alternate  arrangement.  The  snugly  fitting  bark,  broken  into 
small,  often  diamond-shaped  plates,  gives  the  trunk  of  an  ash 
a  trim,  handsome  appearance  in  the  winter  woods.     The  seeds. 

431 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

winged  and  shaped  like  darts,  are  borne  profusely,  and  are  quite 
sufficient  identification.  No  other  tree  bears  a  fruit  that  can 
be  confused  with  this  one. 

There  are  thirty  known  species  in  the  genus  Fraxinus,  half 
of  which  inhabit  North  America,  covering  all  sections  except  the 
coldest.  The  Northern  Hemisphere  in  the  Old  World  is  as  well 
supplied.  Cuba,  northern  Africa  and  the  Orient  have  tropical 
species. 

It  is  not  so  clear  to  ordinary  people  as  it  is  to  the  botanists 
that  the  ashes  belong  to  the  olive  family.  If  we  knew  all  the 
tropical  members  of  the  group  we  might  not  be  surprised.  The 
relationship  is  established  by  morphological  characters  obvious 
only  to  trained  observers. 

The  name  ash  is  applied  to  several  other  kinds  of  trees. 
Mountain  ashes  belong  to  the  rose  family.  Prickly  ash  belongs 
with  the  sumachs  in  the  rue  family.  "Yellow  ash"  is  a  Tennes- 
see name  for  Cladrasiis  luiea,  the  virgilia,  a  member  of  the  locust 
family.  The  "hoop  ash"  of  Vermont  is  the  hackberry,  a  close 
relative  of  the  elms. 

^A^hite  Ash  {Fraxinus  Americana,  Linn.) — A  tall,  stately 
tree,  75  to  125  feet  high,  with  straight,  columnar  trunk  reaching 
6  feet  in  diameter,  and  high  pyramidal  or  round  head  of  erect, 
stout  branches.  Bark  closely  furrowed  into  many  deep,  diamond- 
shaped  ridges  and  hollows,  dark  brown  or  grey,  thick.  Wood 
reddish  brown,  with  paler  sap  wood,  tough,  elastic,  coarse,  heavy, 
hard,  not  durable  in  soil,  becoming  brittle  with  age.  Buds 
smooth,  dark  brown,  plump,  leathery,  on  pale  twigs.  Leaves, 
opposite,  pinnate,  8  to  12  inches  long,  of  5  to  9  leaflets,  usually  7, 
appearing  late,  falling  early  ;  autumn  colour  purple  or  yellow; 
leaflets  stalked,  smooth  when  mature,  dark  green  above,  pale, 
often  silvery  beneath,  oblong-lanceolate,  with  entire  or  wavy 
margins.  Flowers,  May  before  leaves,  dioecious,  in  panicles,  at 
first  compact,  later  long  and  loose;  staminate  purple,  later  yellow, 
stamens  3  on  short  filaments;  pistillate  purple,  vase  shaped, 
with  elongated  style  and  spreading,  divided  stigma.  Fruit, 
September,  slender,  dart-like  keys,  i  to  2  inches  long,  pointed, 
wing  twice  the  length  of  the  round,  tapering  body.  Preferred 
habitat,  rich,  moist  soil.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  and  Nova 
Scotia  to  Florida;  west  to  Ontario,  Minnesota  and  Texas.  Uses: 
An  admirable  park  and  street  tree.     Wood  used  for  agricultural 

432 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

implements,  frames  of  vehicles,  tool  handles,  oars,  furniture, 
interior  finish  of  houses,  stairs,  and  fuel. 

The  white  ash  is  one  of  the  trees  that  holds  its  own  in  our 
Eastern  forests,  the  peer  of  the  loftiest  oak  or  sycamore  or  black 
walnut.  Narrow  as  its  head  is  when  crowded  in  the  company 
of  other  trees,  it  can  broaden  out  into  a  canopy  of  benignant 
shade  when  it  has  room  to  grow  naturally.  The  white  of  its 
leaf  linings  enters  into  its  name.  The  pale  twigs  and  bark  also 
justify  its  name. 

The  tree  is  a  column  of  grey  in  winter,  topped  by  upright 
branches  and  erect,  rigid  twigs,  set  with  mathematical  accuracy 
in  opposite  pairs.  There  is  little  grace  in  such  a  tree  until  June 
has  covered  it  with  supple  new  shoots,  and  the  leaves  droop  and 
flutter  in  sun  and  wind.  Then  the  white  ash  stands  transformed, 
and  all  through  the  summer  the  pistillate  trees  are  hung  with 
bountiful  clusters  of  pale  or  rosy  keys  that  dance  and  gleam  and 
fairly  dazzle  the  eyes  of  the  beholder. 

Staminate  trees  ordinarily  shed  their  flowers  as  soon  as  the 
bursting  pollen  cells  have  turned  their  purple  to  gold.  A  little 
mite  has  discovered  some  virtue  in  these  flower  clusters,  and 
mite  families  innumerable  are  raised  therein,  causing  the  dis- 
torted blossoms  to  remain  in  place,  though  withered.  1  once 
found  an  old  man  carefully  gathering  these  bunches  in  winter, 
thinking  them  to  be  seed  of  the  tree.  He  looked  incredulous 
when  I  tried  to  dispel  his  illusion,  and  a  moment  later  resumed 
his  task. 

In  the  South  the  white  ash  languishes,  is  undersized,  and  its 
wood  is  of  poor  quality.  In  the  Northeastern  and  Central  States 
it  is  at  its  best,  and  is  counted  one  of  the  most  important  of  our 
American  timber  trees.  It  is  probably  put  to  more  uses  than  any 
other  species. 

In  cultivation,  the  small-fruited  white  ash  (var.  microcarpa, 
Gray)  is  often  met  with.  The  clustered  darts  are  scarce  one-half 
inch  long. 

Black  Ash  {Fraxinus  nigra,  Marsh.) — Slender,  upright  tree 
with  narrow  head,  50  to  90  feet  high;  twigs  stout.  Bark  close 
textured,  dark  grey,  with  interlacing  furrows;  twigs  smooth,  grey, 
with  pale  lenticels.  -  Wood  brown,  soft,  heavy,  tough,  splitting 
into  annual  layers  along  the  porous  spring  wood.  Buds  broadly 
ovate,  almost  black,  granular-pubescent;  inner  scales  becoming 

433 


The  Ashes   and  the   Fringe  Tree 

leaf-like.  Leaves  in  May,  12  to  16  inches  long,  of  7  to  11  oblong- 
lanceolate  leaflets,  all  but  terminal  one  sessile;  margins  witTi 
incurving  teeth,  upper  surfaces  dark  green,  smooth;  lower  pale 
with  rufous  hairs  in  tufts  along  pale  midribs;  fall  early,  after 
turning  rusty  brown.  Flowers,  May,  before  leaves,  dioecious,  in 
axillary  panicles;  stamens  dark  purple  with  short  filaments; 
pistils  with  long  cleft  purple  stigmas,  often  with  abortive  stamens 
below.  Fruit  winged  keys  in  open  panicles,  8  to  10  inches  long; 
seed  flat,  short,  surrounded  by  wing  which  is  broad,  thin  and 
conspicuously  notched.  Preferred  habitat,  deep,  cold  swamps 
and  stream  borders.  Distribution,  Newfoundland  and  north 
shore  of  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Manitoba;  south  to  Delaware  and 
the  mountains  of  Virginia,  southern  Illinois,  central  Missouri,  and 
northwestern  Arkansas.  Uses:  Wood  especially  suited  for 
baskets,  chair  bottoms  and  barrel  hoops;  also  used  for  fencing  and 
fuel,  for  cabinet  work  and  furniture.  Saplings  used  for  hop  and 
bean  poles. 

If  you  have  learned  to  recognise  an  ash  tree  at  sight,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  distinguish  the  black  ash  at  any  time  of  year. 
It  is  the  slenderest  of  them  all,  rarely  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter, 
even  though  its  height  be  over  50  feet.  The  trunk  looks  like  a 
dark  grey  granite  column,  so  even  and  close  textured  is  its  bark. 
In  winter  the  blue-black  buds  are  our  best  identification  sign. 
They  are  only  "exceeded  in  blackness"  by  the  buds  of  the  Euro- 
pean ash  (F.  excelsior).  Tennyson,  describing  the  eyes  of  the 
gardener's  daughter,  uses  this  striking  simile:  "Black  as  ash 
buds  in  the  front  of  March."  The  foliage  is  so  dark  green  it  looks 
black  at  a  distance  and  the  side  leaflets  have  no  stalks. 

Like  its  European  cousin,  the  black  ash  is  unusually  late  in 
coming  out  in  the  spring.  Often  it  is  the  middle  of  May  before  the 
black  outer  pair  of  bud  scales  fall,  and  the  two  inner  pairs  broaden 
and  lengthen  and  turn  green  to  help  for  a  short  season  the  opening 
leaves.  As  a  rule  the  staminate  flowers  are  on  different  trees 
from  these  bearing  the  pistillate,  and  rarely  a  few  perfect  ones. 

The  black  ash  is  not  a  tree  for  the  lawn.  It  loves  to  stand 
with  its  roots  submerged,  and  often  dies  of  thirst  in  the  rich  loam 
of  a  garden.  It  is  a  short-lived  tree,  at  best,  and  very  slow  of 
growth;  it  keeps  its  foliage  but  a  short  time,  turning  a  dull,  rusty 
hue  in  early  autumn.  So  we  shall  not  wish  to  plant  it  anywhere 
unless  perhaps  in  swampy  land.     The  roots  range  far  and  wide 

434 


Winter  buds 


THE   WHITE   ASH  (Fr 


Winter  shows  the  framev.-ork  of  its  fine,  rounded  dome.  The  stout  twigs  hear  rustv  blunt  buds  set  opposite  in  pairs,  above 
crrsccntic  leaf  scars.  The  flowers  are  small.  Clustered  purple  stamens  appear  with  the  leaves  in  May  on  the  sterile  trees.  They 
turn  to  vellow  when  the  pollen  is  ripe.  Racemes  of  greenish  pistillate  flowers  are  borne  on  the  fertile  trees.  These  become  the 
clustered  key  fruits,  which  are  pale-green  in  summer,  but  turn  brown,  and  are  gradually  shed  in  winter 


THE   BLACK  ASH  (Fraxinus  ntgm 

Black,  blunt  buds,  dark  brown  wood  and  grey  bark,  fur- 
rowed into  irregular  plates,  are  characters  of  this  species.  Dull, 
dark  green  leaflets,  all  sessile  hut  the  terminal  one.  make  the 
foliage  mass  gloomv 


THE    RED    ASH  {Fraxinus  Pennsylvanka^ 

The  very  slender  fruits  distinguish  this  species.  The  leaf 
linings,  stems  and  the  youngest  shoots  are  velvetv.  The  baric 
is  reddish  brown 


THE    BLUE    ASH  (Fraxinus  quadran^ulata) 
Perfect  flowers  and  4-angled  twigs  set  this  ash  apart  from  all  other  species 


The  Ashes   and  the  Fringe   Tree 

and  drink  up  the  moisture  at  a  marvellous  rate.  A  few  trees  will 
soon  cover  such  a  tract,  sending  their  seeds  broadcast,  and  throw- 
ing up  suckers  from  their  roots. 

It  was  the  Indians  who  taught  our  forefathers  to  weave 
baskets  of  black-ash  splints.  The  wood  is  split  into  sticks  an 
inch  or  so  wide  and  two  or  three  inches  thick.  These  are  bent  over 
a  block,  and  the  strain  breaks  the  loose  tissue  that  forms  the 
spring  wood,  and  separates  the  bands  of  dense,  tough  summer 
wood  into  thin  strips  suitable  for  basket  weaving. 

The  grain  of  black  ash  is  normally  straight,  but  warty  excres- 
cences called  "burls"  form  on  the  trunk  sometimes,  and  these 
show  wonderful  contortions  of  the  grain.  Innumerable  radiating 
pins,  or  abortive  branches,  keep  on  growing  within  the  wood, 
each  the  centre  of  a  set  of  circles  or  wavy  lines,  which  show 
when  a  "burl"  is  cut  across.  Bowls  hollowed  out  of  single  burls 
and  polished  show  exquisitely  waved  lines  as  delicate  as  those  in 
a  banded  agate. 

European  ash  sometimes  shows  a  twisted  and  warped  con- 
dition of  the  fibres  known  to  woodworkers  as  "ram's-horn"  and 
"fiddle-back"  ash.  Knotty  parts  of  stems  and  roots  once  went 
under  the  trade  name  of  "green  ebony,"  and  fancy  boxes  and 
other  articles  made  of  it  and  polished  brought  extravagant 
prices.  "When  our  woodmen  light  upon  it,  they  make  what 
money  they  will  of  it,"  says  Evelyn.  And  he  tells  of  a  famous 
table  made  of  an  old  ash  tree  on  whose  polished  surface  "divers 
strange  figures  of  fish,  men  and  beasts"  were  discernible  in  the 
grain  of  the  wood !  Another  enthusiast,  with  still  livelier  imagina- 
tion, saw  in  the  cleft  trunk  of  an  ash  tree,  before  it  was  polished 
even,  "the  various  vestments  of  a  priest,  with  the  rosary  and 
other  symbols  of  his  office!" 

Red  Ash  (Fraxinus  Pennsylvanica,  Marsh.) — A  small,  spread- 
ing tree,  40  to  60  feet  high,  with  irregular,  compact  head  of 
twiggy  branches.  Bark  reddish,  closely  furrowed,  scaly;  young 
twigs  pubescent.  Buds  small,  dark  brown,  nodes  close  together. 
Leaies  10  to  12  inches  long,  of  7  to  9  leaflets,  lanceolate,  coarsely 
serrate,  on  short  stalks,  smooth,  yellow-green  above,  silvery 
pubescence  on  petioles  and  leaf  linings;  yellow  in  fall.  Flowers, 
May,  with  leaves;,  dioecious,  in  hairy  panicles;  pistillate  green- 
ish, inconspicuous.  Fruit  slender,  clustered  keys,  i  to  2  inches 
long,  on  hairy  stems;   wing  i  inch  long  and  extending  half  way 

435 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

around  the  body.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  soil  near  streams  or 
lakes.  Distribution,  New  Brunswick  to  Ontario  and  the  Black 
Hills  in  Dakota;  south  to  Florida,  Alabama  and  Nebraska.  Uses: 
Inferior  to  white  ash  in  all  ways.  Often  planted  in  eastern  United 
States  for  shade  and  ornament. 

The  red  ash  thrives  best  in  the  Northeastern  States,  especially 
in  Pennsylvania.  West  of  the  Alleghanies  it  is  an  inferior  tree. 
Its  lumber  is  of  poor  quality  compared  with  white  ash,  but  being 
of  the  same  colour  it  is  often  substituted  for  the  latter  by  unscru- 
pulous lumber  dealers. 

The  common  name  of  this  species  probably  refers  to  the  red 
inner  layer  of  the  outer  bark  of  the  branches.  This  trait  alone 
is  not  a  distinguishing  one,  however,  for  white  ash  sometimes 
shows  the  same  character.  The  red  ash  has  velvety  down  that 
invests  its  new  shoots.  Winter  and  summer,  this  sign  never 
fails.  The  tree  has  slimmer  twigs  and  branches  than  most  of 
the  ashes,  and  crowds  its  buds  and  twigs  much  more  closely. 
The  silky  leaf  linings  lighten  and  soften  the  yellow-green  foliage 
mass.  Red-ash  seeds  are  extremely  slender,  and  vary  in  size 
and  form,  the  most  graceful  in  outline  of  all  the  darts  the  various 
ash  trees  bear.  Lingeringly  the  tree  gives  up  its  seeds  in  winter. 
A  breeze  strong  enough  to  tear  off  a  few  from  the  cluster  will 
carry  them  a  considerable  distance.  The  heavy  body  or  seed 
end  of  a  key  pitches  downward,  but  the  thin  wing  gives  the  wind 
a  chance  to  lift  it.  So  on  its  dainty  sail  the  seed  is  borne  away 
to  plant  an  ash  far  from  the  parent  tree,  if  by  chance  it  fall  in 
good  ground.  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  ash  trees  always 
grow  scattered  here  and  there  through  the  woods.  Go  out  on  a 
winter  day  when  the  wind  blows  a  gale  and  see  the  pistillate  tree 
launching  its  seeds.  It  is  worth  a  journey  and  some  discomfort 
to  see  it. 

Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  lanceolata,  Borkh.) — A  handsome, 
round-headed  tree,  50  to  60  feet  high,  with  slender  spreading 
branches  and  grey  twigs.  Bark  grey,  furrowed,  branches  smooth. 
IVood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  brown,  coarse  grained,  brittle.  Buds 
rusty  brown,  very  small,  blunt.  Leaves  smooth,  5  to  9  leaflets 
on  short  stalks;  ovate  or  lanceolate,  acuminate  at  apex,  sharply 
serrate,  bright  green  on  both  sides,  lustrous  above.  Flowers, 
April  to  May,  before  leaves,  dioecious.  Fruit  in  thick  clusters, 
i^  inches  long,  oblanceolate,  body  round.  Preferred  habitat,  rich 
43^ 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

soil  on  banks  of  streams.  Disirihution,  Lake  Champlain  to  Flor- 
ida; west  to  Utah,  Arizona  and  Texas.  Uses:  A  beautiful 
shade  tree,  especially  adapted  to  the  regions  of  scant  rainfall. 
Lumber  inferior  to  white  ash,  but  used  for  the  same  purposes. 

The  green  ash  has  its  name  from  the  dark,  lustrous  foliage 
which  is  intensified  in  its  greenness  by  linings  of  the  same  colour, 
undimmed  by  any  pubescence  or  pale  bloom.  The  planter  on 
the  treeless  stretches  of  Nebraska  and  Dakota  loves  this  ash 
which  grows  with  the  commoner  willow  and  cottonwood,  where 
many  trees  utterly  fail.  A  tree  it  is  that  not  only  lives  but 
flourishes,  showing  that  it  suffers  no  homesick  pangs  for  a  greener 
land. 

In  the  East,  the  green  ash  and  the  red  are  distinct  enough, 
the  latter  having  velvety,  the  former  smooth,  new  shoots,  in 
the  western  part  of  the  Mississippi  basin  are  ash  trees  that  appear 
to  be  intermediate  between  the  two  species.  Professor  Sargent 
ranks  the  green  ash  as  a  variety  of  the  red.  Other  authorities 
give  it  rank  as  a  species;  and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  further 
study  of  the  intergrading  forms  would  justify  the  tree  student  in 
making  of  these  a  distinct  species,  co-ordinate  with  the  two 
older  ones. 

The  most  important  thing,  after  all,  about  the  green  ash  is 
that  it  is  one  of  the  agencies  which  is  by  degrees  turning  the 
Great  American  Desert  into  a  land  of  shady  roads  and  comfort- 
able, protected  homesteads.  East  of  the  Alleghanies  the  tree 
is  little  known.  West  of  this  range  the  tree  is  one  among  many 
shade  trees  where  variety  of  planting  is  unlimited.  In  the  West 
the  tree  comes  into  its  own — and  has  few  rivals.  Here  people 
have  a  sort  of  affectionate  regard  for  it. 

The  Blue  Ash  (Fraxinus  quadrangulata,  Michx.)  conceals 
its  bluing  in  its  inner  bark.  Crush  a  bit  of  it  in  water  and  the 
dye  appears.  But  this  is  not  always  a  convenient  way  to  identify 
a  tree.  There  is  a  simpler  and  more  satisfactory  way.  Take  a 
look  at  the  twigs.  Are  they  4-sided  toward  the  tips?  Quadrangu- 
lata means  4-angled.  This  obvious  trait  and  the  perfect  flowers 
set  the  blue  ash  apart  from  all  the  others.  The  leaves  and  seeds 
might  easily  be  confused  with  those  of  the  black  ash  if  form  alone 
were  considered.  But  the  foliage  mass  of  a  blue  ash  is  yellow- 
green,  much  lighter  in  colour  than  that  of  its  sombre  cousin  of 
the  swamps. 

437 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

Blue-ash  trees  are  common  in  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  the 
Wabash  River  in  Illinois,  and  along  other  tributaries  of  the 
Mississippi  from  southern  Michigan,  through  Iowa  and  Missouri 
to  Kansas  and  into  Arkansas.  It  reaches  south  to  the  upper 
part  of  Alabama  and  east  to  the  highlands  of  Tennessee.  Some 
of  the  finest  specimens  grow  on  the  limestone  hills  of  the  Big 
Smoky  Mountains.  The  exact  range  of  this  tree  is  not  known  at 
present. 

The  French  botanist,  Michaux,  fell  in  love,  with  this  tall, 
graceful  grey-stemmed  ash  when  he  found  it  growing  among 
the  Alleghany  Mountains.  He  named  it  for  its  angled  twigs, 
and  sent  seeds,  and  young  trees,  perhaps,  to  be  planted  in  European 
gardens.  We  can  do  no  better  than  to  follow  his  example,  and 
plant  the  blue  ash  for  shade  and  ornament  in  America.  It  is 
hardy,  quick  of  growth,  and  unusually  free  from  the  ills  that 
beset  trees.  A  well-grown  specimen  is  a  constant  joy  to  the 
tree  lover. 

The  blue  ash  ranks  high  as  a  timber  tree.  It  is  fully  the 
equal  of  white  ash,  and  in  one  particular  is  better  even  than  this 
one.  It  is  more  durable  than  any  other  ash  wood  when  exposed 
alternately  to  wet  and  dry  conditions.  It  is  used  for  vehicles, 
for  flooring,  and  for  tool  handles,  especially  pitchforks. 

Oregon  Ash  (Fraxinus  Oregona,  Nutt.) — A  broad-crowned, 
shapely  tree,  75  to  80  feet  high,  with  stout  trunk  and  erect, 
stout  branches.  Bark  reddish  grey  or  brown,  deeply  fissured, 
with  ridges  interlacing  and  shedding  papery  scales.  IVood  brown, 
coarse,  hard,  light,  porous.  Buds  small,  acute,  with  rusty  or 
pale  pubescence.  Leaves  compound,  5  to  14  inches  long,  of  5  to  7 
pinnate  leaflets,  firm,  thick,  pale  green  above,  lighter  and  pubescent 
beneath;  terminal  leaflet  on  stalk  i  inch  long,  lateral  ones  on 
shorter  stalks  or  sessile;  leaflets  oblong  or  oval,  obscurely  serrate, 
abruptly  pointed;  autumn  colour  yellow  or  russet  brown.  Flow- 
ers, April  with  leaves,  dioecious,  in  smooth,  dense  panicles.  Fruit 
in  crowded  clusters,  each  obovate,  i^  to  2  inches  long;  body 
fusiform,  about  length  of  wing.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist 
soil,  near  streams.  Distribution,  Pacific  coast  from  Puget  Sound 
to  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  back  to  foothills  of  Sierras.  Uses: 
A  valuable  shade  tree.  Wood  used  for  furniture,  interior  finish- 
ing of  houses,  frames  of  vehicles,  cooperage  and  fuel. 

This  tree  has  the  ash  habit  of  unfolding  its  leaves  late  in 
438 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

the  spring,  and  "making  up  for  it,"  as  Oliver  Goldsmith  would 
say,  by  losing  them  early  in  the  fall.  From  the  standpoint  of 
the  landscape  gardener,  this  is  a  double  fault.  But  the  cleanly 
habit  of  the  tree,  its  graceful  head  during  the  summer  season, 
and  its  valuable  lumber,  which  is  counted  equal  to  white  ash, 
commend  it  to  planters.  It  has  been  successfully  introduced 
into  European  gardens,  and  is  hardy  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum 
in  Boston. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  an  old  tradition  recorded  by 
Pliny  has  arisen,  as  if  spontaneously,  among  the  Indians  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  Nuttall  wrote  after  his  visit  to  this  region  about 
the  time  of  the  exodus  to  California  in  1849:  "An  opinion 
prevails  in  Oregon  among  the  hunters  and  Indians  that  poisonous 
serpents  are  unknown  in  the  same  tract  of  country  where  this 
Ash  grows,  and  stories  are  related  of  a  stick  of  it  causing  the 
Rattle  Snake  to  retire  with  every  mark  of  fear  and  trepidation, 
and  that  it  would  sooner  go  into  the  fire  than  creep  over  it." 
We  certainly  suspect  that  the  hunters  above  mentioned,  or  per- 
haps earlier  white  men  visiting  the  region,  imported  the  Old- 
World  tradition. 

The  Pumpkin  Ash  (Fraxinus  profunda,  Bush.)  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  our  ash  trees,  and  leads  all 
the  others  in  the  size  of  its  leaves  and  keys.  The  velvety  pubes- 
cence of  its  young  shoots  and  leaf  linings  might  confuse  it  with 
the  red  ash,  but  that  its  branchlets  are  stout.  The  leaves  are 
10  to  18  inches  long,  with  broadly  lanceolate  leaflets,  pointed  and 
wavy  margined,  leathery,  with  downy  linings  and  leaf  stalks. 
The  keys  are  2^  to  3  inches  long,  with  wings  that  broaden  and 
round  at  the  tips.  They  are  borne  in  large,  pendulous  and  very 
profuse  clusters. 

This  tree  grows  in  deep  river  swamps  in  southeastern  Missouri 
and  eastern  Arkansas,  and  also  in  western  Florida  along  the 
Appalachicola  River.  It  will  probably  be  found  in  swamps 
intermediate  between  these  two  regions.  It  has  only  been  dis- 
covered and  named  within  the  past  eight  years.  Mr.  Bush  found 
it  first  in  1893,  and  four  years  later  gave  it  a  name,  profunda, 
which  probably  refers  to  the  almost  bottomless  bayous  in  which 
it  often  grows.  The  common  name,  pumpkin  ash,  refers  to  the 
bulging  and  ridged  or  buttressed  base  of  the  tree  from  which  the 
straight  trunk  rises.     This  is  a  character  shared  by  other  trees 

439 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

(the  tupelos,  for  instance,)  that  grow  in  land  subject  to  inun- 
dation. 

The  ^Vater,  or  Swamp  Ash  (F.  Caroliniana,  Mill.)  grows 
to  40  feet  high  in  swampy  lands  skirting  the  coast  from  Virginia 
to  middle  Florida,  and  west  to  the  Sabine  River  in  Texas.  It 
follows  the  deep  river  swamps  of  the  Mississippi  north  to  Arkansas. 
it  is  as  well  that  the  white  wood  of  this  tree  has  less  value  than 
that  of  the  other  ashes,  for  it  grows  in  inaccessible  places.  The 
leaves  are  small,  and  the  little  seeds  have  exceptionally  broad 
wings. 

Some  Little  Ashes 

There  are  species  of  ash  of  small  size  and  limited  area  that 
may  be  named  in  passing,  but  which  do  not  rank  among  the 
important  species.  Fraxinus  anomala,  in  the  corner  where  Colo- 
rado, Nevada  and  Utah  meet,  is  interesting  because  its  leaf  is 
reduced  to  one  leaflet,  rarely  two  or  three.  The  winged  seed 
declares  it  an  ash.  Fraxinus  Greggii,  a  little  ash  on  the  rocky 
bluffs  of  western  Texas,  has  its  leaves  and  fruits  reduced  to 
miniature  size,  and  exhibits  peculiarly  webbed  or  winged  petioles. 

The  Biltmore  Ash  {Fraxinus  Bilimoreana,  Beadl.)  is  a 
small  tree  quite  common  about  Biltmore,  North  Carolina.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  the  white  ash,  but  its  leaves  and  young  twigs 
are  densely  coated  with  fine  hairs.  Very  strangely  the  seedling 
trees  are  smooth  until  four  or  five  years  old,  after  which  the  young 
growth  is  pubescent. 

Another  little  ash  {Fraxinus  velutina,  Torr.)  grows  in  the 
Southwest,  extending  from  Texas  to  California,  climbing  to  the 
tops  of  dry  mesas  and  the  walls  of  caiions,  or  lending  itself  to 
"husbandry  by  shading  irrigation  ditches  and  village  streets.  Its 
leaflets  are  narrow  and  tapering,  becoming  thick  and  leathery 
and  occasionally  velvety  in  the  hottest,  dryest  regions.  It  is 
distinctly  the  friend  of  man  in  a  region  where  trees  are  most 
appreciated.     Its  wood  is  good  for  axe-handles  and  wagons. 

The  Mountain  Ash  {F.  Texensis,  Sarg.)  grows  on  the  lime- 
stone hills  and  gravelly  ridges  of  western  Texas,  a  small  or  medium- 
sized  tree  with  broadly  oval  leaflets,  and  small  broad-winged 
seeds.  Its  wood  makes  excellent  flooring,  but  is  chiefly  used  as 
fuel,  as  it  rarely  attains  sufficient  size  for  lumber. 

The  Flowering  Ash  {F.  Ornus)  of  southern  Europe  and 
440 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

Asia  Minor,  yields  the  manna  of  commerce,  a  medicinal  wax 
which  exudes  from  the  leaves  and  trunk.  Chinese  white  wax 
comes  from  a  species  in  eastern  Asia. 

The  European  Ash  (F.  excelsior)  is  a  large  timber  tree,  native 
also  to  western  Asia,  Evelyn  ranked  its  wood  next  to  oak  in 
universal  usefulness.  Scholars  wrote  on  its  inner  bark  before 
paper  was  invented.  Lances  and  spears,  shields,  pikes  and  bows 
of  it  armed  the  soldier  in  days  of  old.  Implements  of  all  sorts 
were  made  of  ash  from  the  infancy  of  agriculture  and  mechanics. 
"The  husbandman's  tree,"  it  was  called,  for  "ploughs,  axle- 
trees,  wheel-rings,  harrows,  balls;  .  .  .  oars,  blocks  for 
pulleys,  tenons  and  mortises,  poles,  spars,  handles  and  stocks 
for  tools,  spade  trees,  carts,  ladders.  ...  In  short  so  good 
and  profitable  is  this  tree  that  every  prudent  Lord  of  a  Manor 
should  employ  one  acre  of  ground  with  Ash  to  every  twenty 
acres  of  other  land,  since  in  as  many  years  it  would  be  more  worth 
than  the  land  itself." 

William  Cobbett  gives  the  ash  a  good  character.  He  com- 
mends the  keys  for  fattening  hogs.  "The  seeds  of  ash  are  very 
full  of  oil,  and  a  pig  that  is  put  to  his  shifts  will  pick  the  seeds 
very  nicely  out  from  the  husks."  He  says  further:  "The  ash 
will  grow  anywhere."  "It  is  the  hardiest  of  our  large  trees." 
"On  the  coasts  the  trees  all,  even  the  firs,  lean  from  the  sea 
breeze,  except  the  ash.  It  stands  upright,  as  if  in  a  warm,  wooded 
dell.  We  have  no  tree  that  attains  greater  height  or  bears  prun- 
ing better,  none  that  equals  the  ash  in  beauty  of  leaf  or  usefulness 
of  timber.  It  is  ready  for  the  wheelwright  at  twenty  years  or 
less." 

Young  ash  saplings  are  cut  when  only  five  or  six  years  old 
and  used  in  making  crates  for  chinaware.  When  steamed  the 
wood  may  be  bent  to  any  shape,  which  makes  it  valuable  for 
hoops.  An  ash  tree  3  inches  in  diameter  is  as  valuable  for  spade 
and  fork  handles  as  it  will  ever  be.  Walking  sticks  and  whip 
handles  use  up  still  smaller  stuff,  the  very  tough  second  growth, 
or  "stooled"  shoots. 

The  ash  is  a  tree  of  great  reputation  in  Europe,  aside  from 
its  lumber  value.  It  is  the  World  Tree — Igdrasil — of  the  Norse 
mythology,  out  of  which  sprung  the  race  of  men.  It  dominated 
the  whole  universe.  Did  not  its  roots  penetrating  the  earth 
reach  even  to  the  cold  and  darkness  of  the  Under  World?     Its 

441 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

giant  top  supported  the  Heavens.  The  Fount  of  Wisdom  and 
Knowledge  was  at  its  base — so  were  the  abodes  of  the  Gods  and 
the  Giants.  The  Fates,  also,  dwelt  there,  who  held  in  their  hands 
the  destinies  of  men.  There  were  the  Nornies  "continually 
watering  the  roots  of  this  world-shadowing  tree  with  honey-dew." 
Hesiod  in  the  South  declares  that  a  race  of  brazen  men  sprung 
from  the  ash  tree.  In  those  days,  when  the  world  was  new,  men 
sprang  from  oak  trees,  or  from  the  soil,  or  the  rifted  rock,  according 
to  the  legends  and  fables  handed  down  to  us. 

Superstitious  parents  in  rural  England  used  to  pass  a  poor 
little  babe  suffering  from  rupture  through  the  cleft  stem  of  a 
growing  ash.  Twice  the  stem  must  be  sprung  apart,  and  the 
child  passed  through.  The  trunk  was  then  tightly  bound,  and 
when  its  halves  were  firmly  knit,  they  believed  that  the  child 
would  also  be  v/hole.  An  oil  distilled  from  ash  chips  was  counted 
a  sovereign  remedy  for  many  ailments,  especially  earache,  John 
Gerarde  writes:  "It  is  excellent  to  recover  the  hearing,  some 
drops  of  it  being  distilled  warm  into  the  ears" 

The  kernels  of  ash  seeds  were  credited  with  having  medicinal 
value.  English  apothecaries  of  Evelyn's  time  had  stock  of 
"Lingua  avis"  on  their  shelves,  calling  them  this  because  they 
were  "like  almost  to  divers  birds'  tongues."  Gerarde,  citing 
the  authority  of  Pliny,  says:  "Serpents  dare  not  so  much  as 
touch  the  morning  and  evening  shadows  of  the  tree,  but  shun 
them  afar  oflF.  .  .  .  Being  penned  with  boughes  laid  round 
about  [they]  will  sooner  go  into  the  fire  than  come  near  the  boughes 
of  the  ash."  And  he  adds:  "It  is  a  wonderful  courtesie  in 
nature  that  the  ash  should  floure  before  the  Serpents  appeare, 
and  not  cast  his  leaves  before  they  be  gon  again." 

As  for  lightning,  the  ash  is  said  to  attract  it.  Various  warn- 
ings are  current: 

"Beware  the  oak,  it  draws  the  stroke; 
Avoid  the  ash,  it  courts  the  flash; 
Creep  under  the  thorn — it  will  save  you  from  harm." 

The  unfortunate  rustic,  caught  in  a  shower,  probably  knows 
that  beech  is  the  safest  tree  to  stand  under,  for  experience  and 
tradition  both  hold  that  "a  beech  is  never  struck  by  lightning." 
The  early  settlers  had  this  saying  from  the  Indians,  and  proved 
its  truth.  A  quaint  recipe  from  Gerarde  may  interest  some  of 
my  readers,  though  certain  makers  of  nostrums  may  frown  upon 

442 


The  r'enderest  kev  and   the 


)nt;c 


THK    RED  ASH   (Frri.xinus  Pennsyhanka) 
;'l()nf;s  to  this  species.     The  wing  is  as  long  as  the  pencil-like  body,  am 


•xtcivts  half-wav 


The  winter  buds  are  brown  and  set  above  prominent  leaf  scars 
THE  GREEN   ASH  (Fraxinus  lanceohita) 
The  taper-pointed  leaflets  are  green  on  both  sides.     The  slender  kevs  are  broader  at  the  t( 

copious  clusters;  rine  in  autumn 


nch  or  more  long,  and  borne  in 


THE    FRINGE    TREE  (Chionartthus  Virginka) 

The  tree  is  transformed  by  the  shower  of  delicate  white  flowers  that  every  twig  supports  in  June.     In  September  there  are  blue 

plums  on  th,>  tree.     They  are  strikmg  m  appearance  among  the  large,  yellow-green  leaves 


The  Ashes  and  the  Fringe  Tree 

me  for  quoting  it.  "Three  or  four  leaves  of  the  ash  taken  in 
wine  each  morning  doe  make  those  lean  that  are  fat."  Parkinson 
indorses  this  as  "a  singular  good  medicine — with  fasting  a  small 
quantity — for  those  already  fat  or  tending  thereunto,  to  abate 
their  greatnesse,  and  cause  them  to  be  lancke  and  gaunt."  Who 
disbelieves  in  this  will  do  well  to  remember  that  Gerarde  was  no 
mean  authority  in  his  day,  and  Parkinson — was  he  not  the  King's 
own  Apothecarye?  I  make  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  con- 
clusion will  be  drawn  by  many  that  the  "fasting  a  small  quantity" 
was  the  effective  part  of  the  treatment  prescribed. 

"Bee-sucken  ash,"  black  at  the  heart,  was  counted  tougher 
and  harder  than  the  wood  of  sound  trees,  and  especially  desirable 
for  making  mallets.  Bees  were  credited  (or  blamed)  with  a 
cankered  condition  produced  by  a  tree-destroying  fungus. 

Finally,  ash  wood  makes  excellent  fuel,  and  its  ashes,  rich  in 
potash,  make  an  excellent  fertiliser.  Certainly  the  genus  as  a 
whole  deserves  the  good  word  of  the  poet  Spenser,  who,  enumerat- 
ing trees  and  their  special  uses,  closes  the  list  with — "  the  ash,  for 
nothing  ill." 


2.  Genus  CHIONANTHUS,  Linn. 

Fringe  Tree  (Chionanthus  Virginica,  Linn.) — A  slender, 
narrow-headed  tree,  20  to  30  feet  high,  or  less.  Bark  reddish, 
scaly;  branches  grey  or  brown.  Wood  light  brown,  close,  heavy, 
hard.  Buds  small,  brown,  ovate;  inner  scales  becoming  leaf-like. 
Leaves  opposite,  simple,  4  to  8  inches  long,  i  to  4  inches  broad, 
smooth,  except  on  veins  below,  dark  green,  paler  below,  oval 
or  oblong  on  short  petioles;  yellow  in  early  autumn.  Flowers, 
May  and  June,  perfect,  white,  each  with  4  slender,  curving  petals 
I  inch  lofig,  in  graceful,  pendulous  clusters.  Fruit  in  September, 
clustered  i -seeded  drupes,  i  inch  long,  dark  blue,  with  slight 
bloom;  flesh  dry;  skin  thick.  Preferred  habitat,  rich,  moist  soil  on 
banks  of  streams.  Distribution,  southern  Pennsylvania  to 
Florida;  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  Uses:  Admirable  orna- 
mental tree,  hardy  to  New  England.  Much  planted  in  parks  and 
gardens. 

The  fringe  tree's  beauty  when  its  belated  leaves  unfold,  and 
the  delicate  fringe-like  flowers  cover  it  like  a  bridal  veil,  is  quite 

443 


The   Ashes  and  the   Fringe  Tree 

sufficient  justification  for  the  tree's  existence.  I  do  not  know 
but  that  it  adds  to  its  charm  to  wait  till  the  orchard  has  done 
blooming  and  lilacs  and  all  the  early  things  have  passed,  making 
us  long  for  something  new  and  different  to  come  and  take  their 
places.  A  delicate  fragrance  comes  out  of  the  purple-dotted 
hearts  of  these  drooping  blossoms  and  the  daintiness  of  the  whole 
tree  at  this  supreme  moment  of  its  life  history  is  something  to  be 
seen  and  felt — one  cannot  put  it  into  words.  Later  the  leaves 
broaden  and  the  blue  fruits  are  unusual  and  quite  ornamental  in 
late  summer.  But  the  tree  has  become  substantial  looking,  and 
somewhat  commonplace.  Its  ethereal  beauty  belongs  to  its 
blooming  period. 

Chion  means  snow,  anthos,  a  flower.  There  is  as  much  beauty 
in  this  Greek  name  as  in  the  flowers  it  describes.  The  light  and 
graceful  clusters  of  snow-white  petals  are  indeed  like  feathery 
masses  of  snowflakes.  The  elegance  and  singularity  of  its  flowers 
and  fruit  give  the  fringe  tree  high  rank  among  the  native  flowering 
trees  suitable  for  lawn  and  garden.  In  Europe  it  is  planted  as  a 
beautiful  exotic  from  America.  Because  it  grows  wild  Americans 
have  been  slower  to  introduce  it  into  cultivation.  A  species 
with  shorter,  broader  petals  in  erect,  compact  clusters  has  been 
found  in  China.  This  cannot  compare  with  our  own  species  in 
grace  and  beauty. 


444 


CHAPTER   LX:     THE  CATALPAS 

Family  Bignoniace/e 

Genus  CATALPA,  Scop. 

Trees  with  soft  coarse-grained,  durable  wood.  Leaves 
large,  simple,  heart  shaped,  opposite  or  whorled.  Flowers  large, 
white,  showy,  perfect,  in  panicles.  Fruit  long,  cylindrical  pods 
full  of  compressed  winged  and  tufted  seeds. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Flowers  many  in  clusters;  leaves  thin;  pods  slender,  thin 
walled.  (L.  Catalpa)  catalpa 

AA.  Flowers  few  in  clusters;  leaves  thick;  pods  stout,  thick 
walled.  (C.  speciosa)  western  catalpa 

The  bignonia  family  includes  among  its  hundred  genera  of 
tropical  plants  three  of  arborescent  habit  in  the  United  States. 
Large  flowers  and  conspicuous  fruits  are  family  traits.  The 
most  important  timber  and  ornamental  trees  are  in  the  genus 
Catalpa,  which  has  in  all  seven  species.  Two  of  these  are  found 
in  the  United  States. 

Catalpa,  Indian  Bean  (Catalpa  Catalpa,  Karst.) — Low, 
spreading  tree,  25  to  50  feet  high,  with  broad,  irregular  head  of 
coarse  twigs.  Bark  light  brown,  reddish,  smooth.  tVood  coarse 
grained,  soft,  light  brown,  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
Buds  all  lateral,  above  circular  leaf  scar,  minute,  globular;  inner 
scales  grow  to  2  inches  long.  Leaves  bright  green,  opposite  or  in 
three's,  6  to  8  inches  long,  half  as  wide,  ovate,  entire,  or  some- 
times lobed  and  wavy  margined,  pubescent  beneath;  of  unpleasant 
odour;  petioles  stout,  long,  terete.  Flowers,  June  or  July, 
perfect;  large,  white,  irregular,  the  frilled  corolla  marked  with 
two  yellow  stripes  and  numerous  purplish  dots;  pedicels  downy; 
panicles  loose,  6  to  10  inches  long.  Fruit  a  green,  cylindrical 
pod,  6  to  20  inches  long,  2-valved,  filled  with  flat,  tufted  seeds. 

445 


The  Catalpas 

Preferred  habitat,  moist,  rich  soil  of  river  banks  or  shady  woods. 
Distribution,  Georgia  and  Florida  to  Mississippi,  but  natural- 
ised in  many  other  states.  Uses:  A  hardy  ornamental 
tree;  wood  valuable  for  inside  finish  in  houses,  for  posts  and 
railroad  ties. 

The  horse  chestnut  with  its  thousand  pyramids  of  bloom  is 
scarcely  past  its  prime  v/hen  a  rival  of  surpassing  loveliness  appears. 
Out  of  the  deadest-looking  branches,  which  show  no  sign  of  life 
until  spring  has  sown  meadow  and  wood  with  blossoms,  a  lux- 
uriant crown  of  bright  foliage  comes,  and  with  a  rush,  as  if  to 
make  up  lost  time,  the  tree  bursts  into  bloom. 

Now  the  awkwardness  of  its  frame  is  forgotten,  and  the 
tree  looks  like  a  plant  from  the  tropics.  The  flower  clusters  are 
often  10  inches  high,  loosely  conical  and  blooming  from  the  base 
upward. 

A  single  flower  deserves  close  scrutiny.  The  green  calyx 
that  enclosed  the  bud  splits  in  two  and  the  white  corolla,  with 
its  spreading,  scalloped  and  ruffied  border,  unfolds.  There  are 
five  lobes  turning  out  from  the  deep  throat  of  the  flower,  where 
groups  and  rows  of  yellow  and  purple  dots  adorn  the  lining. 
The  bumblebees  recognise  these  markings  as  an  invitation  to 
explore  the  nectaries  of  the  flower,  and  the  fragrance  further 
reassures  them.  The  two  stamens  are  ripe  before  the  stigma 
that  rises  between  them.  A  bee  that  alights  on  the  broad  plat- 
form and  pushes  into  the  flower's  depths  for  nectar  is  well  brushed 
with  pollen  as  she  passes.  This  she  loses  to  the  sticky  stigmas 
of  other  blossoms  as  she  pursues  her  vocation  in  the  honey-laden 
treetops.  A  later  comer  to  that  first  blossom  might  note,  if  she 
were  observant,  that  the  stamens  had  wilted  in  the  few  hours 
just  past,  and  it  is  the  erect  stigma  that  is  brushed  with  pollen 
from  her  hairy  body.  Thus  Nature  prevents  self-pollination  in 
this  species,  and  sends  the  unconscious  bees  to  cross-fertilise 
catalpa  flowers. 

The  pods  that  hang  on  the  trees  in  late  summer  look  like 
long  green  pencils.  The  tree  is  as  much  a  wonder  in  fruit  as  in 
flower.  In  winter  time,  the  two<thin  valves  split,  and  out  tumbles 
a  multitude  of  seeds!  There  is  nothing  to  them — just  thin, 
papery  flakes  an  inch  long,  fraying  at  both  ends  into  silvery  hairs. 
The  wind  scatters  them  far  and  near,  and  the  streams  float  them 
toward  the  seas.     So  the  catalpa  seeds  are  spread.    The  trees 

446 


The  Catalpas 

have  also  the  habit  of  sprouting  from  the  stump;  and  lower 
branches,  lying  on  the  ground,  often  strike  root. 

The  Western  Catalpa  (C.  speciosa,  Engelm.)  is  hardier 
than  the  Southern  species,  and  it  grows  in  more  upright  form, 
promising  more  and  better  timber  in  a  given  time.  It  has  stout, 
thick-walled  fruits,  thicker,  more  pointed  leaves,  and  fewer 
flowers,  less  gaily  spotted,  in  a  cluster. 

This  tree  ranges  in  bottom  lands  from  lower  Indiana  and 
Illinois  to  Missouri,  Arkansas  and  Texas.  It  occurs  in  western 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  This  is  the  best  species  for  the  West, 
where  plantations  are  becoming  more  and  more  common  and 
profitable.  Railroad  companies  are  interested  in  these  enter- 
prises. The  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  investigating  the  possibilities 
and  the  limitations  of  catalpa  groves  as  a  source  of  lumber  in  the 
prairie  states.  The  disappearance  of  American  forests  has  brought 
into  prominence  trees  of  quick  growth  and  durable  wood.  The 
railroad  men  are  asking  where  the  ties  of  the  future  are  to  come 
from.  Before  the  famine  comes  is  the  time  to  lay  up  stores. 
Catalpa  trees  are  large  enough  for  ties  in  a  dozen  years  of  growth. 
They  often  lay  on  an  inch  of  wood  annually.  They  come  quickl) 
from  seed,  so  that  nursery  stock  is  very  cheap.  A  plantation  of 
50,000  trees  was  set  out  by  a  Western  railroad  at  a  cost  of  one  cent 
per  tree.  In  six  years  catalpa  trunks  are  big  enough  for  fence 
posts. 

As  to  durability,  tests  give  very  satisfactory  results.  A 
forest  was  inundated  in  Missouri  by  the  earthquake  of  181 1. 
Sixty-seven  years  after,  the  catalpas  stood  perfectly  sound,  while 
all  other  trees  had  utterly  disappeared.  Catalpa  ties,  selected 
at  random,  are  sound  after  a  dozen  years  of  use.  Fence  posts 
known  to  have  been  set  fifty  years  look  as  if  they  were  good  for 
the  rest  of  the  century. 

The  Desert  Willow  (Chilopsis  linearis,  DC),  a  little  tree 
on  the  boundary  between  Texas  and  Mexico,  is  a  member  of  the 
bignonia  family.  It  has  white  flowers  and  pods,  somewhat  like 
those  of  the  catalpas,  but  its  leaves  are  often  a  foot  long,  and 
narrow  as  a  blade  of  grass.  It  is  sometimes  planted  in  Southern 
gardens.  The  only  species  in  the  genus,  it  will  not  be  confused 
with  other  trees. 

The  Black  Calabash  Tree  (Cresceniia  cucurhiiina,  Linn.)  is 
the  only  other  native  tree  that  belongs  in  the  family  with  the 

447 


The  Catalpas 

catalpas.  The  shores  of  Bay  Biscayne,  in  southeastern  Florida, 
form  the  outpost  of  its  extensive  West  Indian  and  Central  Amer- 
ican range.  Its  flower  is  a  solitary,  purplish-yellow  tube  with  a 
flaring  border.  The  leaf  is  obovate,  leathery,  dark  green,  with 
perfectly  plain  margin.  The  fruit  is  a  berry,  3  or  4  inches  long, 
and  shaped  like  a  peach  or  plum.  Its  hard,  shiny  shell  encloses 
many  flattish  seeds. 

The  gourd-like  fruit  of  the  West  Indian  calabash  tree  (C. 
Cujete,  Linn.)  is  made  into  drinking-cups  and  a  great  variety 
of  culinary  utensils.  It  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  preceding 
species. 

The  Paulownia  (Paulownia  iniperialis,  Sieb.  &  Zucc.)  is 
a  member  of  the  spurge  family,  not  so  far  away  from  the  catalpa, 
botanically  speaking.  Indeed,  an  untrained  eye  detects  the 
similarity  in  foliage,  flowers  and  general  habit  of  the  two  trees. 
In  lustiness  of  growth  each  excels  in  many  regions  where  tropical 
profusion  of  leafage  and  bloom  is  exceptional. 

The  paulownia  blossoms  before  the  leaves;  its  clustered 
violet  flowers  hung  out  on  the  ends  of  twigs  look  like  foxgloves. 
Showy  as  these  are,  they  need  the  leaf  background— the  lack  of  it 
scores  against  them  among  critical  admirers  of  ornamental  trees. 
The  clustered  seed  balls,  too,  are  unsightly  in  winter,  requiring 
to  be  cut  off. 

A  very  satisfying  screen  of  verdure  is  renewed  every  season 
by  cutting  back  to  one  or  two  stalks  seedlings  of  paulownia. 
The  heart-shaped  leaves  are  often  a  foot  across.  The  hardiness 
of  the  tree  commends  it.  Even  as  far  north  as  Montreal  it  comes 
up  from  roots  every  year,  forming  long  shoots  which  bear  leaves 
astonishingly  large  compared  with  trees  indigenous  to  the  region. 

In  spite  of  the  drawbacks  named,  this  tree  enjoys  a  growing 
popularity  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  country.  Its  flowers  are 
deliciously  fragrant,  and  no  tree  blossom  has  more  delicate  colour. 
Blue  is  unusual  among  tree  blossoms,  and  these  trees,  like  great 
blue-flowered  catalpas,  are  striking  objects  in  parks  and  along 
avenues.  Native  of  Japan  and  China,  the  paulownia  feels  enough 
at  home  already  in  America  to  run  wild  in  some  places.  A 
splendid  evergreen  species  has  been  found  in  the  Himalayas. 


448 


CHAPTER   LXI:      THE  VIBURNUMS   AND   THE 
ELDERS 

Family  Caprifoliace^ 

I.  Genus  VIBURNUM,  A.  L.  de  Juss. 

Small  trees  with  ill-smelling  wood,  and  tough,  slender 
branches.  Leaves  simple,  opposite,  ovate,  2  to  4  inches  long, 
with  margined  petioles.  Flowers  white,  in  broad  terminal 
cymes.     Fruit  a  blue,  berry-like  drupe  with  flat  stone. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Branches  slender;  winter  buds  long  pointed;  petiole  mar- 
gins wavy,  broad.  {V.  Leniago)  sheepberry 
AA.  Branches  stout;  winter  buds  stout;  petiole  margins  narrow, 
not  wavy. 
B.  Leaves  and  petioles  rusty  pubescent. 

{V.  rufidulum)  rusty  nannyberry 
BB.  Leaves  and  petioles  smooth. 

(K.  prunijoliiim)  black  haw 

Viburnums  are  related  to  the  elders  and  belong  in  the  honey- 
suckle family.  They  include  a  multitude  of  ornamental  shrubs, 
evergreen  and  deciduous,  grown  in  gardens  and  shrubberies  the 
world  over  for  their  showy  flowers  and  decorative  fruits  as  well 
as  their  handsome  foliage  which  often  colours  brilliantly  in  the 
fall.  Not  all  viburnums  combine  all  these  desirable  horticultural 
qualities.  There  are  about  one  hundred  species  known.  They 
are  distributed  in  the  continents  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
and  extend  south  to  Central  America,  North  Africa  and  Java. 
The  old-fashioned  snowball  bush  is  perhaps  the  most  familiar 
representative  of  the  genus.  The  Japanese  snowball,  with  much 
more  handsome  foliage  and  flowers,  followed  by  red  berries,  is 
rapidly  succeeding  the  other  in  popularity. 

Sheepberry  {Vihiirnum  Leniago,  Linn.) — A  small,  round- 
headed  tree,  of  many  slender,  pendulous  branches.  Twigr. 
pubescent,  becoming  smooth.     Bark  brown,  broken  into  thick, 

449 


The  Viburnums  and  the  Elders 

scaly  plates.  JVood  heavy,  hard,  brownish  yellow,  close  textured, 
bad  smelling.  Buds  red;  axillary  long  pointed,  in  two  pubescent 
scales;  terminal,  button-like,  with  long,  abruptly  tapering  scales. 
Leaves  2  to  3  inches  long,  ovate,  with  tapering  apex  and  base, 
serrate,  shining,  leathery,  opposite,  pitted  with  black  underneath; 
autumn  colours  orange  and  red;  petioles  stout,  short,  with  wavy, 
winged  margins.  Flowers,  April  to  June,  in  flat  cymes,  3  to  5 
inches  across;  white,  perfect.  Fruit,  September,  oval,  dark  blue 
drupes,  sweetish,  juicy,  smooth,  with  pale  bloom  on  red  pedicels, 
few  in  a  cluster.  Preferred  habitat,  moist  soil  of  rocky  stream 
borders  or  edges  of  swamps.  Distribution,  Quebec  to  Saskatche- 
wan; south  to  Alabama  along  Appalachian  Mountains;  west  to 
Nebraska,  Kansas  and  Wyoming.  Uses:  Ornamental  shrubs  or 
trees  in  Eastern  States. 

The  sheepberry,  with  its  shining  leaves  set  opposite,  is 
likely  to  be  mistaken  for  a  dogwood.'  But  the  prominent,  wavy- 
winged  margins  of  the  petioles  are  the  best  distinguishing  char- 
acter. The  multitudinous  tiny  flowers  are  in  cymes  like  the 
elders,  and  after  them  come  a  few  oval  berries  of  fair  size,  dark 
blue,  looking  not  unlike  those  of  a  dogwood,  for  they  hang  on 
coral-red  branching  stems.  They  are  good  to  eat — if  one  is  very 
hungry. 

The  chief  merit  of  this  little  tree  is  its  beauty,  and  because 
of  this  it  finds  its  way  into  many  Eastern  parks  and  gardens. 
There  is  no  season  when  it  is  not  good  to  look  upon.  It  is  a 
familiar  inhabitant  of  fence  rows  and  the  edges  of  woodlands. 
It  blooms  in  late  May,  and  holds  its  ripe  fruits  over  winter  for 
birds  to  feed  upon. 

The  Rusty  Nannyberry  (V.  rufidulum,  Raf.)  is  easily 
distinguished  by  the  rusty  hairs  on  its  winter  buds,  petioles, 
and  the  veins  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf.  It  is  quite  as  hand- 
some (though  not  yet  as  well  known)  as  the  smooth  species  just 
described.  It  has  white  flowers  and  large,  bright  blue  berries. 
It  grows  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Illinois  and  Texas. 
In  gardens  it  has  proved  hardy  in  Boston. 

The  Black  Kaw  (K.  prunifolium,  Linn.),  with  leaves  like 
a  plum's,  and  the  narrow  petiole  margin  smooth,  has  flowers  and 
fruits  very  much  like  those  of  the  others.  The  berries  are  a 
trifle  smaller,  perhaps,  and  a  shade  darker.  This  species  is 
smaller  throughout  than  the  other  two;  it  blooms  earlier,  and  has 

450 


THE    SHEEPBERRY  {Viburnum   Lentago) 

The   wavy-winged    petioles   distinguish    the  viburnums.      The  blue-black    berries    hang    on   coral  red    pedicels    until  the 
birds  take  the  last  one.     The  leaf  buds  are  long  and  slender;  the  large,  plump  terminal  bud  contains  a   flower  cluster.     Leaves 

are  rusty-downy  on  the  veins 


THE    RUSTY   NANNYBERRY  {Viburnum  rufiJulum) 

The  rusty  hairs  that  cover  winter   buds,  petioles    and  veins  of  leaf   linings  di 
tinguish  this  tree.     The  leaves  are  lustrous  and  the   frmt   briglit   blue 


THE  BLACK  HAW  {Viburnum  prunifolium) 

Flower  buds  are  large  and  blunt;  leaf  buds  small 
and  slim.     The  twigs  are  reddish  in  winter 


The  pithy  twigs,  shoi^7  flower  cluster 


THE    RED-BERRIED    ELDER  (Sambucus  puhem) 

id  opposite,  compound  leaves  of  this  shrubby  roadside  elder  are  typical  of  all  the  elders. 
Two  tree  forms  occur  in  the  West 


THE    HOP   TREE  {Ptelea  trifoliata) 

Pale-green  f  uits  in  clusters,  the  seeds  with  circular  wings  all  around,  remind   us  of  the  elm  fruits.     They  illuminate  the  glossj 
(lark  foliage  all  summer.     There  are  few  daintier,  cooler-looking  trees  that  grow  in  shade 


The  Viburnums  and  the  Elders 


Stout  branches,  like  V.rujidulum.  It  is  found  from  Connecticut 
to  Georgia,  and  west  to  Michigan,  Kansas,  and  Texas.  In 
European  parks  and  gardens  and  in  those  of  our  Eastern  States 
this  little  "stag  bush"  is  often  cultivated  for  its  handsome  flowers 
and  foliage  and  its  persistent  fruit. 


2.  Genus  SAMBUCUS,  Linn. 

Quick-growing,  stout-branched  trees  and  shrubs,  with  pithy 
branchlets  and  ill-smelling  sap.  Wood  dense,  light  brown,  soft. 
Leaves  pinnate,  of  5  leaflets,  opposite,  deciduous.  Flowers  small, 
perfect,  white,  in  broad  compound  cymes.  Fruits  small,  blue  or 
black,  juicy,  berry-like,  each  with  3  to  5  nutlets. 

KEY  TO  SPECIES 

A.  Leaves   and  young  shoots   pubescent;   fruit   destitute  of 
bloom.  {S.  Mexicana)  Mexican  elder 

A  A.  Leaves  and  young  shoots  smooth;  fruit  covered  with  a 
pale  bloom.  (5.  glauca)  pale  elder 

Our  two  arborescent  species  of  the  genus  Sambucus  are 
found  west  of  the  Mississippi,  but  the  family  traits  are  familiar 
to  Eastern  people  through  their  acquaintance  with  the  two 
shrubby  species,  the  red-berried  and  the  black-berried  elders. 

There  are  twenty  species,  all  told,  in  the  genus.  The  golden 
elder  is  a  yellow-leaved  form  of  the  European  species,  Sambucus 
nigra,  Linn.  Two  other  species  have  produced  golden  varieties. 
These  are  altogether  too  much  planted,  and  the  handsome  shrubby 
native  species,  above  mentioned,  have  not  been  fully  appreciated. 

The  fruit  of  the  common  elder  is  used  in  making  elderberry 
wine,  and  elderberry  pie  is  a  staple  viand  in  many  country  districts 
in  the  season  of  the  ripening  fruit.  In  fact,  the  idea  of  the  im- 
provement of  this  species  as  a  small  fruit  has  taken  hold  upon 
some  plant  breeders.  The  Brainerd  elderberry  with  fruit  as  big 
as  cherries  was  introduced  into  the  trade  in  1890. 

Elder  shoots  are  used  in  toy  making  and  for  "spiles"  to 
draw  sap  from  maple  trees.  The  name  of  the  genus  is  from  the 
Greek,  Samhuke,  a  musical  wind  instrument  made  of  the  hollow 
stems  of  the  elder. 

The  Mexican  Elder  {S.  Mexicana,  DC.)  grows  to  30  feet 

45i 


The  Viburnums  and  the  Elders 

high  in  the  river  bottoms  of  western  Texas,  and  west  to  California, 
and  south  through  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is  a  squat, 
round-headed  tree,  with  its  short  trunk  bulging  suddenly  at  the 
base.  A  soft  pubescence  covers  leaves  and  twigs.  The  shiny, 
black  fruit,  borne  in  loose  clusters,  is  eaten  by  Indians  and  Mex- 
icans. The  tree  is  often  planted  near  homes  for  its  shade  and 
fruit. 

The  Pale  Elder  (5.  glauca,  Nutt.)  is  smooth  throughout, 
and  gets  its  name  from  the  whitish  floury  covering  of  the  berries. 
The  leaves  are  pale  beneath.  The  berries  are  edible.  This 
elder  grows  from  British  Columbia  to  southern  California,  and 
east  scantily  and  reduced  in  stature  as  far  as  Montana  and  Utah. 
It  is  sometimes  planted  as  an  ornamental.  Trees  from  30  to  50 
feet  high  are  seen  in  dry,  gravelly  soil  in  the  coast  region,  especially 
in  Oregon. 


45« 


PART  II 
FORESTRY 


CHAPTER   I:    FORESTRY  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

Forestry  is  the  intelligent  management  of  woodlands  to 
serve  some  definite  purpose.  Three  distinct  types  of  forests 
result  from  working  toward  as  many  different  objects,  each 
legitimate,  and  serving  the  country's  needs. 

1.  The  Supply  Forest  is  managed  upon  a  commercial  basis. 
Its  object  is  the  production  of  wood,  and  Nature's  resources  are 
bent  to  this  end.  How  to  get  the  highest  grade  of  lumber  of  the 
best  kinds,  in  the  greatest  quantity  and  at  the  lowest  cost  on  a 
given  area  and  in  a  given  time — these  are  the  problems  of  the 
supply  forest.  At  the  same  time,  the  aim  is  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  forest  and  to  make  it  permanent  and  self- 
sustaining  in  a  physical  as  well  as  a  commercial  sense,  paying 
good  returns  for  the  cost  of  its  maintenance.  Such  complex 
problems  tax  the  judgment  of  the  wisest  men.  Action,  positive 
and  aggressive,  is  demanded  in  the  supply  forest.  Beside  it, 
other  types  of  forestry  seem  negative. 

2.  The  Protective  Forest  is  maintained  to  regulate  waterflow 
on  mountain  slopes — the  headwaters  of  streams  upon  which  the 
fertility  of  the  lowlands  depends.  These  forests  check  tendencies 
to  flooding  in  the  early  spring  and  consequent  drought  in  summer. 
They  prevent  destructive  erosion  of  sloping  ground  and  damaging 
soil  deposits  in  the  valleys.  Such  are  many  of  the  state  and 
national  reserve  forests,  including  those  that  hoard  the  water 
for  irrigation  ditches  in  California  and  other  Western  states. 
Water  companies  of  great  cities  maintain  such  forest  covers 
over  the  sources  of  their  supplies. 

Protective  forests  may  be  maintained  especially  as  wind- 
breaks in  regions  subject  to  damaging  winds,  hot  or  cold.  Bodies 
of  trees  that  drink  up  stagnant  water,  thus  draining  swamps  and 
reducing  malarial  troubles,  may  also  properly  be  designated  as 
protective.  Those  whose  balsamic  exhalations  improve  climate 
are  in  this  class. 

3.  The  Luxury  Forest  ministers  to  the  aesthetic  and  spiritual 

455     ■ 


Forestry  in  the   United  States 

needs  of  humanity  and  to  their  love  of  sport.  It  furnishes 
recreation,  physical  and  mental,  to  all.  The  Park  Reservations 
belonging  to  city,  state  and  nation  are  such.  The  Yosemite, 
Grand  Caiion  and  Yellowstone  are  our  most  famous  national 
parks.  In  the  lower  Appalachians  there  will  soon  be  set  aside 
another  to  be  kept  as  Nature  will  keep  it  for  the  people  of  the 
whole  country.  The  Adirondacks  contain  a  New  York  state 
park,  and  other  states  have  similar  reserves  belonging  to  all  the 
people.  The  Metropolitan  Park  System  of  Boston  is  the  best 
illustration  in  this  country  of  a  chain  of  parks  and  timber  reserva- 
tions belonging  to  a  city,  and  devoted  to  the  recreation  and 
uplifting  of  its  whole  population.  These  parks  are  a  refuge 
for  wild  flowers  that  agriculture  has  exterminated,  and  for 
wild  birds  that  towns  have  driven  out.  They  are  the 
precious  heritage  of  the  people  and  should  never  pass  out  of 
their   hands. 

The  Game  Preserve  is  a  second  type  of  recreation  forest. 
It  ministers  to  primitive  human  instincts — love  of  pure  wildness 
and  the  freedom  of  outdoor  life,  and  that  stronger  love  for  hunting 
and  fishing. 

National  parks  and  reservations  are  open  to  hunters,  with 
certain  restrictions.  Smaller  tracts  are  owned  and  maintained 
by  clubs  or  individuals.  Such  game  preserves,  fenced  against  the 
public,  and  in  charge  of  wardens  the  year  around,  are  found  in 
the  Adirondacks  and  in  other  Eastern  mountains,  and  along  the 
coast  where  wild  fowl  are  the  chief  attraction.  In  the  shooting 
and  fishing  season  these  tracts  are  visited  by  the  owners  and  their 
friends.  For  the  joys  of  this  period  great  preparations  are  made. 
Lakes  and  streams  are  stocked  with  fish,  and  not  uncommonly 
big  game  and  wild  fowl  are  introduced  to  increase  the  number 
and  variety  of  game  in  the  park. 

Mixed  forests  are  best  for  game  of  all  kinds.  Broad-leaved 
trees  furnish  better  coverts  for  beasts  and  birds  than  conifers  do. 
They  have  denser  undergrowth,  and  they  sprout  from  stumps 
and  from  the  roots — a  rare  thing  among  evergreens.  This 
young  growth  furnishes  important  forage  for  herbivorous  animals 
in  winter  and  summer.  Browsing  is  their  chief  living.  They 
do  not  like  the  resin  of  the  evergreens,  as  they  do  the  succulent 
twigs  and  inner  bark  of  poplar  and  birch  and  maples.  The 
buds  and  the  various  tree  fruits — berries  and  oily  nuts  and  starchy 

456 


Forestry  in  the  United  States 

seeds — are  the  winter  store  of  birds  and  many  of  the  smaller 
woods  folk. 

Noxious  animals,  including  dogs,  the  worst  enemy  of  deer, 
are  exterminated  by  the  wardens,  who  also  keep  off  poachers, 
and  do  all  they  can  to  promote  the  well-being  of  big  game  and 
small.  In  winters  of  deep  snows  it  is  necessary  to  cut  down 
trees  so  that  the  ruminants  may  be  kept  from  starvation.  Ear 
corn  and  fodder  are  often  scattered  on  the  snow  that  covers  the 
natural  food  supply.  The  animal  mortality  in  the  North  Woods 
is  sometimes  appalling  in  severe  winters. 

It  is  most  common  to  find  a  single  forest  serving  two,  or 
even  all  three  of  these  different  purposes.  Lumbering  may  be 
profitably  carried  on  in  protective  forests  without  damaging  them 
as  conservers  of  the  water  supply,  or  interfering  to  a  great  extent 
with  hunting.  It  takes  a  long  time  and  very  thorough  clearing 
to  overcome  the  wildness  and  to  expose  the  floor  of  our  American 
forests.  Young  growth  from  seed  and  stumps  covers  the  scars 
made  by  lumbermen  who,  as  a  rule,  want  nothing  but  good-sized 
logs.  Fire  and  grazing  are  much  more  effective  agents  of  deforesta- 
tion than  lumbering,  but  lumbering  fosters  fires  by  the  "slash" 
it  leaves  behind. 

When  forestry  is  mentioned,  commercial  forestry  is  usually 
meant.  Wood  is  necessary  to  civilised  life,  and  the  production 
of  it  is  a  problem  that  becomes  graver  as  population  becomes 
denser.  The  history  of  European  countries  may  eventually 
be  repeated  in  ours.  First  came  the  cutting  down  of  trees  for 
use  and  for  the  clearing  of  land.  Then  experimental  work  of  a 
vague  and  general  nature  to  check  wastefulness,  and  provide  for 
the  future  productiveness  of  woodlands.  Then  more  definite 
plans,  more  generally  effective  in  their  workings,  toward  the  same 
end.  Last,  the  growing  of  wood  as  a  crop,  seriously,  laboriously, 
profitably,  as  a  general  farmer  may  at  last  take  to  celery  culture 
or  to  strawberries  or  melons,  and  make  a  fortune  out  of  a  few 
acres.  Such  forestry  and  such  farming  are  intensive.  They  are 
specialised  to  a  high  degree. 

Intensive  forestry  at  its  best  can  be  seen  in  Germany.  State 
and  private  forests  can  be  found  in  which  tree  crops  are  grown 
as  carefully  as  any  agricultural  crop.  The  land  is  prepared,  the 
seed  selected,  the  young  trees  protected,  cultivated,  pruned  and 
thinned.    Such  a  forest  is  as  clean  and  as  thickly  set  as  a  field 

457 


Forestry  in  the  United  States 

of  grain,  and  its  value  when  cut  and  marketed  is  beyond  belief 
to  us  whose  standard  of  heavy  production  has  been  "the  virgin 
forest." 

The  plan  followed  in  the  administration  of  these  highly 
specialised  forests  is  to  cut  a  certain  acreage  clean  every  year,  and 
replant  it.  The  years  required  for  a  crop  to  mature  is  the  basis 
of  the  rotation  system.  By  the  time  the  whole  forest  is  cut  over 
the  first  plot  has  a  second  crop  ready  to  harvest.  Most  of  the 
German  forests  are  of  pine  and  spruce,  with  an  average  rotation 
period  of  eighty  to  one  hundred  years. 

One-quarter  of  the  land  in  Germany  is  forest.  Not  much- 
of  this  land  is  continuous  in  one  great  wooded  section  of  the 
country,  but  is  scattered  in  smaller  forests  among  the  thickly 
settled  districts.  Each  has  its  force  of  workers,  its  sawmill  and  a 
ready  market  for  all  the  forest  products.  It  is  said  that  the 
thinnings  and  prunings  of  these  forests  pay  most  of  the  cost  of  the 
labour  put  upon  them  while  they  are  growing.  Even  twigs  are 
used,  bound  into  fagots  or  made  into  charcoal  and  sold  as  fuel. 
Mushrooms  and  truffles  are  gathered  in  these  forests.  The 
leafage  furnishes  fodder  for  cattle  in  certain  broad-leaf  woods,  as 
those  of  linden  and  maple. 

The  city  of  Zurich  in  Switzerland  has  owned  a  forest  for  one 
thousand  years.  It  has  been  so  carefully  regulated  that  it  has 
furnished  a  definite  amount  of  timber  each  year  for  six  hundred 
years  and  is  to-day  in  better  condition  than  ever  before.  Its 
plan  of  management  has  not  changed  in  all  that  time.  As  early 
as  the  year  1300  the  peoples  of  northern  Europe  applied  to  their 
forests  the  principles  of  rational  forestry,  while  southern  Europe 
ignored  these  principles,  and  is  still  suffering  from  this  folly. 

Extensive  forestry,  adopting  improved  methods  of  handling 
wooded  tracts,  without  greatly  increasing  the  cost  of  management, 
is  the  type  of  forestry  American  conditions  call  for  at  present, 
in  most  sections.  In  special  regions  intensive  forestry  in  con- 
junction with  agriculture  is  justified.  The  experimental  stage 
will  gradually  bring  us  to  more  intensive  methods,  but  it  will  be 
a  long,  slow  evolution.  We  have  seen  much  destructive  lumber- 
ing, but  forestry  is  just  begun,  here  and  there.  Over  the  bulk 
of  the  country,  people  have  never  heard  of  forestry. 

The  Government  has  60,000,000  acres  of  land  in  national 
parks  and  reservations,  set  apart  since  1890.     In  parks  all  lumber- 

458 


Forestry  in  the  United  States 

ing  is  suspended,  game  is  protected,  and  troops  arc  stationed 
along  its  borders  to  insure  the  carrying  out  of  the  laws.  In 
reservations  no  such  surveillance  is  maintained;  the  laws  permit 
lumbering,  hunting  and  grazing,  as  the  tracts,  once  open  to 
settlers,  are  sprinkled  over  with  privately  owned  areas.  It  is 
the  President's  right  to  withdraw  public  lands  from  sale  and 
settlement  at  his  discretion.  This  he  does  to  protect  the  head- 
waters of  streams  and  to  save  valuable  timber  lands  and  wilt! 
scenery.  Much  land  now  merely  reserved  by  presidential  procla- 
mation will  eventually  be  made  by  acts  of  Congress  into  national 
parks. 

The  Yellowstone,  over  2,000,000  acres  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  Wyoming,  is  our  greatest  national  park.  California 
has  three:  the  Yosemite,  over  160,000  acres  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  rugged  scenery  in  the  world;  Sequoia  and 
General  Grant  parks,  both  preserving  some  fine  groves  of  the 
Big  Trees.  All  three  parks  lie  in  the  great  Sierra  reservation  of 
4,000,000  acres,  which,  with  a  southern  chain  of  reservations, 
occupy  one-tenth  of  the  area  of  the  state.  Arizona  has  four  large 
reserves,  one  of  which  includes  the  famous  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Colorado.  Some  of  the  best  of  the  Pacific  coast  forests  are  in 
the  Mount  Ranier,  Olympic  and  Washington  reservations  in 
Washington,  and  the  Cascade  Reservation  in  Oregon.  The  tract 
of  over  200,000  acres,  including  Mount  Tacoma,  is  now  a  national 
park. 

Great  areas  of  forest  reserves  check  the  map  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  states,  extending  east  to  the  Dakotas  and  Oklahoma, 
and  including  parks  of  comparatively  small  size.  State  forest 
reservations  are  not  so  common.  New  York  has  set  a  good 
example  by  providing  in  1885  a  pleasure  ground  of  1,000,000 
acres  for  the  people  in  the  wilds  of  the  Adirondacks.  It  is 
also  a  health  resort,  especially  for  consumptives.  Since  1895, 
Pennsylvania  has  acquired  300,000  acres  on  which  practical 
forestry  is  to  be  begun.  Many  states,  spurred  to  action  by 
the  falling  off  of  the  timber  supply,  have  established  forestry 
experiment  stations.  California  has  two  such  stations.  State 
universities  and  agricultural  colleges  now  offer  courses  in  forestry, 
and  have  forest  laboratories.  The  state  of  Michigan  set  aside  a 
57,000  acre  tract  for  this  purpose  when  its  course  in  forestry  was 
established.     IZvcn  the  prairie  states  have  followed  suit.     Land 

459 


Forestry  in  the  United  States 

that  has  been  deforested  and  then  abandoned  by  lumber  com- 
panies becomes  pubHc  property  in  default  of  taxes.  Such  lands 
to  a  large  extent  should  belong  to  the  state,  and  should  maintain 
protective  forests,  as  they  include  watersheds,  the  sources  of 
streams. 

Five  years  ago  the  Division  of  Forestry  was  an  insignificant 
branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  $10,000  a  year 
to  spend.  Now  it  is  a  Bureau,  with  nearly  half  a  million  a  year, 
A  large  body  of  forestry  specialists  trained  in  the  best  forestry 
centres  of  the  Old  World,  are  at  work  on  special  American  prob- 
lems, as  members  of  the  staff  of  the  Bureau.  Co-operation  with 
landowners  has  brought  under  the  Bureau's  management  almost 
10,000,000  acres  of  privately  owned  forest.  Experts  size  up  the 
problems  on  the  ground,  and  the  owners  follow  the  Bureau's 
advice.  The  International  Paper  Company,  controlling  over 
100,000,000  acres  of  spruce,  are  introducing  reproductive  forestry 
under  Government  direction.  Twenty-six  thousand  acres  in 
farmers'  woodlots  are  being  managed  under  expert  direction. 

Teaching  forestry  in  this  country  has  seriously  begun.  In 
1898  the  New  York  State  College  of  Forestry  was  established  at 
Cornell  University,  with  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  ex-chief  of  the  Division 
of  Forestry,  at  its  head.  The  four  years'  course  provided  for 
broad  as  well  as  technical  training.  A  tract  of  30,000  acres, 
the  forest  laboratory,  was  at  Axton,  in  the  Adirondacks.  After 
five  years  of  healthy  growth,  this  college  was  extinguished  through 
state  politics,  and  the  hundred  undergraduate  students  scattered 
to  other  schools  to  finish  their  studies. 

The  Yale  School  of  Forestry,  established  in  1900,  offers  at 
present  the  most  thorough  forestry  training  obtainable.  The 
Universities  of  Minnesota  and  Michigan  have  very  strong  courses. 
Berea  College,  Kentucky,  and  a  large  number  of  other  colleges 
and  state  universities  offer  a  year  or  more  in  forestry.  In  1898 
the  Biltmore  Forest  School  was  opened  on  the  Vanderbilt  estate 
near  Asheville,  North  Carolina,  for  the  instruction  and  training  of 
students. 

Outside  of  the  schools,  a  great  power  for  the  upbuilding 
of  public  sentiment  is  vested  in  the  state  and  national  forestry 
organisations.  The  American  Forestry  Association,  formed  in 
1882,  binds  together  all  interests.  The  official  organ  of  this 
association  is  the  monthly  publication,  Forestry  and  Irrtgafion. 

460 


Forestry  in  the   United  Stales 

A  significant  meeting  was  the  coming  together  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  of  the  destructive  and  constructive  interests — the  lumber- 
men and  the  foresters — in  friendly  council,  each  recognising  the 
claims  of  the  other,  and  their  interdependence  and  need  of  co- 
operation. The  American  Forest  Congress,  of  January,  1905, 
was  an  epoch-making  event. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  the  efficient  head  of  all  our  forest 
interests.  It  has  places  to  put  all  students  who  are  well  trained 
for  the  profession  of  forestry.  A  large  body  of  strong  young  men 
are  entering  it.     The  outlook  is  extremely  encouraging. 

The  public  mind  is  vague  when  it  encounters  the  nomenclature 
of  a  new  science.  Forestry,  its  subdivisions  and  synonyms, 
and  its  relation  to  other  sciences,  may  be  briefly  set  forth. 

Forestry  is  one  grand  division  of  the  great  art  of  Agriculture, 
"the  cultivation  of  the  field."  Silviculture  and  forestry  are  used 
as  synonyms.  Arboriculture  includes  beside  forest  trees  those 
that  are  grown  for  their  fruit,  and  for  ornament.  Hence  it 
includes  a  large  part  of  horticulture  and  landscape  gardening — 
the  growing  of  trees  for  any  purpose.  Silviculture  is,  properly 
speaking,  that  branch  of  forestry  which  deals  with  the  scientific 
production  of  a  crop  of  trees.  Forest  regulation  is  the  business 
branch,  which  manages  the  annual  outlay  and  returns  of  the 
forest.  It  has  the  lumbering  and  marketing  of  the  crop  in  charge. 
Dendrology  is  one  of  the  fundamental  sciences  upon  which  forestry 
rests.  It  is  the  botany  of  trees,  and  has  three  distinct  branches  of 
equal  importance  to  the  forester:  (i)  Tree  physiology  and 
pathology,  life  processes  of  trees  in  health  and  disease;  (2)  tree 
anatomy  and  histology,  the  structure,  gross  and  minute,  of  trees; 
(3)  systematic  botany,  a  study  of  the  kinds  of  trees  in  order  to 
know  them  by  name. 


CHAPTER   II:    A  LUMBER   CAMP  OF  TO-DAY 

In  a  mountainous  corner  of  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  is  a  "patch"  of  white  pine,  one  of  the  last  remnants  of 
the  forest  primeval,  Here  is  a  lumber  camp  with  a  hundred 
men  working  throughout  the  year.  It  is  estimated  that  at  the 
present  rate  the  cutting  will  be  finished  in  about  fifteen  years. 
The  company  is  an  old,  conservative  one  whose  name  has  been 
familiar  in  the  lumber  trade  for  three  generations.  It  owns  large 
tracts  on  the  Pacific  coast,  whose  forests  wait  until  this  Eastern 
harvest  is  done. 

Not  large,  like  the  great  lumbering  enterprises  that  have 
stripped  the  pine  from  northern  Michigan,  nor  small,  like  the 
patchy  lumbering  jobs  left  here  and  there  in  neighbouring  states, 
this  busy  camp  combines  the  best  and  most  interesting  phases 
of  each.  The  characteristic  activities  of  the  lumbering  industry 
are  all  carried  forward  with  modern  appliances  and  modern 
methods. 

The  sawmills  are  the  nucleus  of  a  little  community  composed 
of  the  families  of  all  the  mill  folks,  from  the  resident  partner  who 
lives  like  a  feudal  lord  among  his  vassals,  to  the  day  labourer. 
Nobody  lives  here  except  those  employed  by  the  company. 
Beside  the  houses,  there  is  a  general  store,  with  postoffice  and 
express  office,  a  church  and  school,  a  barber  shop,  carpenter  shop, 
and  blacksmith  shop,  and  two  boarding  houses  for  the  men 
without  families.  All  real  estate  is  the  company's  property 
and  is  under  company  management. 

A  stage  carries  mail,  express  and  passengers  between  the 
village  and  the  railroad  station  three  miles  down  the  valley. 
There  the  mountain  stream  that  floats  logs  down  to  the  mills 
in  the  spring  freshets  joins  the  river,  which  is  deep  enough  for 
big  flat-bottomed  lumber  barges.  A  stub  of  the  railroad  runs 
up  to  the  mills,  and  switches  run  conveniently  among  the  piles 
of  lumber. 

A  private  railroad  climbs  the  hills,  through  hard  woods  and 
scattering  second  growth   of  pine   and   hemlock,  to   the   upper 

462 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

camp  eight  miles  away,  where  the  "fallers"  are  at  work  cutting 
pine  trees  that  count  their  years  by  centuries.  The  road  gives 
off  a  branch  half  way  up,  that  goes  into  the  hemlock  woods. 

There  is  no  higher  land  in  the  vicinity  than  these  pine- 
crowned  hills,  which  looks  down  benignantly  on  the  landscape  that 
slopes  away  on  every  side.  A  cluster  of  rude  cabins  about  the 
end  of  the  railroad  house  the  families  that  form  this  ever-shifting 
temporary  upper  camp.  There  is  wood  to  burn  and  water 
from  the  springs,  and  supplies  are  sent  up  from  the  store.  The 
men  keep  their  axes  and  saws  sharp  and  use  them  eleven  hours  a 
day.  They  get  $1.75  a  day — more  if  they  furnish  a  team.  There 
is  a  "head  faller"  set  over  the  men  who  cut  the  timber.  Another 
"boss"  manages  the  loading  of  the  logs  into  the  skidways  and 
from  them  into  the  cars. 

Having  read  "The  Blazed  Trail,"  I  was  ready  to  embrace 
with  fervour  the  invitation  to  spend  three  days  at  the  upper 
camp.  Accommodations  were  ample,  if  primitive  ways  were 
no  objection.  So  the  day  was  set  and  transportation  bespoken, 
though  this  is  an  unnecessary  formality.  At  4:30  a.  m.  the  mill 
whistle  screamed  in  the  ears  of  the  sleeping  settlement,  and  the 
little  engine  began  puffing  and  snorting  to  get  up  steam  for  its 
toilsome  uphill  drag  of  the  empty  log  cars.  It  was  well  we  had 
dressed  for  inclement  weather,  for  a  drizzling  rain  dampened  our 
clothing,  if  not  our  zeal.  We  attached  ourselves  like  leaches  to 
the  trucks  of  the  bottomless  cars,  with  a  determination  to  enjoy 
the  ride. 

The  road  followed  the  course  of  a  brook  which  twisted  like 
an  agitated  garter  snake.  The  rails  made  only  gentle  curves, 
so  that  the  train  crossed  the  water  more  than  fifty  times  in  the 
eight  miles. 

The  one  bark  car  was  switched  off  on  a  siding  half  way  up, 
and  its  passengers,  mostly  berry  pickers  bound  for  the  higher 
valleys,  had  to  follow  our  example  and  chose  seats  on  the  running 
gears  of  the  log  cars,  to  which  we  all  clung  with  some  apprehension 
as  they  lurched  and  joggled  over  the  uneven  road  bed.  At  inter- 
vals great  gridiron-like  "skids,"  built  of  logs  and  worn  smooth 
by  long  use,  ran  alongside  the  track.  The  lower  ones  had  fallen 
into  disuse — abandoned  when  the  woods  were  cleared  of  pine. 
The  higher  ones  we  passed  were  still  in  working  order,  the  last 
ones  piled  with  fresh  logs  waiting  for  the  cars. 

463 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

The  panting  little  engine  reached  the  camp  and  rested  from 
its  labours.  The  engineer,  posing  as  a  good-natured  Santa 
Glaus,  handed  out  parcels  to  those  who  came  expecting  them. 
A  scarlet  sweater  to  one  burly  chopper,  a  double-bitted  axe  to 
another,  a  new  pair  of  brogans  to  a  third.  There  were  canned 
and  boxed  provisions  for  the  boarding  house,  and  papers  and 
letters  from  the  postoffice. 

Off  in  the  woods  1  heard  a  sound  as  of  an  explosion.  Leaving 
our  superfluous  belongings  on  the  engine  we  set  out  toward  the 
big  noise,  following  a  "skid  road"  down  which  logs  were  being 
dragged.  We  soon  came  within  the  sound  of  a  saw.  Two  men 
knelt  on  opposite  sides  of  a  giant  pine  whose  fall  we  had  heard. 
They  were  sawing  it  into  lengths  according  to  marks  chipped  by 
the  axe  of  a  third  man  who  carried  also  a  measuring  stick.  He 
had  in  his  hand  orders  for  bridge  timbers — the  "  bill "  for  the  day — 
and  this  log,  being  as  he  had  judged  it,  a  sound  tree,  about  three 
feet  in  diameter,  had  furnished  the  seventy-foot  "stick"  requisite 
to  "fill  the  bill,"  and  two  or  three  twelve-foot  logs  beside.  The 
top  was  a  mere  rosette  of  leafy  branches,  above  the  clear,  straight 
trunk.  Such  a  tree  is  worth  a  dollar  for  each  one  of  its  three  hundred 
years,  if  no  defects  are  discovered  as  it  goes  through  the  mill. 

There  are  trees  standing  among  these  with  a  trunk  diameter 
exceeding  four  feet.  These  venerable  pines  do  not  make  the 
best  lumber.  They  are  over  ripe,  and  almost  certain  to  be  hollow 
at  the  base  and  to  show  "punky"  spots  of  cheesy  unsound  wood, 
which  has  to  be  discarded  in  the  mill. 

This  head  faller  is  a  man  of  long  experience  and  ripe  judg- 
ment. He  must  choose  the  trees  most  likely  to  fill  the  orders 
sent  him  by  the  manager  from  the  office.  His  eye  measures  the 
standing  tree,  selects  one,  and  decides  which  way  it  shall  fall. 
While  his  two  sawyers  are  busy  cutting  the  last  one  into  proper 
lengths,  he  chops  a  long  notch  low  on  the  butt  of  the  next  to  fall. 
It  is  as  deep  as  his  axe  head — a  smooth,  two-lipped  trough,  whose 
angle  is  a  straight  line  terminating  in  the  bark  each  way.  As  the 
tree  falls  the  two  lips  meet.  There  must  be  no  log  nor  stump 
across  its  path,  or  the  falling  tree  breaks.  Often  a  tree  is  broken 
by  the  impact  of  its  fall  on  boggy  ground,  but  this  usually  is  due 
to  decay  that  has  weakened  its  trunk  in  certain  spots. 

The  tree  must  fall  where  the  "skidders"  who  come  with 
horses  to  "snake"  its  logs  to  the  railroad  can  get  at  it  with  least 

464 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

troubl  of  clearing  away  other  obstructions.  It  must  lie,  if 
possible,  with  its  butt  toward  a  skid  road.  Young  trees,  espe- 
cially pines,  are  saved  as  far  as  possible.  But  I  saw  a  cucumber 
tree  fifty  feet  high  shattered  to  kindling  wood  by  a  falling  pine. 

The  axe  of  the  head  faller  chips  the  thick  bark  off  in  a  circle 
around  the  tree,  joining  the  ends  of  the  wedge.  This  bark  is 
full  of  dirt  that  would  dull  the  saw  much  more  than  the  hard  wood. 
Now  the  sawyers  come  and  kneel  to  their  task.  Men  with  horses 
and  massive  log  chains  come  to  get  the  fresh  logs. 

The  long  cross-cut  saw  has  ragged  teeth  and  a  handle  on 
each  end.  Its  blade  was  sprayed  well  with  kerosene  before  work 
began,  for  the  resin  of  the  bleeding  tree  has  to  be  "cut"  with  oil,  or 
it  binds  the  saw  and  stops  the  work.  The  saw  began  on  the  side 
opposite  the  notch,  and  fared  steadily  toward  it.  The  rhythm 
of  its  song  and  the  perfect  co-operation  of  the  two  men  were 
good  to  hear  and  see.  Once  or  twice  they  stopped,  took  off  one 
handle,  drew  the  saw  out  and  oiled  it  on  both  sides.  When  half 
way  through  they  drove  in  a  wedge,  that  gave  the  saw  more 
room. 

There  was  no  anxiety  on  the  part  of  the  crouching  men,  no 
least  tremour  of  the  tree,  until  the  trunk  was  almost  severed. 
Then  the  sawing  suddenly  doubled  its  speed.  When  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  notch  it  ceased,  the  men  sprang  away,  the  tree 
trembled,  swayed,  and  fell,  its  top  sweeping  through  the  air 
with  a  mighty  sigh.  The  lips  of  the  notch  closed  with  crushing 
impact  as  the  shaft  shook  the  earth  that  shuddered  under  the 
blow. 

The  men  stood  aside,  oiling  their  saw,  and  set  it  into  the 
fallen  trunk  as  the  marker  indicated  the  place.  The  absence 
of  conversation  was  oppressive — the  understanding  of  each 
sawyer  with  the  other  made  talk  unnecessary.  Were  they 
overcome  by  the  presence  of  visitors?  "No,"  the  head  faller 
told  us,  "they  are  always  quiet."  The  work  among  the  pines 
has  this  strange  effect  upon  the  men.  They  do  not  raise  their 
voices  when  they  speak,  even  to  their  horses.  The  hemlock 
peelers  are  a  noisy,  quarrelsome  crew,  given  to  profanity  and 
coarse  joking;  but  the  fallers  in  the  upper  camp  are  thoughtful  and 
pensive,  while  at  their  work.  In  that  cathedral  woods  we  felt 
the  presence  of  something  that  discouraged  speech.  We  did  not 
understand  it — any  more  than  the  labourers  did.     Three  days  we 

465 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

spent  among  the  pines,  each  day  repeating  the  events  of  the 
first,  and  deepening  its  impressions. 

The  nights  in  camp  were  full  of  new  sights  and  sounds. 
A  rasping  sound  as  of  something  gnawing  off  the  very  foundations 
of  the  house  was  silenced  by  the  gun  of  the  householder.  Next 
morning  we  heard  it  was  "nawthin'  but  a  couple  o'  porkypines 
that  come  around  chawin'  on  the  sills."  The  housewife  bewailed 
the  invasion  of  her  turnip  patch  by  wild  deer.  A  black  bear  had 
recently  contested  the  claims  of  berry  pickers  in  one  of  the  upland 
spaces  cleared  of  timber. 

The  logs  are  piled  in  order  down  on  the  skidways  by  men 
who  scamper  over  them  like  ants,  teasing  them  into  parallel 
position,  fitting  them  into  solid  phalanx,  with  peavy  and  cant 
hook — difficult  and  dangerous  tools  to  the  learner,  but  wonder- 
fully effective  when  mastered. 

From  early  morning  till  two  o'clock  the  gang  is  loading  cars 
from  the  skids.  Three  long  logs  rest  on  two  trucks  set  far  enough 
apart  to  support  the  two  ends  of  the  load,  which  are  solidly 
chained  to  prevent  any  slipping.  Short  logs  are  fitted  in  pyra- 
midal piles  on  regular  cars.  They  usually  bind  each  other,  the 
upper  logs  fitting  into  the  troughs  between  the  lower  ones.  If 
the  fit  does  not  suffice,  a  chain  binds  them  into  a  solid  unit. 

A  warning  whistle  after  dinner  gave  notice  that  in  an  hour 
the  train  started  for  the  valley.  We  found  the  cars  all  full,  and 
I  looked  inquiringly  into  the  engineer's  little  cubby.  It  had 
scarcely  room  for  himself  and  various  boxes  and  bundles.  "On 
top  of  the  logs?"  It  seemed  incredible.  But  there  were  women 
with  berry  baskets — and  babies — perched  on  those  wooden 
pinnacles.  There  is  no  other  way  of  getting  down  to  the  settle- 
ment, not  even  a  trail. 

It  wasn't  bad  at  all.  We  perched  on  a  round  log  terrace  and 
leaned  luxuriously  back  against  another  which  formed  the  key- 
stone of  the  arch  of  the  load.  Berry  pickers  gathered  in,  the 
manager  himself  joined  us,  introducing  the  Catholic  priest,  who 
had  spent  the  day  among  his  isolated  parishioners,  A  jovial,  if 
scattered,  company  of  passengers  waved  a  farewell  to  the  camp. 

The  long  logs  went  first,  making  the  curves  safely,  though 
their  chains  groaned.  A  man  with  a  peavy  rode  erect  upon  them, 
watching  anxiously  for  trouble.  It  was  a  silly  short  car  behind 
that  ran  one  wheel  off  the  track  over  a  boggy  spot  where  the 

466 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

track  sagged.  The  passengers  kept  their  seats,  even  on  that 
car.  A  short  length  of  rail  was  laid  under  the  offending  wheels, 
the  little  engine  at  the  upper  end  of  the  train  pulled  suddenly 
and  the  wheel  got  back  to  the  rail.  There  was  just  time  to 
pick  a  bunch  of  scarlet  hobble  berries  which  the  kindly  genius 
of  the  short  rail  heard  me  crave;  then  the  descent  began  again, 
the  little  engine  halting  violently  to  overcome  and  to  gauge 
properly  the  mighty  force  of  gravitation,  in  whose  power  we  were 
hurrying  to  the  valley.  And  we  drew  in  alongside  the  mill  slough 
while  the  autumnal  sun  still  shone  through  the  hemlocks  on  the 
western  hill. 

There  was  one  stop  at  a  siding  to  attach  a  car  piled  high 
and  solid  with  sheets  of  dry  hemlock  bark,  and  to  add  a  number 
of  extra  passengers  from  the  woods  and  berry  patches.  This 
hemlock  furnishes  a  valuable  side  line  to  the  main  lumbering 
business.  The  wood  is  not  highly  rated,  but  the  bark  is  valuable 
for  tanning.  All  through  the  summer,  work  is  active  among  the 
hemlocks.  The  bark  slips  until  September,  and  a  gang  of  peelers 
works  through  the  growing  season.  Then  it  disbands.  There 
is  only  the  bark  to  market,  and  the  logs  to  get  to  the  mills. 

The  bark  is  checked  into  uniform  sheets  four  feet  long  before 
it  is  stripped  from  the  fresh-cut  log.  It  is  stacked  and  loaded  on 
cars  by  the  stripper,  who  gets  |2  per  cord  for  his  work.  The 
tanneries  pay  |io  or  more  per  cord  for  it.  The  force  of  150 
men  get  out  10,000  cords  of  bark  in  a  summer. 

The  hemlock  logs,  too  slippery  for  handling  by  men,  are 
loaded  on  cars  by  machinery.  A  big  iron  thumb  and  finger — 
a  derrick — lifts  them  and  places  them  on  the  cars.  They  are 
sawed  into  building  timbers  of  the  cheaper  sorts,  and  the  small 
stuff  goes  to  the  shingle  mill.  Most  of  the  bark  is  consumed 
by  a  tannery  in  the  neighbourhood.  Green  hides  from  the 
Argentine  Republic  are  shipped  to  this  establishment,  which  does 
also  a  great  business  with  Western  hides. 

It  is  the  proud  boast  of  the  owners  that  in  their  mills  there 
is  no  waste.  It  is  indeed  remarkable  how  little  good  pine  goes 
out  over  the  dam  to  feed  the  ever-burning  slab  pile  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river.  The  course  of  one  log  is  easily  followed  in  the 
great  open  mill. 

The  pine  logs,  bleeding  red  at  both  ends,  are  rolled  from  the 
cars  into  the  mill  slough.     A  man  on  a  raft  with  a  long  pike 

467 


A  I^umber  Camp  of  To-day 

leads  n  leviathan  to  the  bottom  of  an  indined  plane  at  the  door- 
way of  the  mill.  An  endless  chain  set  with  sharp  teeth  drags 
it  to  the  elevated  skidway  on  a  level  with  the  saw.  In  its  turn 
it  rolls  down,  and  is  clamped  solidly  to  the  carrier  on  the  side 
of  a  car  that  runs  back  and  forward  past  the  saw,  and  lays  the 
whole  log,  a  slice  at  a  time,  on  a  table  beyond.  The  saw  itself 
is  a  slender,  flexible  ribbon  of  steel  with  one  toothed  edge,  thirty 
feet  long,  its  ends  joined,  and  hung  between  two  cylinders  of 
steel,  one  above,  the  other  below  the  floor  level,  that  keep  it  in 
a  state  of  high  tension  and  tremendous  speed,  about  these  two 
revolving  axes.  This  saw  slices  a  log  as  easily  as  if  it  were  a 
potato.  The  eye  can  hardly  follow  the  car  as  it  races  forward 
and  the  saw  takes  off  a  board.  It  fairly  leaps  back  to  position, 
and  then  as  swiftly  forward,  as  if  eager  for  the  game. 

They  had  shut  down  the  mill  activities  for  two  minutes — 
the  exact  time  required  to  replace  a  dull  saw  with  a  sharp  one. 
Everybody  relaxed,  except  the  five  men  who  hung  the  saw. 
The  machinery  was  all  out  of  gear.  But  at  a  signal  everyone  was 
alert  again.  The  car  springs  forward,  the  saw  takes  a  slab  from 
the  long  log  and  lays  it  on  the  table  beyond.  Next  a  two-inch 
plank  comes  off,  and  follows  the  slab.  Then  the  log  is  flopped  over 
and  the  opposite  side  loses  a  slab  and  a  plank.  The  two  remaining 
sides  are  similarly  treated,  the  carrier  lets  go  its  burden,  and  a 
vast  squared  timber,  20  by  20  inches  by  70  feet,  rides  forward  on 
the  moving  table,  and  trucks  carry  it  on  to  the  freight  car. 

It  is  the  pale,  thin  man  whom  I  took  for  an  onlooker  who 
cut  this  timber  to  order.  The  peg  under  his  foot  and  the  lever 
in  his  hand  controlled  that  powerful  machinery.  A  short  log 
is  next.  It  is  sawed  into  two-inch  planks,  but  a  punky  spot  is 
revealed,  and  the  balance  is  cut  into  inch  lumber.  All  planks 
and  boards  go  through  the  edger,  which  removes  the  bark  and  all 
unevenness,  making  the  edges  true  and  parallel.  Rip  saws  set 
by  foot  cut  the  wide  boards  into  the  desired  widths.  These 
boards  are  later  sorted  as  to  length  and  width  in  the  yards.  The 
inferior  qualities  are  piled  to  season  outdoors.  The  best  stock 
goes  to  the  kiln,  where  it  is  dried  by  artificial  heat  in  forty-eight 
hours.  This  process  checks  decay,  and  seasons  the  wood  without 
the  warping  and  checking  which  the  slow  and  variable  open-air 
process  involves. 

The  course  of  the  slabs  is  interesting.     To  the  slab  pile  to 


A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day 

burn?  Not  yet,  and  not  all.  They  are  cut  into  six-foot  lengths 
on  the  table,  by  saws  that  jump  up  in  response  to  foot  pressure. 
Then  they  are  ripped  into  2  by  2  inch  sticks  and  descend  to  the 
lath  mill  on  the  lower  floor.  The  fragments  left  behind  follow  two 
paths.  The  bark  and  rotten  stuff  go  by  a  shute  to  the  bonfire. 
The  good  wood  fragments  are  dropped  into  a  hopper — the  cavern- 
ous maw  of  "the  hawg."  An  awful  roar  issues  from  this  beast's 
throat  whenever  it  is  fed.  It  is  the  noise  of  grinding  wood  into 
sawdust.  A  stream  of  it  flows  to  the  furnace  room,  where  it 
accumulates  above  two  doors  that  open  into  the  fire  boxes. 
Tilting  the  lid  lets  this  light  fuel  slide  into  the  fire.  A  man  lies 
on  the  hot  sawdust  here  operating  the  two  circular  lids  and  so 
regulating  the  heating  of  the  engines.  His  is  the  vision  of  Dante 
all  day  long. 

In  summer  hemlock  logs  cut  near  the  main  stream  are  piled 
into  it.  The  freshets  bring  them  down  in  spring  to  the  mills. 
The  streams  are  but  brooks  up  where  the  pine  stands,  and  the 
railroad,  which  follows  the  camp  of  the  "fallers,"  carries  logs 
to  mill  without  delay  and  without  the  inevitable  deterioration 
that  water  transportation  involves. 

There  is  no  atmosphere  of  hurry  in  the  woods  nor  about  the 
mills.  The  hum  of  industry  is  heard  from  seven  o'clock  until 
six.  Then  the  night  watchmen  go  on  duty,  and  the  day  men 
enjoy  the  library  and  reading  room  above  the  main  office,  or 
talk  things  over  in  the  store  or  barber  shop,  or  go  home  to  rest  for 
the  next  day's  work.  No  liquor  is  sold  in  the  place,  and  a  case 
of  drunkenness  means  a  workman's  discharge.  Each  day's 
work  is  the  quiet  filling  of  orders  from  the  mill  or  the  yards. 
Supply  and  demand  are  at  proper  tension  and  prices  keep  strong. 
Big  timbers  for  bridge  work  are  a  paying  specialty.  Fair  treat- 
men  and  good  wages  keep  a  good  class  of  workers  in  permanent 
employ,  and  it  is  the  boast  of  the  company  that  it  has  never  had 
a  strike. 


469 


CHAPTER   III:     PROFITABLE  TREE   PLANTING 

The  establishment  of  the  date  palm  in  Arizona  is  one  of 
the  latest  triumphs  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Out  of 
the  oases  of  Arabian  and  African  Saharas — out  of  antiquity 
itself — this  Old- World  "tree  of  Hfe"  has  been  set  down  in  the 
irrigated  oases  of  the  Great  American  Desert,  in  the  dawn  of  the 
twentieth  century.  It  thrives  and  fruits  in  its  new  home,  and 
gives  every  promise  of  continued  prosperity.  Behind  the  date 
palm  is  a  list,  indefinitely  long,  of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees 
introduced  from  other  countries.  Distant  parts  of  America 
have  exchanged  species  through  seed  distribution  and  otherwise. 
The  result  is  infinite  variety  in  our  planting — vast  fortunes  in 
orchard  and  garden  products  every  year  and  in  the  enhanced 
values  of  land  well  planted.  There  is  no  doubt  that  where 
horticulture  is  concerned,  tree  planting  has  proved  profitable, 
in  spite  of  losses  that  experimentation  has  involved. 

DOES    IT    PAY   TO    PLANT   TREES    FOR   TIMBER? 

This  is  another  question.  Fifty  years  ago  it  would  generally 
have  been  answered  in  the  negative.  The  pioneer  was  still 
clearing  land  for  his  farm,  the  great  lumber  companies  were 
but  beginning  their  work,  and  the  Great  Plains  were  not  yet 
peopled.  Conditions  have  changed.  The  virgin  forests  are 
about  gone.  The  question  is  no  longer:  "How  can  we  get  rid 
of  this  superfluous  timber? "  It  is  now:  "Where  is  the  lumber 
supply  of  the  immediate  future  to  come  from?"  It  is  no  longer 
a  problem  for  children's  children.  It  concerns  us  all  to-day. 
The  man  who  builds  a  fence,  a  house  or  a  railroad  reads  the  warning 
in  the  price  list  of  the  lumber  dealer. 

The  forests  of  the  country  are  not  gone  yet,  nor  nearly  gone. 
In  regions  originally  in  woods  Nature  is  the  great  planter.  Land 
lying  idle  "goes  back  to  forest"  in  a  few  years.  Local  wants  are 
supplied  from  the  woodlots  of  farmers.  No  general  alarm  over 
shortage  in  the  lumber  supply  will  break  out  in  such  communities. 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  has  a  "Co-operative  Tree-planting 
Plan,"  simple  as  the  Woodlot  Plan,  in  fact  a  phase  of  it,  by  which 
owners  of  land  who  wish  to  put  some  acres  into  a  wood  crop  can 
have  expert  advice  as  to  selection  of  kinds,  and  care  of  the  crop. 
An  agent  of  the  Bureau  visits  the  neighbourhood,  and  meets  in  a 
conference  all  who  may  be  interested  in  planting.  Advice  is 
based  on  examination  of  soil,  drainage,  exposure,  climatic  con- 
ditions, and  a  study  of  the  experience  of  planters  in  like  regions 
and  under  like  conditions. 

Of  the  many  plans  now  in  force  the  majority  are  on  the 
prairies,  but  many  are  in  the  "abandoned  farm"  regions  of 
New  England.  The  great  treeless  belt  from  the  Dakotas  to 
Texas  has  been  the  inevitable  centre  of  activity  in  general  tree 
planting.  Forty  acres  planted  to  trees  entitled  a  man  to  a 
quarter  section  of  land  under  the  Homestead  Law.  Failure 
marked  much  of  this  "tree-claim"  work,  some  honestly,  some 
dishonestly  done.  Cottonwoods,  box  elders,  silver  maples  and 
willows,  quick-growing  but  short-lived  trees,  were  generally 
planted  because  they  could  be  depended  upon  to  grow.  Grad- 
ually better  trees  were  introduced,  with  higher  timber  and  fuel 
value,  as  well  as  ability  to  stand  against  the  winds  and  to  give 
shade  and  protection  to  homes,  orchards  and  crops.  Altogether, 
tree  planting  has  been  vague  and  unsystematic  but  persistent 
in  the  treeless  belt.  It  has  been  an  evolution  and  an  education 
to  the  people,  and  it  is  going  to  become  a  financial  success. 

The  forests  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  giving  out,  but  the 
demand  for  posts  and  railroad  ties  and  telegraph  poles  increases 
as  the  country  develops.  Telephone  and  trolley  lines  are  threading 
the  country,  doubling  the  demand  for  poles  and  cross  ties.  The 
Kansas  farmer  cannot  aflFord  to  buy  fence  posts  grown  in  Canada, 
Oregon  or  Maine.  Neither  can  he  do  without.  His  shrewdest 
move  is  to  raise  his  posts  as  he  would  any  other  crop,  and  sell 
the  surplus  to  his  less  provident  neighbours. 

The  growing  of  wood  crops  for  profit  is  the  logical  outcome 
of  Western  experimentation.  Railroad  companies  have  begun 
to  raise  their  own  ties.  Landowners  have  put  some  of  their  best 
land  into  tree  crops.  Among  the  latter  are  many  farmers.  The 
quickest  crop  is  fuel;  the  next,  posts;  next,  cross  ties;  and  last, 
poles  for  telegraph,  telephone  and  trolley  lines. 

The  search  has  been  for  a  tree  that  can  stand  hot,  dry  winds 
^7' 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

and  occasional  drought,  and  produce  in  the  shortest  possible 
time  wood  that  is  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  tree 
that  comes  nearest  to  fulfilling  all  these  requirements  is  the  hardy 
catalpa,  native  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  which  reaches  its  best 
development  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  in  Arkansas.  It  needs  a 
porous  soil,  for  its  root  system  is  large,  ranging  widely  for  food 
and  water,  and  anchoring  the  trees  securely  against  wind.  On 
tough  clay  soil  these  trees  are  a  failure. 

RAISING   CATALPA   TIMBER 

The  Yaggy  plantation  of  440  acres  of  catalpa  trees  is  the 
best  example  of  what  a  Kansas  farmer's  woodlot  can  yield.  It 
is  reported  in  Bulletin  39  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  and  from  this 
source  the  following  facts  are  taken: 

The  land  lies  in  Reno  County,  near  Hutchinson,  Kansas,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  River.  It  is  a  rich,  deep,  sandy  loam, 
underlaid  by  soft,  sandy  clay.  Both  surface  soil  and  subsoil 
are  several  feet  thick,  and  give  free  range  to  water  and  tree  roots. 
The  water  table  is  from  four  to  six  feet  below  the  surface. 

In  this  excellent  cultivated  farm  land  seedling  catalpas  one 
year  old  were  set  in  rows,  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  east  and 
west,  six  feet  apart  north  and  south.  Mr.  Yaggy  grew  his  own 
stock  from  seed.  The  planting  covered  three  years:  120  acres  in 
1890,  eighty  acres  in  1891,  and  240  acres  in  1892.  Corn  was 
planted  between  the  rows  the  first  year,  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
corn  three  times  served  the  growing  trees.  They  branched  and 
made  bushy  tops  and  good  root  growth.  Next  year  they  were 
cut  off  at  the  ground,  except  strips  of  three  rows  each,  for 
each  twenty  rows,  reserved  for  windbreaks  throughout  the  planta- 
tion. Strong  unbranched  shoots  six  to  twelve  feet  high  came  up 
the  second  year,  with  no  cultivation.  All  but  the  best  one  of 
these  sprouts  were  cut  off  at  the  end  of  the  second  season — this 
one  to  become  the  trunk.  Cultivation  was  thorough  the  third 
summer.  The  trees  branched  at  eight  to  twelve  feet  high,  shading 
the  ground  and  keeping  out  grass.  The  leaves  formed  a  mulch 
this  third  winter,  and  cultivation  was  thereafter  discontinued. 

After  six  years  of  growth  thinning  was  begun,  the  largest 
trees  being  taken  out;  in  the  winter  of  1897-8  one-eighth  of  the 
total  number  of  trees  were  removed.    These  trees  made  two 

472 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

posts  each,  the  larger  one  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  the 
smaller  one  two  to  four  inches.  There  were  15,500  trees  cut  on 
the  eighty-acre  tract  in  these  two  years,  making  twice  that  number 
of  posts.  The  lower  posts  brought  ten  cents  each,  the  upper  cuts 
four  to  six  cents.     The  tops  yielded  some  fuel. 

The  Division  of  Forestry  made  some  measurements  of 
typical  half-acre  blocks  on  Mr.  Yaggy's  farm,  in  1900.  The 
plantation  was  eight  to  ten  years  old,  and  a  part  had  been  yielding 
posts  and  fuel  for  four  years.  Careful  records  of  the  height, 
diameter,  number  and  condition  of  all  the  trees  on  the  tracts  were 
made.  These  were  reduced  to  terms  of  posts,  stakes  and  fuel, 
at  current  market  prices.  To  this  record  was  added  the  results 
of  four  years  of  thinning,  and  the  total  showed  a  gross  value  of 
$267.15  per  acre  for  the  crop  produced  in  ten  years. 

An  equally  careful  record  was  kept  of  the  cost  of  every 
step  in  the  development  of  the  plantation.  To  the  expense  list 
was  added  rent  of  the  land  and  compound  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment of  each  year.  The  cost  per  acre  by  this  record  is  shown 
to  have  been  $69.90  for  the  ten  years.  This  deduction  from  the 
gross  value  leaves  a  net  gain  of  $197.55  per  acre,  at  ten  years. 

The  cutting  off  of  all  the  trees  would  bring  in  this  handsome 
return,  but  it  would  be  the  greatest  folly.  As  posts  bring  better 
prices  than  fuel,  so  railroad  ties  are  better  thrin  posts,  and  telegraph 
poles  than  ties.  Trees  big  enough  for  cross  ties  are  salable  tor 
general  lumber  purposes.  A  post  worth  ten  cents  can  be  grown 
in  six  years.  At  fifteen  years  the  same  trunk  makes  a  tie  worth 
fifty  cents  and  two  or  three  posts  besides.  At  twenty-five  years 
it  is  fit  for  a  telegraph  pole,  at  not  less  than  a  dollar.  The  general 
market  quotations  run  from  $1  to  $50  per  pole.  The  wise  owner 
of  a  catalpa  plantation  thins  his  stand  for  posts  and  stakes,  holding 
his  best  trees  until  they  command  the  prices  of  ties  or  telegraph 
poles.  The  wood  is  as  durable  as  any  timber  known.  It  is  not 
inferior  when  most  rapidly  grown,  as  many  woods  are.  While 
the  large  trees  are  maturing,  young  ones  are  coming  on  from 
stumps.     The  plantation  is  thus  a  permanent  forest. 

Hardy  catalpa  is  successfully  grown  on  the  deep,  porous 
soil  of  eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  south  into  Arkansas,  and 
east  to  the  Wabash  Valley.  Outside  of  this  catalpa  belt,  locust, 
osage  orange  and  Russian  mulberry,  all  quick-growing  post  and 
tie  timbers,  are  beginning  to  be  commercially  grown.  Tamarack, 
473 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

bur  oak,  white  and  green  ash,  grow  farther  north.  Black  walnut, 
post  and  white  oak,  and  the  red  juniper  are  all  worth  growing 
for  profit  in  the  states  bordering  the  Missouri.  In  fact,  the 
whole  upper  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  in  need  of  tree  planting 
to  supply  the  local  needs  in  the  next  two  or  three  decades,  until 
a  definite  forest  policy  is  adopted.  There  will  be  demand  for 
all  such  tree  crops,  as  long  as  wooden  posts  and  ties  and  poles 
are  used. 

EUCALYPTUS    PLANTATIONS 

The  "blue  gum"  is  but  one  of  forty  species  of  the  Australian 
genus.  Eucalyptus,  which  have  been  naturalised  in  this  country. 
In  the  tree-planting  experiments  of  California  and  the  semi-arid 
Southwestern  States  these  immigrant  trees  are  comparable  to 
the  catalpa  in  Kansas.  They  are  propagated  from  seeds,  which 
are  light  and  abundant.  They  grow  with  astonishing  vigour 
and  rapidity,  sprouting  from  the  stump  indefinitely.  Most  of 
them  have  very  hard  wood,  and  its  durability  under  water  and 
in  the  soil  justifies  the  growing  of  it  for  paving  blocks,  railroad 
ties,  posts,  telegraph  poles  and  piles  for  wharves.  Some  species 
have  wood  like  hickory,  used  for  tool  handles,  implements  of 
agriculture  and  vehicles.     Much  is  consumed  as  fuel. 

Added  to  the  wood  value  of  these  trees  are  such  products 
as  gums  and  resins  useful  in  medicine  and  in  the  arts.  The  oil 
expressed  from  the  leaves  is  exceptionally  valuable  in  the  drug 
trade.  The  flowers  of  many  species  furnish  copious  bee  pastur- 
age. The  trees  have  beautiful  evergreen  leaves,  graceful  habit, 
handsome  bark,  and  finally,  curious,  nut-like  fruits — all  char- 
acters that  give  the  trees  popularity  among  available  ornamental 
kinds.  As  a  forest  cover  and  a  windbreak  the  eucalypts  have  a 
serious  work  to  do.  Denuded  slopes  that  threatened  the  exhaus- 
of  water  supply  have  been  planted  with  these  trees  with  most 
gratifying  results.  They  have  drained  swamps,  thus  removing 
miasma  and,  as  many  believe,  improving  the  climate  in  other 
tangible  ways. 

Waste  larid  planted  to  blue  gum  (Eucalyptus  globosus)  is 
transformed  in  five  years  into  a  beautiful  grove  from  which  fuel 
may  be  cut.  Successive  clean  cuttings,  six  to  eight  years  apart, 
are  followed  by  sprouting  from  the  stumps.    An  average  yield 

474 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

of  an  acre  in  this  wood  harvest  is  sixty  cords  of  four-foot  wood. 
"One  seventeen-acre  grove  near  Los  Angeles,  set  in  1880  and 
cut  for  the  third  time  in  June,  1900,  produced  1,360  cords,  an 
average  of  eighty  cords  per  acre.  On  poor  land  the  yield  is  only 
a  third  to  a  half  the  above  amount.  In  a  grove  near  Pasadena 
set  in  1885  and  cut  for  fuel  in  1893,  there  were  in  July,  1900, 
some  trees  two  feet  in  diameter  and  many  over  one  hundred 
feet  in  height." — Bulletin  No.  35,  Bureau  of  Forestry. 

Hon.  Elwood  Cooper  has  200  acres  of  broken  land  planted 
to  several  species  of  gums.  He  estimates  that  he  can  cut  1,000 
cords  a  year  indefinitely  without  detracting  from  the  appearance 
of  his  groves  or  from  their  usefulness  in  other  ways.  Fuel  brings 
$3  to  I5  per  cord  in  the  local  markets.  The  depletion  of  the 
natural  forests  in  many  sections  of  the  Southwest  has  made  a  fuel 
famine,  which  the  Eucalyptus  has  averted.  In  some  places  the 
oily  leaves,  pressed  into  bricks  with  crude  oil,  have  proved  an 
acceptable  fuel  for  cooking.  It  is  as  timber  that  these  trees 
bring  the  highest  prices.  Masts,  piles,  bridge  timbers  and  tele- 
graph poles,  tall,  straight,  hard  and  durable — these  are  in  demand 
at  good  prices.  The  best  Eucalyptus  produces  in  but  twenty 
years  a  log  equal  to  an  oak  that  takes  200  years  to  grow.  Blue 
gum  lasts  twice  as  long  as  redwood  and  Douglas  spruce  in  the 
piers  of  Santa  Barbara  and  other  coast  cities. 

Eucalyptus  oil  and  eucalyptol,  distilled  from  the  fresh  leaves, 
form  important  by-products  when  trees  are  cut  down.  One 
ton  of  leaves  yield  500  ounces  of  oil.  This  is  extensively  used  in 
lung  and  throat  troubles,  and  is  proving  beneficial  in  the  treat- 
ment of  many  other  disorders. 

WHITE-PINE    PLANTATIONS 

"Between  the  years  1820  and  1880  was  a  period  of  enthu- 
siastic white-pine  planting  in  New  England.  Men  were  then  able 
to  foresee  the  time  when  the  marketable  native  white  pine  would 
be  gone,  and  the  rise  in  prices  would  make  the  planted  timber  of 
economic  importance.  ...  At  the  end  of  this  period  there 
were  said  to  be  in  Massachusetts  alone  forest  plantations  of 
white  pine  to  the  extent  of  10,000  acres.  About  1880  the  interest 
began  to  decline,  largely  because  it  was  found  possible  to  bring 
lumber  from  the  immense  supply  in  the  region  of  the  Great 

475 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

Lakes  at  a  lower  transportation  rate  than  was  expected." — 
Bulletin  45,  Bureau  0}  Forestry,  1903. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  pine  planting  in  New  England  has 
been  going  on  for  almost  a  century.  The  Bureau  of  Forestry 
has  made  careful  investigations  of  various  tracts,  and  publishes 
facts  and  figures  which  prove  that  land  that  is  worthless  for 
ordinary  agriculture  has  yielded  valuable  crops  of  timber,  and 
this  in  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  years  after  planting.  Individual 
plantations  in  various  states  have  furnished  the  data  embodied 
in  the  bulletins,  published  for  the  guidance  and  encouragement 
of  landowners  who  are  uncertain  as  to  the  best  way  of  employing 
unproductive  tracts. 

The  planting  of  pine  has  proved  profitable  on  five  types 
of  land:  (i)  watersheds,  (2)  sand  barrens  and  dunes  along 
the  seashore,  (3)  bare  and  worn-out  land,  (4)  cut-over  forest 
land,  and  (5)  woodlots.  Water  companies  and  the  state  at  large 
are  benefited  by  the  planting  of  trees  at  the  headwaters  of  streams. 
Shifting  sand  held  by  tree  roots  and  accumulating  the  leaves 
and  other  debris  of  tree  growth,  is  converted  into  good  soil.  So 
is  worn-out  land  of  any  kind.  Growing  trees  enrich  the  soil 
that  feeds  them.  These  types  of  reforestation  are  justified, 
even  if  the  trees  do  nothing  but  hold  the  soil  and  restore  it  to 
fertility. 

The  raising  of  a  crop  of  trees  has  been  the  main  object  in 
planting  the  last  two  types  of  ground.  In  the  three  species 
before  mentioned  examples  are  numerous  to  prove  that  trees 
set  out  for  other  purposes  have  served  these  purposes  well,  and 
yielded  a  valuable  lumber  crop  beside.  There  have  been  failures, 
many  of  them,  but  they  are  traceable  in  most  cases  to  ignorance 
or  neglect.  White  pine  grows  in  a  white-pine  country  if  it  has 
half  a  chance. 

An  encouraging  fact  for  the  planter  to  contemplate  is  that 
he  may  reap  the  harvest  of  his  own  sowing.  It  takes  only  thirty- 
five  years  to  grow  marketable  pine.  If  the  land  is  good  and  well 
prepared  the  trees  grow  faster  and  are  of  better  quality  in  a  given 
time.  Better  timber  is  produced  by  pruning  the  trees,  thinning 
them  and  cutting  when  the  trees  are  big  enough  for  first-class 
lumber.  For  this  they  must  grow  sixty  years  or  more.  The 
father  must  plant  for  his  sons  to  reap  this  harvest.  No 
better  legacy,  no  more  judicious  investment  could  be  made 
476 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

ihan  this.  A  few  years  doubles  the  value  of  a  plantation  thus 
coming  on. 

About  1835  ^r.  F.  A.  Cutter,  of  Pelham,  New  Hampshire, 
took  charge  of  a  farm  on  which  there  was  a  forty-acre  tract 
seeded  to  white  pine  by  a  few  old  trees.  He  determined  to  care 
for  it  properly.  As  need  was,  the  trees  were  thinned,  the  weakest 
removed  to  give  room  for  the  others  to  grow.  A  close  forest 
crown  of  foliage  was  maintained  to  prevent  the  trees  from  spread- 
ing by  side  branches.  Every  year  an  acre  was  gone  over  and 
the  trees  pruned  of  their  branches  as  high  as  the  hand  axe 
could  reach.  This  prevented  the  formation  of  large  knots, 
and  enhanced  the  value  of  the  timber.  A  second  pruning  all 
around,  and  continuous  thinning  kept  the  tract  in  good  health 
and  growth. 

That  tract  has  recently  yielded  a  harvest  which  averages 
25,000  feet,  B.  M.,  per  acre.  The  father  sowed  and  his  son 
reaped  1,000,000  feet  of  prime  white-pine  lumber  from  forty 
acres!  This  is  five  times  the  average  yield  in  the  Michigan 
pineries.  !t  proves  that  husbandry  in  a  crop  of  trees  is  rewarded 
as  certainly  as  in  a  crop  of  corn. 

Another  lot  on  the  same  farm  has  a  stand  of  white  pine  on 
it  about  sixty  years  old  that  experts  estimate  will  cut  200,000 
feet  of  lumber.    The  average  log  measures  over  sixty  feet. 

In  the  Massachusetts  town  of  Tyngsborough  is  a  plot  of 
fifty-three  acres  that  was  a  rye  field  within  the  memory  of  men 
now  living.  It  grew  up  to  young  white  pine,  and  was  bought 
for  $400.  The  timber  is  not  yet  of  marketable  age,  though  by 
selection  the  owner  has  taken  out  over  600,000  feet  of  lumber 
during  his  life.  His  estate  was  recently  appraised,  and  the  stand 
of  pine  estimated  at  100,000  feet.  As  white  pine  is  becoming 
scarcer  and  the  demand  for  it  urgent,  the  price  has  risen 
steadily. 

Hon.  J.  D.  Lyman,  of  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  gives  the 
reasons  for  his  success  with  white  pine.  He  gathers  cones  in 
early  September,  spreads  them  in  a  dry,  airy  room,  and  when 
they  open  beats  out  the  seeds.  This  is  about  a  fortnight  after 
they  are  gathered.  He  prefers  to  sow  the  seed  at  once  in  beds. 
For  three  years  the  young  seedlings  are  cultivated,  lath  screens 
protecting  them  from  the  hot  sun.  Then  they  are  ready  to  set 
out.     If  they  are  to  grow  unpruned  and  be  cut  at  forty  years 

477 


Profitable    Tree  Planting 

or  SO  for  boxboards  they  are  set  nine  or  ten  feet  apart  each  way. 
If  clear  timber  of  the  best  quaUty  is  desired,  they  are  set  four 
feet  apart  each  way  so  that  they  will  grow  tall  and  lose  their 
lower  limbs.  This  kind  of  timber  requires  longer  time  to  grow, 
and  it  must  be  pruned  and  thinned  as  it  needs  it.  The  price 
it  brings  is  higher.  Access  to  market  and  cost  of  the  necessary 
labour  determine  which  course  to  pursue.  Mr.  Lyman  believes 
that  a  thickly  planted  young  forest  properly  thinned  will  in  fifty 
years  produce  as  much  lumber  as  it  would  produce  in  twice  that 
time  if  left  unthinned. 

Hon.  Augustus  Pratt  of  Massachusetts  once  planted  thirteen 
acres  of  blueberry  thicket  to  white  pines.  It  took  one  man  eight 
days  to  do  it.  Forty  years  later  he  went  in  and  cut  from  eight 
acres  between  forty  and  forty-five  cords  of  box-board  logs  which 
he  sold  at  the  mill  for  $6  per  cord.  He  got  considerable  fuel 
out  of  the  tops.  The  five  acres  remaining  he  held  untouched 
for  a  few  years — then  sold  them  for  more  than  $1,000. 

A  small  pine  forest  in  Enfield,  Connecticut,  is  noteworthy. 
Two  quarts  of  pine  seed  per  acre  were  sown  in  September  broad- 
cast with  rye  on  the  worn-out  sand  plain,  which  had  been  first 
ploughed  and  harrowed,  then  rolled.  No  further  attention  was 
paid  to  either  crop.  The  rye  shaded  the  seedlings  as  long  as 
they  required  shade.  The  slow,  imperfect  growth  achieved  is 
not  what  it  would  have  been  if  Mr.  Cutter  had  had  it  in  his  care. 
But  the  soil  has  been  enriched  by  the  litter  of  the  forest,  and 
there  is  considerable  good  timber.  Desert  land  has  been 
reclaimed. 

Certain  facts  have  been  learned  from  the  study  of  white- 
pine  plantations.  They  are  worth  bringing  together  and  empha- 
sising. 

1 .  Cleared  land  is  the  best  for  a  pine  plantation. 

2.  Hilly,  rolling  or  level  land,  moderately  dry,  with  not  too 
dense  a  ground  cover,  is  best. 

3.  Swampy  land  will  not  do  at  all. 

4.  Land  v^ith  scattering  brush  gives  young  seedling  pines 
the  shade  they  need. 

5.  Land  thickly  set  with  stumps  of  hardwoods  which  produce 
dense  coppice  growth  will  kill  out  the  young  pines. 

6.  White  pine  grows  well  in  sandy  and  exposed  situations 
if  protected  from  the  direct  influence  of  salt  winds. 

478 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

7.  Seedlings  may  be  successfully  taken  from  the  forest. 

8.  Planted  white  pine  uncrowded  grows  faster  than  native 
pine  for  twenty  years,  perhaps  longer. 

9.  Trees  set  4  x  4  feet  apart  should  be  thinned  by  removing 
half  of  them  at  fifteen  years.  Set  4x6  feet,  remove  half  at 
thirty  years. 

10.  Pruning  lower  limbs  as  high  as  axe  can  be  used  converts 
third-grade  pine  trees  into  first  grade.  It  should  be  done  in  mid- 
summer, when  resin  will  cover  the  wounds  completely.  The 
trees  need  pruning  ten  years  after  planting.  They  will  be  fifteen 
feet  high,  with  lower  limbs  still  alive.  The  cut  should  be  clean 
and  close  to  the  bark. 

11.  It  pays  to  prune  only  trees  intended  for  first-class  lum- 
ber— trees  to  grow  at  least  sixty  years.  Knots  do  not 
lower  the  price  of  trees  cut  at  thirty  to  forty  years  for  box 
boards. 

12.  Chestnut,  rock  maple  and  red  oak  are  first-class  trees 
to  plant  with  white  pine.  They  furnish  protection  to  growing 
seedlings,  they  prune  the  pines  by  rubbing  lower  limbs,  and  are 
ready  for  removal  when  they  begin  to  crowd.  They  are  then 
big  enough  for  posts  and  fuel. 

13.  The  best  way  to  fix  shifting  sand  or  gravel  is  to  get  tree 
roots  established  in  it.  Washing  and  gullying  cf  the  soil  of 
farms  is  best  remedied  by  the  same  means.  Worn-out  soil  is 
best  restored  to  fertility  by  growing  a  crop  of  trees  on  it. 

An  estimate,  summarising  the  facts  obtained  by  the  special 
agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  and  averaging  the  actual  cost 
and  profits  of  intelligent  white-pine  culture  in  various  parts  of 
New  England,  is  herewith  set  down: 

Average  cost  of  land  per  acre $4.00 

Average  cost  of  raising  seedlings  and  planting       .        .      4.84 
Average  taxes  at  2  per  cent,  for  40  years    .        .        .        .3.20 

Total I12.04 

Compounding  interest  on  each  item  for  forty  years  brings 
the  total  cost  per  acre  to  I50.99.  An  average  yield  is  forty 
cords  of  box-board  timber  worth  $4  per  cord  from  each  acre. 
This  is  worth  on  the  stump  $160.  Deducting  the  cost,  $50.99,  a 
balance  of  $109.01  remains  as  net  profit.  This  is  a  net  annual 
return  of  $1.15  per  acre,  with  4  per  cent,  compound  interest 
479 


Profitable  Tree  Planting 

computed  for  forty  years.     Twenty  years  added  greatly  increases 
the  profits. 

The  New  England  farmer  cannot  help  the  Kansas  farmer, 
except  to  prove  that  principles  are  universal  in  application.  For- 
estry is  not  alone  for  the  corporation  and  the  state.  It  is  practic- 
able also  on  a  limited  area,  and  the  smaller  the  woodlot  the  more 
simple  the  problem  and  the  more  perfectly  it  may  be  solved 


480 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 

FRUIT    AND    AUTUMN    LEAVES    OF    FLOWERING    DOGWOOD     ^Cornus  Jlorlda) 


CHAPTER   IV:    THE  WOODLOT  THAT  PAYS 

One  might  think  the  farmer's  woodlot  unworthy  of  mention 
in  a  grave  conference  over  the  forest  problems  which  now  con- 
front the  American  people.  Yet  a  recent  census  report  gives 
630,000,000  acres  of  land  in  farms  in  the  United  States.  Of 
this,  200,000,000  acres  is  wooded,  almost  one-third  of  the  whole. 

From  this  vast  acreage  the  farmers  get  cordwood  to  burn 
and  to  sell.  They  haul  logs  to  the  sawmills  and  get  cash  or 
lumber  in  return.  Telegraph  and  telephone  poles,  posts,  railroad 
ties,  nuts,  Christmas  trees — all  these  are  sold  from  the  woodlot. 
Beside  fuel  and  fencing,  the  farmers  get  timbers  for  their  barns, 
sheds  and  corn  cribs.  Their  wagon  tongues,  axe  handles  and 
whiffletrees  are  largely  made  from  sticks  of  seasoned  timber^ 
furnished  by  the  woodlots.  If  strict  account  of  sales  were  kept 
and  credit  were  given  for  things  sold  and  used  at  home,  the  wood- 
lot  would  often  prove  itself  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  farm. 

The  passing  of  the  virgin  forests  is  but  a  matter  of  a  few 
years.  The  work  of  the  big  lumber  companies  is  about  done. 
Dearth  of  lumber  is  already  felt  in  a  marked  rise  of  prices.  The 
supply  of  pine  in  North  and  East  is  practically  exhausted.  The 
South  is  sacrificing  its  pine  forests  at  a  suicidal  rate.  White  oak, 
black  walnut  and  other  valuable  hardwoods  are  alarmingly 
scarce.  The  question  of  the  lumber  supply  for  the  future  has 
reached  a  critical  stage. 

The  reservation  of  public  lands  began  in  1891,  when  Congress 
authorised  the  President  to  withdraw  tracts  of  forest  from  sale 
and  occupation  by  settlers.  Fifty  million  acres  of  Western 
lands  have  thus  been  set  apart.  States,  too,  have  reserved 
lands,  with  the  aim  of  saving  forests  on  mountains  where  rivers 
take  their  rise.  They  have  undertaken  to  reforest  denuded 
areas.     Pennsylvania  furnishes  a  notable  instance  of  this. 

It  is  not  surprising  that   the   Department  of  Agriculture, 

fully  realising  the  close  relation  between  agriculture  and  forestry, 

and  the  dependence  of  the  farm  upon  its  woodlot,  has,  through 

the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  attacked  the  problem  strongly  on  this 

481 


The  Woodlot  that  Pays 

side.  It  is  proposed  to  prove  in  a  very  practical,  convincing 
way  that  it  pays  a  farmer  to  raise  wood.  No  radical  change, 
such  as  introducing  the  intensive  forestry  methods  of  European 
countries,  is  contemplated.  The  gradual  introduction  of  improved 
methods  suited  to  varied  American  conditions  is  the  plan.  This 
means  an  educative  process  that  must  move  slowly.  Every 
woodlot  is  a  miniature  forest.  The  smaller  the  forest  the  more 
simple  and  definite  the  problem  of  making  it  pay.  That  forest 
husbandry  pays  in  America  is  proved  by  numberless  examples 
of  farmers  working  out  plans  of  their  own  devising.  Large 
profits  have  been  realised  on  very  slight  investments  of  time 
and  money,  often  by  people  who  did  not  know  that  they  were 
practising  scientific  forestry.  The  plan  is  to  substitute  good  for 
bad  methods,  to  make  the  wood  harvest  pay  a  good  interest  on 
the  plot  as  an  investment,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the 
forest  in  good  condition,  and  year  by  year  to  increase  its  pro- 
ductivity. 

Any  farmer,  or  other  owner  of  a  woodlot,  may  place  it  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  free  of  cost.  The 
Bureau  sends  an  expert  forester  to  go  over  the  land  carefully. 
With  data  thus  obtained,  a  working  plan  is  formulated  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  owner.  If  it  is  accepted,  the  owner  carries  it  out 
under  the  supervision  of  the  forester  who  has  it  in  charge.  The 
owner  does  the  work,  or  hires  men  to  do  it.  He  receives  all 
money  returns.  The  Bureau  asks  only  that  the  plan  be  carried 
out  and  accurate  records  kept.  It  pays  the  expenses  of  its  agent's 
visit,  and  asks  nothing  for  his  services. 

The  agreement  entered  into  is  very  simple,  and  may  be 
abandoned  on  ten  days'  notice  by  either  party.  It  is  binding, 
therefore,  only  as  long  as  it  is  perfectly  satisfactory  to  both. 

The  owners  of  woodlands  need  instruction  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  property,  down  to  the  least  detail.  They  need 
definite,  typical  examples  of  what  has  been  accomplished  in 
their  own  section  of  the  country.  A  balance  sheet  is  a  very  con- 
vincing argument.  The  forester's  method  of  tackling  the  problem 
is  an  eye-opener  and  an  inspiration  to  the  average  farmer  of 
intelligence. 

In  exchange  for  the  making  and  supervising  of  these  woodlot 
plans  the  Department  obtains  a  body  of  facts  of  inestimable 
value.     The  various  sections  of  the  country  are  represented  by 

482 


The  Woodlot  that  Pays 

typical  woodlot  problems.  These  results  will  be  published  in 
bulletins.  Failures  will  teach  no  less  than  successes.  The  response 
to  the  government  offer  has  been  most  gratifying.  As  fast  as 
the  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  able  to  get  to  them  the  applications 
have  been  taken  up.  From  woodlots  to  state  forests,  the  plans 
include  tracts  of  widely  divergent  types  and  sizes.  They  prom- 
ise to  help  to  tide  over  the  expensive  experimental  stage  of  a 
vast  national  forest  policy. 

Bulletin  42  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  1903,  is  "A  Handbook 
for  Owners  of  Woodlands  in  Southern  New  England."  It  is  full 
of  practical,  every-day  advice  for  practical,  every-day  men.  it 
is  based  on  extensive  investigations  in  this  region.  It  urges  that 
the  following  steps  be  taken: 

I.  Thinning  in  woods  not  yet  mature  to  improve  the  con- 
ditions  for  growth,  and  to  utilise  material,  much  of  which  would 
otherwise  be  wasted. 

II.  Cutting  in  mature  woods  in  such  a  way  th"t  the  succeed- 
ing growth  will  follow  quickly,  will  be  composed  of  good  species, 
and  will  be  dense  enough  to  produce  not  only  trees  with  clear 
trunks,  but  also  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  wood  and  timber. 

III.  Pruning  which  is  only  practicable  under  certain  special 
conditions. 

IV.  Protecting  forest  property  against  fire  and,  in  some 
cases,  against  grazing. 

V.  Re-stocking  waste  land  by  planting,  or  sowing. 

These  are  practices  that  fit  any  region  and  any  woodlot. 
Under  them,  a  forest  is  returned  to  health  and  efficiency  of  pro- 
duction, from  a  state  of  poverty  wherein  every  cutting  harms 
rather  than  improves  it. 

"The  virgin  forest"  is  often  understood  to  be  a  synonym 
of  the  best  possible  stand  of  timber.  In  fact,  Nature  is  a  wasteful 
forester,  as  all  second-growth  woods  show  when  left  to  them- 
selves. Such  a  forest  as  the  state  of  Saxony  grows  for  papei 
pulp  reminds  one  of  a  field  of  grain.  The  spruces  stand,  tall 
and  slim  and  close,  and  without  a  weed,  bearing  at  eighty  years 
a  tree  crop  beside  which  a  patch  of  second-growth  trees  here  would 
look  like  volunteer  grain  come  up  by  chance  in  a  fallow  field. 
Gradually  we  shall  come  to  imitate  the  European  foresters  and 
demand  of  our  forest  lands  the  highest  possible  yield  and  quantity 
of  timber. 

483 


The  Woodlot  that  Pays 

The  following  suggestions  are  for  the  correction  of  abuses 
that  commonly  keep  woodlots  in  a  bad  condition.  Not  one  of 
them  is  hard  to  follow: 

1.  Don'i  let  ihe  woodlot  he  graced.  Browsing  destroys  young 
growth,  gnawing  injures  older  trees,  trampling  packs  and  hardens 
the  leaf  mould,  kills  seedlings  and  prevents  seed  germination. 

2.  Don't  burn  the  wood's  floor  over.  It  destroys  the  rich 
leaf  mould,  main  food  of  trees;  it  causes  the  soil  to  cake  and  dry; 
it  injures  the  old  trees  and  kills  the  young  ones;  it  makes  inroads 
of  fungi  and  insects  easy. 

3.  Destroy  dead  and  dying  trees  and  rubbish.  They  are  full 
of  diseases  that  infect  sound  timber.  They  harbour  insects. 
They  invite  and  spread  fires. 

4.  Remove  gnarled  and  otherwise  imperfect  trees  that  over- 
shadow young  growth. 

5.  Take  out  undesirable  kinds  of  trees  and  give  better  kinds 
their  places. 

6.  Plan  to  have  a  tree  fall  so  as  to  injure  as  little  as  possible 
the  surrounding  trees.  "Brushing  out"  around  a  tree  and  its 
final  fall  often  destroy  its  natural  successors. 

7.  Cut  with  low  stumps.  This  is  economy,  and  \vith  trees 
that  sprout  from  the  stump  it  gives  the  sprout  close  connection 
with  the  root  system  which  in  time  becomes  its  own. 

8.  Make  smooth,  slanting  cuts  for  stump  reproduction.  If 
the  cut  is  ragged  (through  wood  or  bark)  or  trough-shaped,  it 
accumulates  water  which  induces  decay.  Sprout  timber  after 
such  cutting  is  mostly  unsound  at  the  butt,  and  useless  except 
as  fuel. 

9.  Plant  young  trees  raised  in  the  garden  or  transplanted  from 
the  woods  in  open  spaces  in  the  woodlot. 

10.  Sow  seeds  of  desirable  kinds  where  they  will  improve  the 
stand.  Pick  up  white-oak  acorns  and  walnuts  and  hickory  nuts, 
push  them  into  the  leaf  mould,  one  here,  one  there,  and  step  on 
them.  Treat  thus  the  thinly  planted  parts  of  your  woods.  It 
takes  thought  but  very  slight  expense  of  time  or  work,  to  do  a 
great  deal  of  this  supplementary  forest  planting. 

1 1 .  Leave  seed  trees  of  good  kinds,  when  cutting  logs  or  cord- 
wood.     They  will  save  you  a  great  deal  of  work. 

12.  Plant  waste  land  with  trees.  On  almost  every  farm  is 
some  land  that  is  non-productive.     It  may  wash  in  rainy  weather. 

484 


The  Woodlot  that   Pays 

Or  it  may  be  too  rocky  to  plough,  or  too  sandy,  or  have  too 
much  clay.  It  will  always  grow  trees.  Stop  trying  to  farm  it. 
Let  Nature  clothe  it  and  make  good  soil  of  it.  It  will  add  to  the 
value  of  the  place  in  the  eyes  of  any  prospective  buyer,  in  addition 
to  the  timber  it  produces.  It  will  convert  a  blemish  into  a  beauty 
spot. 

'  13.  Study  local  lumber  markets.  Is  there  a  pulp  mill  or  a 
tannery  in  your  neighbourhood?  Then  spruce  and  hemlock 
are  paying  crops.  Poplars  and  basswood  bring  good  prices  at 
paper  mills.  Birches  pay  near  a  toy  or  spool  factory.  Hickory 
and  ash  are  in  great  demand  in  vehicle  and  implement  factories. 
Walnut,  maple,  oak  and  cherry  bring  good  prices  where  furniture 
is  manufactured.  Fuel  commands  good  prices  near  large  cities; 
so  do  Christmas  trees.  In  a  newly  developing  country,  telegraph 
poles,  fence  posts  and  railroad  ties  are  in  brisk  demand.  Pine 
and  many  other  staple  lumber  trees  are  a  safe  crop  at  any  time. 

It  is  almost  as  easy  to  grow  good  trees  as  poor  ones,  to  cut 
out  the  right  ones  as  the  wrong  ones,  to  cut  down  a  tree  properly 
as  to  do  it  improperly.  A  bit  more  time  and  thought,  only,  and 
the  result  is  a  vast  improvement.  Leave  a  sprout  forest  to  itself 
and  you  get  defective,  crooked  trees  unfit  for  any  use  but  fuel. 
Take  out  some  of  the  sprouts  and  the  rest  grow  at  greatly  acceler- 
ated speed  into  straight  trees  bringing  much  higher  prices.  An 
increased  yield  of  20  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent,  is  recorded  in  ex- 
periments made  by  farmers  working  at  odd  days  with  no  outside 
help.  The  farmer's  great  advantage  is  that  during  the  winter 
he  has  leisure  to  improve  his  woodland,  and  with  boys  to  help  him, 
need  hire  no  labour.  Then,  too,  a  series  of  improvements  may 
extend  over  a  period  of  years.  Harvesting  is  always  to  be  done 
as  a  part  of  the  maintenance  of  the  woodlot.  This  means  a 
constant  income.  It  is  the  man  who  goes  to  his  woodlot  only 
to  chop  and  haul  out  poles  and  firewood  that  gets  the  lowest  rate 
of  interest  on  his  investment,  and  who  declares  truthfully  that  his 
woodlot  doesn't  pay. 


485 


CHAPTER   V:     TRANSPLANTING  TREES 

FROM    THE    WOODS 

Perhaps  it  is  a  primitive  instinct,  though  it  is  a  defensible 
and  lovable  one,  that  impels  the  home-maker  to  straighten  his 
back  after  digging  an  ample  hole  in  the  ground  and  betake  him  to 
the  woods  to  get  a  tree  to  set  out  in  it.  The  handsomest  and  the 
most  grotesque  of  cultivated  trees  came  originally  from  the  wilds, 
somewhere  and  at  some  time. 

GDmpetition  is  sharp,  and  growth  slow  in  thickly  settled 
places.  A  little  tree  that  grows  in  the  open  has  the  best  chance 
for  symmetry  and  normal  development.  The  roots  are  not  tangled 
with  others.  Choose  it,  unless  it  be  one  of  those  tap-rooted 
kinds  whose  probings  extend  deeper  than  strength  and  patience 
can  dig.  If  it  is  one  of  the  fibrous-rooted  tribe,  dig  on,  in  all 
carefulness  and  faith.  Cut  a  circle  as  wide  as  the  tree's  crown. 
This  will  leave  most  of  the  roots  in  the  earth  ball.  There  is 
tough  sod  above,  which  you  will  discard  when  the  planting  is 
finished.  It  helps  to  hold  the  earth  intact  now.  It  is  a  long 
job,  but  at  last  the  tree  is  loose,  and  an  extra  bucketful  of  its 
familiar  earth  may  be  dug  out  for  use  in  planting.  A  wheel- 
barrow or  a  stone  boat  brings  the  tree  home;  and,  if  equal  care 
surrounds  the  ceremonial  of  planting,  it  need  never  know  of 
the  change.  Most  trees  submit  to  transplanting  as  if  it  were  no 
ordeal.  The  safest  way  is  to  move  them  in  their  sleep — before 
the  spring  awakening,  and  while  the  earth  is  still  solid  and  dry 
about  the  roots. 

The  capricious  ones  with  long  tap  roots  and  few  bi4shy  side 
branches  must  have  special  treatment.  Small  trees  only  are 
safely  moved.  It  is  wise  to  select  the  tree  a  year  beforehand,  and 
to  cut  off  its  tap  root  by  a  thrust  of  a  sharp  spade  at  a  moderate 
depth.  It  is  thus  forced  to  branch  above  the  cut,  and  the  next 
spring  you  know  just  how  deep  to  dig  to  get  this  new  root  system. 

The  magnolias  and  the  tulip  tree  have  fleshy,  brittle  roots 
which  are  easily  bruised  and  broken  it  carelessly  handled.     Most 

486 


Transplanting  Trees 

evergreens  die  if  their  roots  are  exposed  to  the  air.  Yet  all  are 
successfully  transplanted  if  pains  are  taken.  The  rhododendrons 
on  Southern  mountains  are  brought  by  carloads  to  Northern 
estates  where  they  are  set  out  with  a  loss  of  less  than  one  per  cent. 
Evergreens  of  middle  age  and  large  size  are  successfully  trans- 
planted in  the  growing  season.  It  requires  careful  work  and 
proper  mechanical  appliances  to  do  these  things,  but  there  is  no 
secret  method.  Whatever  grows  in  the  neighbouring  woods  may 
be  safely  trusted  to  thrive  in  home  grounds  unless  violent  changes 
in  soil,  shade  and  moisture  conditions  are  made.  Even  then, 
some  surprises  are  in  store  for  the  experimenting  planter.  Such 
water-loving  trees  as  black  ash,  cottonwood,  willow,  sycamore 
and  red  maple  do  well  in  upland  soil.  Where  transplanting  from 
the  wild  is  practicable,  one  is  justified  in  experimenting  at  the 
cost  of  occasional  failure.  It  is  a  part  of  wild  gardening;  it  has  a 
piquant  charm  that  can't  be  bought  with  money.  "Cheaper  at 
the  nursery,"  calls  a  neighbour,  but  the  man  with  the  spade  and 
wheelbarrow  goes  along  to  the  woods.     This  is  his  heart's  holiday. 

Trees  differ  by  families  and  species  in  the  tenacity  of  their 
hold  on  life.  Those  with  a  tendency  to  strike  root  from  joints 
of  the  stem  bear  much  abuse  of  roots.  Such  are  most  willows 
and  poplars,  basswood,  osage  orange  and  mulberry.  In  general, 
trees  with  many  fibrous  roots  are  most  successfully  transplanted. 
If  the  main  branches  are  short  and  extend  laterally,  making  a 
shallow  but  dense  root  system,  the  chances  are  best.  If  there 
is  a  long  tap  root  going  straight  down,  with  but  sparse  side  branches 
for  feeding  roots,  difficulties  and  danger  beset  the  transplanting. 
The  maples  and  elms  illustrate  the  first  class;  hickories  and  white 
oaks  the  second.  "You  can't  transplant  an  oak  too  early  nor 
an  elm  too  late,"  is  Evelyn's  assurance,  very  old  but  still  true. 

A  comparatively  recent  discovery  is  that  certain  families  of 
plants  depend  for  their  soil  food  upon  the  ministrations  of  fungi, 
whose  threads  invest  the  rootlets  completely,  and  have  long  been 
mistaken  for  the  root  hairs  themselves.  So  intimate  is  the  contact 
of  this  mycorhiia  with  the  rootlets  that  the  crude  sap  absorbed 
by  the  fungus  from  the  soil  is  conducted  to  the  leaves  for  manu- 
facture into  sugar  and  starch.  The  return  current  of  sap  nourishes 
not  only  the  plant  above  ground  and  its  root  system,  but  also 
the  mycorhiza,  which  has  no  green  tissues,  and  therefore  no  way 
of  elaborating  plant  food  taken  in  the  raw  state.     Each  organism 

487 


Transplanting  Trees 

serves  the  other's  vital  need.  Without  the  fungus  the  tree 
would  probably  die,  and  vice  versa. 

The  beech  exhibits  this  notably  among  trees.  So  do  the 
oaks,  most  of  the  conifers,  and  even  certain  of  the  willows  and 
poplars.  The  great  heath  family,  including  laurels,  rhododen- 
drons, wintergreen  and  trailing  arbutus,  are  believed  to  exhibit 
this   "symbiosis,"  or  interdependence  between  fungi  and  roots. 

Moving  such  trees  is  precarious  work,  because  the  welfare 
of  both  tree  and  fungus  must  be  looked  after.  If  the  mycorhiza 
dries  out,  the  tree  dies.  If  the  tree  is  planted  in  soil  destitute 
of  this  fungus,  that  brought  in  the  earth  ball  often  proves  in- 
adequate to  the  demands  of  the  treetop.  Most  trees  of  this 
typ2  grow  naturally  in  great  colonies,  crowding  out  other  kinds. 
The  soil  under  beech  woods  is  one  great  network  of  delicate 
fungous  threads.  An  isolated  beech  tree  taken  to  your  garden 
sustains  a  great  shock  and  a  trying  deprivation.  No  wonder 
trailing  arbutus  usually  dies  in  domestication.  The  range  of 
species  exhibiting  symbiosis  is'  not  very  definitely  known  yet. 
It  is  certainly  very  large,  and  students  are  busy  upon  the  problem. 
Many  plants,  however,  feed  with  their  own  roots,  and  are  therefore 
independent  of  organisms  in  the  soil.  So  far  as  we  know,  most 
trees  belong  to  the  latter  class. 

The  whole  philosophy  of  transplanting  is  the  keeping  of  the 
root  system  in  ignorance  of  the  change.  The  ideal  way  is  to 
save  all  the  roots.  The  practical  way  is  to  save  as  many  as 
possible. 

The  trunk  roots  and  their  branches  are  important  as  a  frame- 
work to  support  the  tree  in  the  ground  and  the  rootlets  at  their 
extremities.  But  only  the  season's  rootlets  absorb  plant  food. 
Next  year  they,  too,  will  pass  the  feeding  function  on  to  newer 
filaments  of  more  delicate  structure.  The  year-old  roots  become 
conductors  but  no  longer  gatherers  of  food.  Each  year's  growth 
underground  has  had  its  turn,  since  the  main  branches  were  the 
tender  first  branchings  of  the  radicle  of  the  germinating  seed. 

FROM   THE    NURSERY 

Nursery  trees  have  been  grown  in  rich  soil  and  cultivated  as 
they  grew.  Their  root  systems  are,  or  should  be,  compact  because 
the  trees  have  been    transplanted  yearly  in   the  nursery  rows. 


Transplanting  Trees 

First-class  trees  cost  a  little  more  than  second-class,  but  are 
cheaper  in  the  end. 

Nursery  trees  are  delivered  for  fall  or  spring  planting.  If 
in  fall,  they  should  come  early  enough  for  the  roots  to  become 
established  in  the  ground  before  winter.  For  spring  planting 
they  should  arrive  early  enough  to  be  planted  and  have  the  ad- 
vantages of  early  sunshine  and  shower  in  getting  a  good  start 
during  this  first  year  in  their  permanent  places. 

Nurserymen  ship  trees  in  boxes  or  bundles,  tied  securely, 
their  roots  wrapped  in  damp  straw  or  other  protective  covering. 
It  is  too  expensive  to  ship  much  dirt.  Trees  often  arrive  before 
it  is  fit  weather  to  plant  them.  The  care  of  them  during  this 
interval  is  important.  They  should  be  "puddled"  and  "heeled 
in."  Before  the  boxes  are  unpacked,  and  the  bundles  loosened 
by  cutting  their  cords,  a  trench  is  dug  with  a  sloping  side  away 
from  prevailing  winds.  A  pot  hole  is  dug  and  a  thin  batter  of 
mud  prepared  in  it.  Into  this  puddle  the  trees  are  dipped,  a  few 
at  a  time,  and  stirred  about  until  every  root  has  a  mud  coating. 
Now  they  are  laid  in  the  trench,  their  tops  away  from  the  wind, 
and  a  cover  of  earth  shovelled  over  the  roots.  In  this  trench  they 
are  safe  and  comfortable  until  planting  time  comes. 

Below  are  some  rules  for  tree  planting.  They  apply  to  all 
trees,  and  involve  considerable  more  painstaking  than  some  trees 
demand.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  man  who  expects  the 
best  results  will  dare  to  take  less  time  and  trouble  than  is  here 
advised.  After  all,  it  is  almost  as  easy  to  plant  a  tree  right  as  to 
plant  it  wrong.  If  it  is  worth  while  to  iirvest  in  a  tree  at  all  it  is 
worth  while  to  plant  it  well,  inasmuch  as  tree  planting  is  a  job 
which  if  done  well  need  not  be  done  over  for  a  century  or  two. 

HOW  TO   PLANT   A   TREE 

I.  Dig  the  hole  wider  and  deeper  than  the  tree  requires.  The 
root  tips  are  the  feeders,  and  they  cover  the  periphery  of  the' 
root  system.  They  will  reach  out  during  the  growing  season, 
forming  a  new  set  of  feeding  roots.  They  should  find  only 
mellow,  rich  soil  in  all  directions.  If  the  tree  just  fits  into  the 
socket,  its  roots  will  meet  a  hard  wall  which  the  delicate  tips 
cannot  penetrate  and  hold  fast  to,  nor  feed  in.  The  first  year  is 
the  critical  one. 

489 


'Transplanting  Trees 

[\.  Be  sure  that  the  surface  soil  is  hoarded  at  one  side  when 
the  hole  is  dug.  This  soil  is  mellow  and  full  of  plant  food.  The 
under  soil  is  more  barren  and  harder.  Some  rich  garden  soil 
can  well  be  brought  over  and  used  instead  of  this  subsoil. 

III.  Take  up  as  large  a  root  system  as  possible  with  the  tree 
you  dig.  The  smaller  the  ball  of  earth,  the  greater  the  loss  of 
feeding  roots  and  the  danger  of  starvation  to  the  tree. 

Prevent  the  drying  of  the  exposed  roots.  When  root  hairs  once 
shrivel  they  never  revive.  This  is  the  general  rule.  A  tree  may 
survive  but  be  greatly  debilitated  by  careless  handling  in  this 
particular. 

IV.  Trim  all  torn  and  broken  roots  with  a  sharp  knife.  A 
ragged  wound  above  or  below  ground  is  slow  and  uncertain  in 
healing.     A  clean,  slanting  cut  heals  soonest  and  surest. 

V.  Set  the  tree  on  a  bed  of  mellow  soil  with  all  its  roots  spread 
naturally. 

VI.  Let  the  level  be  the  same  as  before.  The  tree's  roots  must 
be  planted,  but  not  buried  too  deep  to  breathe.  A  stick  laid 
across  the  hole  at  the  ground  level  will  indicate  where  the  tree 
"collar"  should  be. 

VII.  Sift  rich  earth,  free  from  clods,  among  the  roots.  Hold 
the  tree  erect  and  firm.  Lift  it  a  little  to  make  sure  the  spaces 
are  well  filled  underneath.     Pack  it  well  down  with  your  foot. 

VIII.  //  in  the  growing  season,  pour  in  water  and  let  it  settle 
away.  This  establishes  contact  between  root  hairs  and  soil 
particles,  and  dissolves  plant  food  for  absorption.  If  the  tree 
is  dormant,  do  not  water  it. 

IX.  Fill  the  hole  with  dirt.  Tramp  in  well  as  filling  goes  on. 
Heap  it  somewhat  to  allow  for  settling.  If  subsoil  is  used,  put 
it  on  last.     Make  the  tree  firm  in  its  place. 

X.  Prune  the  top  to  a  few  main  branches  and  shorten  these. 
This  applies  to  a  sapling  of  a  few  years  whose  head  you  are  able 
to  form.  Older  trees  should  also  be  pruned  to  balance  the  loss 
of  roots.  Otherwise  transpiration  of  water  from  the  foliage  would 
be  so  great  as  to  overtax  the  roots,  not  yet  established  in  the 
new  place.  Many  trees  die  from  this  abuse.  People  cannot  bear 
to  cut  back  the  handsome  top,  though  a  handsomer  one  is  so 
soon  supplied  by  following  this  reasonable  rule. 

XI.  IVater  the  tree  frequently  as  it  first  starts.  A  thorough 
soaking  of  all  the  roots,  not  a  mere  sprinkling  of  the  surface  soil, 

490 


Transplanting  Trees 

is  needed.     Continuous  growth  depends  on  moisture  in  the  soil. 
Drainage  will  remove  the  surplus  water. 

XI 1.  Keep  the  surjace  soil  free  from  cakes  and  cracks.  This 
prevents  excessive  evaporation.  Do  not  stir  the  soil  deep  enough 
to  disturb  the  roots.     Keep  out  grass  and  weeds. 


491 


CHAPTER  VI:     HOW  TREES  ARE  MULTIPLIED 

Nature  begrudges  man  all  the  land  he  has  cleared  of  forests, 
and  if  he  relaxes  his  vigilance — lets  a  field  lie  fallow  a  year  or  two — 
the  forest  begins  to  encroach,  and  takes  it  back.  Every  year 
trees  flower  and  fruit,  and  young  saplings  come  up  wherever  there 
is  room  and  a  chance  in  the  woods.  But  here  there  is  crowding 
and  struggling  even  among  the  large  trees,  and  the  saplings  die 
unless  they  can  live  under  the  shade  of  larger  trees. 

I.      THE   NATURAL   WAY 

The  fortunate  trees  are  those  with  abundant  seeds,  so  light 
or  so  winged  that  they  can  sail  off  on  the  winds  and  fall  in  new 
places  less  crowded  than  the  forest.  The  birches  have  such 
seeds — little  heart-shaped  discs  with  thin,  papery  webs  on  their 
edges  all  around.  The  pencil-like  cones  are  packed  with  hundreds 
of  these  seeds,  and  the  trees  hang  full  of  cones.  What  wonder, 
then,  that  birches  so  often  follow  in  the  wake  of  the  lumbermen 
in  New  England  woods.  Pines  and  the  other  narrow-leaved 
evergreens  are  known  by  their  cones.  Have  you  ever  shaken  or 
beaten  the  seeds  out  of  an  opening  cone  of  white  pine?  This  is  a 
typical  conifer.  The  heavy  brown  seed  has  a  wing  by  which  the 
wind  carries  it.  That  very  field  now  grown  up  to  birches  was 
once  covered  with  virgin  forests  of  pine.  The  neighbouring 
woods  scatter  pine  seeds  with  birch  and  many  other  kinds.  The 
birch  gets  the  start.  But  in  a  few  years  you  will  see  the  little 
pines  coming  up  in  the  shade  of  the  birches.  The  "nurse  trees" 
are  short  lived;  they  give  way  in  time,  and  a  pine  forest  follows 
the  brief  sway  of  the  birches. 

Why  does  poplar  follow  pine  woods  in  many  places?  Note 
the  poplar  trees  in  early  June.  They  are  discharging  seeds  from 
long  strings  of  green  beads,  burst  open  and  turning  brown.  A 
puff  of  cottony  substance,  light  as  down,  encloses  each  minute 
seed.  There  are  millions  on  every  tree.  Wafted  forth,  these 
seeds   lodge  all   over   the   neighbourhood.     The  cleared  ground 

492 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

offers  an  opportunity.  They  spring  up  vigorously — a  poplar 
forest.  But  under  them  are  other  slower,  longer-lived  trees 
loving  the  shade  in  their  first  years,  but  prepared  to  replace  their 
poplar  nurses  in  due  season. 

Look  at  the  thin,  round  disc  of  the  elm  seed  and  you  will 
see  how  the  trees  cater  to  their  distributing  friend,  the  wind. 
How  copiously  the  tree  sheds  its  seeds  in  early  summer!  Notice 
the  young  elms  that  come  up  about  the  neighbourhood,  if  Nature 
is  let  alone.  Observe  the  keen-pointed,  winged  dart  an  ash  tree 
bears.  What  a  burden  of  seeds  one  tree  yields!  Watch  the 
tree  on  a  windy  day  in  October  and  on  into  winter.  Study  the 
winged  key  of  the  maples,  the  catalpa's  thousands  of  thin,  papery 
seeds  in  its  hundreds  of  long  pods  that  the  wintry  breezes  shake 
and  loosen  and  scatter  every  year.  How  much  the  willows' 
fuzzy  seeds  look  like  the  poplars' — for  willows  and  poplars  are 
own  cousins! 

How  different  is  the  wing  on  the  basswood's  cluster  of  woody 
balls.  The  wind  whirls  them  abroad  and  basswoods  come  up 
unexpectedly  here  and  there.  Sycamores  bang  their  balls,  and 
every  loosened  seed  sails  away  on  its  own  hairy  parachute.  The 
abundant  ailanthus  seed  is  balanced  on  a  tipsy  raft,  that  the 
wind  carries  long  distances.  The  hornbeam  seed  sails  in  a  shallop. 
The  hop  hornbeam  seed  is  shut  into  an  inflated  balloon.  The 
wind  is  the  staunch  ally  of  the  forest  in  its  policy  of  expansion. 

So  are  the  birds.  The  trees  with  fleshy  fruits  depend  upon 
them.  All  the  berries  with  small  seeds,  the  sassafras,  haws, 
Juneberries,  hackberries,  dogwoods,  mountain  ash,  hollies  and 
the  cedars  are  in  this  group;  cherries,  too,  and  apples  are  dis- 
tributed by  birds  to  some  extent.  The  larger  fruits  must  wait  for 
the  larger  creatures  of  the  woods;  they  carry  off  the  plums  for 
the  flesh  and  thin  nut-like  pits.  There  are  the  acorns  and  nuts 
that  fall  heavily,  rolling  down  hillsides,  if  the  parent  tree  is  on 
the  slope,  but  lodging  soon,  and  waiting  for  squirrels  and  their 
kin  to  come  and  carry  them  off.  The  animals  are  selfish  in  this 
hoarding  of  nuts.  They  do  not  mean  to  leave  one.  But  those 
that  are  hidden  in  the  runways  and  not  eaten,  after  all,  sprout 
the  next  spring,  and  so  the  old  nut  tree  is  parent  to  scattered 
offspring,  as  well  as  to  many  that  come  up  under  its  own  shadow. 
The  locusts  fling  their  pods  abroad  to  go  careening  over  snow- 
banks in  winter,  and  so  to  break  open  at  length  and  spill  their 

493 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

flinty  seeds.  The  witch  hazel  bursts  open  its  woody  pods  in 
October  and  the  seeds  are  shot  out  Hke  bullets  from  a  gun. 

Thousands  of  tree  seeds  are  sown  where  but  tens  may  hope 
to  germinate  and  grow.  Some  seeds  (e.  g.,  willow)  must  germinate 
at  once  or  they  lose  their  vitality  and  die.  Most  of  these  cannot 
start  unless  they  fall  in  very  moist  soil.  So  each  has  its  peculiar 
limitations,  and  these  keep  the  number  of  seedlings  down.  Fortu- 
nate kinds  are  not  particular  as  to  soil.  This  is  especially  true 
of  those  whose  seeds  will  wait  till  a  second  year  if  the  first  does 
not  offer  them  a  chance  to  grow. 

The  willows  illustrate  better  than  other  trees  another  method 
of  reproduction.  They  rise  superior  to  the  limitations  of  their 
feeble  seeds,  and  cast  off  twigs  which  strike  root  and  grow  into 
trees.  Many  willows  have  twigs  that  are  brittle  at  the  base. 
Touch  one  lightly  and  off  it  snaps  in  your  hand.  Every  wind 
breaks  off  these  natural  willow  cuttings  and  scatters  them. 
Stream  banks  are  lined  for  miles  with  trees  of  one  kind.  The 
twigs  floating  down  stream  lodged  and  grew.  Sandbanks  are 
covered  by  the  same  means.  Even  willow  posts  set  green  follow 
the  twig  habit  and  grow  into  trees.  Osage  orange  and  mulberry, 
poplar  and  basswood  root  quickly  as  cuttings.  Theoretically, 
any  plant  will  do  the  same.  In  practice,  few  trees  are  economically 
propagated  in  this  way. 

Young  chestnut  and  oak  trees  follow  old  ones  by  the  sprouting 
of  the  old  stumps.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  an  ancient  stump 
with  a  whorl  of  young  trees  circling  its  base — from  five  to  a  dozen 
of  them.  Foresters  call  this  the  coppice  method  of  renewing 
woodlands.  It  is  a  cheap  way  to  reproduce  timber.  These 
"suckers"  grow  rapidly,  for  they  have  the  whole  root  system  of 
the  parent  tree  to  feed  them.  Such  trees,  however,  are  short 
lived.  Most  of  the  familiar  hardwoods  sprout  from  the  stump  — 
maples,  elms,  beech,  ashes  and  locusts.  Also  the  softer-wooded 
birches,  basswoods,  willows  and  poplars.  The  only  conifers 
that  do  this  are  the  redwood  and  the  pitch  pine. 

It  is  common  to  see  a  white  poplar  or  a  Lombardy  poplar 
or  a  garden  plum  tree  growing  neglected  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd 
of  youngsters.  These  are  not  seedling  trees,  but  suckers  from 
the  parent  roots.  They  resemble  coppice  growth  where  they 
spring  out  close  to  the  tree's  "collar,"  but  they  have  not  waited 
for  the  removal  of  the  old  trunks.     Such  trees  are  nuisances  on  a 

494 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

lawn  or  in  a  fence  row.  However,  they  illustrate  one  more  of 
the  methods  that  trees  resort  to  to  insure  the  perpetuation  of 
their  kind.  In  the  race  for  life  the  trees  with  these  secondary 
means  of  propagation,  reinforcing  the  seed,  are  winners.  Con- 
sider, for  instance,  the  pines.  The  one  species  in  the  East  which 
comes  up  from  the  stump  is  the  pitch  pine.  It  rises  like  the 
Phoenix,  from  devastating  fires,  and  after  the  sawmill  has  de- 
parted, when  other  species  must  rely  on  seeds  alone.  The  result 
is  marked.  Though  not  the  most  valuable  Eastern  pine,  it  is 
the  one  best  able  to  hold  it?  own  in  the  race  for  life. 

By  seeds,  by  sprouts  and  by  cast-off  twigs  the  forest  has 
ever  renewed  its  youth  and  extended  its  boundaries.  By  these 
means  it  has  resisted  the  forces  which  work  toward  its  extermina- 
tion. 

II.      THE    ARTIFICIAL   WAY 

From  Nature  man  learned  the  three  ways  of  propagating 
plants:  by  seeds,  by  sprouts  and  by  cuttings;  and  he  invented 
grafting,  for  which  there  is  little  suggestion  in  Nature.  In  all 
these  he  improved  upon  Nature,  for  he  threw  his  energies  into 
one  single:  enterprise,  sacrificing  everything  to  its  success.  Look 
at  the  wild  fruit  trees  in  the  woods;  then  look  at  the  orchards, 
their  lineal  descendants.  Look  at  the  wild  grasses  scattered  over 
the  earth;  the  fields  of  grain  have  come  from  them.  Look  at 
the  scattered  cedars  in  an  old  pasture;  then  consider  the  serried 
ranks  of  them  in  the  forests  of  Germany,  standing  close  like 
rye  in  a  field,  waiting  for  the  harvest  that  converts  their  wood 
into  cedar  pencils.  The  forester  replants  the  ground,  cultivates, 
weeds,  thins  and  prunes  the  young  trees  for  another  harvest  a 
century  hence. 

The  growing  of  young  trees  from  seed  makes  a  large  nursery 
business  in  all  civilised  countries.  The  seed  is  selected  to  discard 
the  inferior  qualities.  The  growing  is  in  rows  that  are  cultivated. 
Again  the  poorest  are  discarded,  and  only  the  thrifty  seedlings 
transplanted.  When  set  in  their  permanent  places  they  are 
tended  and  defended  against  anything  that  encroaches  upon 
their  rights.  So  they  thrive,  and  yield  vastly  better  returns  than 
their  wild  relatives,  whose  life  is  a  long  fight  for  mere  existence. 

A  fallen  willow  twig  strikes  root.  Why  not  strip  the  tree 
to  its  trunk  and.  plant  every  bit?     It  is  done.    The  old  stump 

495 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

covers  itself  again  with  a  thicket  of  suckers,  and  every  twig  it 
lost  is  a  hale  yearling  tree  on  its  own  roots.  This  is  the  way  to 
get  willows  and  poplars  in  the  nursery  rows.  It  is  quicker  and 
surer  and  easier  than  planting  the  seed. 

Any  tree  that  sends  up  suckers  from  the  root  will  yield  young 
trees  as  fast  as  you  can  dig  them  up.  Loss  stimulates  the  parent 
tree  to  greater  feats  of  production. 

The  highest  form  of  tree  multiplication  is  grafting,  and  its 
kindred  practice,  budding.  It  is  among  the  oldest  arts,  dis- 
coursed upon  by  writers  since  the  dawn  of  literature.  It  consists 
in  setting  a  part  of  one  plant  upon  another  in  order  that  the  two 
may  become  united  by  growth  into  one  living  structure.  The 
rooted  plant  is  the  stock;  the  added  part,  a  piece  of  a  twig  with 
one  or  more  buds,  is  called  the  cion. 

Grafting  is  the  act  of  making  this  union.  The  graft  is  the 
union,  or  joint,  thus  formed.  Budding  is  essentially  the  same 
process.  The  difference  is  that  instead  of  a  cion  a  single  bud  is 
joined  to  the  stock,  only  enough  of  the  twig  being  used  to  give 
the  bud  a  foundation. 

The  object  of  grafting  and  budding  is  to  produce  a  tree 
whose  character  shall  be  twofold.  The  top  that  grows  above 
the  graft  or  bud  shall  have  the  better  fruit  or  other  character- 
istics of  the  tree  from  which  the  cion  or  bud  came.  The  stock 
retains  its  own  character,  for  example,  straight  growth,  deep 
root  system  or  resistance  to  diseases.  The  stock  is  the  nurse 
tree,  feeding  the  top,  which  flowers  and  fruits  after  its  own  kind. 
Its  leaves  and  mode  of  branching  are  characteristic  of  the  new, 
ingrafted  variety,  else  the  process  would  be  useless. 

Cultivated  trees  rarely  "come  true"  from  seed.  They 
"revert"  to  the  original  wild  species  from  which  varieties  have 
so  recently  sprung.  For  seedlings  change  their  natures  very 
gradually,  and  the  forming  of  varieties  in  plants  is  a  modern 
innovation,  compared  with  the  unnumbered  centuries  during 
which  seed  bearing  has  gone  on  in  the  wilds. 

Grafting  and  budding  serve  four  purposes:  i.  The  per- 
petuation of  a  desired  variety.  2.  The  multiplying  of  its  num- 
bers. 3.  The  production  of  dwarfs.  4.  The  production  of  hardy 
varieties. 

A  nurseryman's  business  is  largely  the  accomplishment  of 
these  ends,  and  the  supplying  of  planters  with  the  results  of  his 

496 


How   Trees  are   Multiplied 

labours.  Flowers  and  fruits  and  ornamental  plants  aie  his 
products.  Let  us  consider  an  illustration  ot  each:  i.  The 
bellflower  apple  is  a  choice  variety.  Mixed  seeds  from  a  cider 
mill  are  planted  in  the  nursery  rows.  They  come  up  as  little 
whips,  and  are  budded  with  buds  from  bellflower  trees.  What- 
ever their  lineage,  these  trees  will  be  bellflowers  when  they  come 
into  bearing,  for  the  whole  treetop  came  out  of  that  one  bellflower 
bud.  2.  The  number  of  young  trees  of  bellflower  a  nurseryman 
can  supply  depends  on  the  number  of  seedlings  he  buds  success- 
fully. An  old  tree  spares  hundreds  of  buds,  so  the  multiplication 
is  wonderfully  rapid.  3.  It  is  possible  to  dwarf  a  variety  by 
budding  or  grafting  it  upon  a  slow-growing  stock.  Thus,  the 
stunted  quince  is  used  as  a  stock  for  varieties  of  pears,  and  dwarfs 
result.  The  law  of  its  growth  enables  the  stock  to  curb  the 
ambitions  of  the  top.  4.  Tender-rooted  varieties  that  are  winter 
killed  in  cold  climates  are  often  made  hardy  by  grafting  them 
upon  stocks  of  native  kinds.  For  instance,  the  wild  plum  and 
the  sand  cherry  of  Dakota  and  Nebraska  are  successfully  grafted 
with  varieties  of  peaches,  apricots  and  Japanese  plums,  whicn 
have  failed  repeatedly  in  this  dry,  cold  region  "on  their  own 
roots."  Native  crabs  have  proved  good  stocks  for  imported 
varieties  of  apples.  Nursery  stock  is  oftener  budded  than  grafted, 
the  trees  being  but  yearling  whips,  as  a  rule.  Stone  fruits  arc 
generally  budded.  Apple  trees  are  commonly  budded  in  the 
East,  but  root  grafting  is  the  rule  in  Western  nurseries.  Older 
trees  are  grafted,  to  save  time  and  labour. 

"There  are  as  many  ways  of  grafting  as  there  are  of  whit- 
tling," a  wise  horticulturist  has  remarked.  The  object  in  each 
case  is  to  fit  the  cion  (or  bud)  to  the  stock  with  the  cambium  of 
the  two  in  close  contact.  A  tied  band  of  raffia  or  a  covering  of 
grafting  wax,  or  both,  excludes  the  air  and  injurious  substances 
and  holds  the  parts  securely. 

Cleft  grafting  is  very  common  in  changing  the  variety  ot  a 
fruit  tree.  For  other  methods  see  Bailey's  "Nursery  Book," 
or  any  other  horticulturist's  guide.  Cleft  grafting  is  typical. 
The  end  of  a  branch  is  sawed  squarely  off.  It  should  be  less  than 
two  inches  in  diameter.  A  special  grafting  knife  is  used  next. 
Its  blade,  set  across  the  stub,  is  driven  in  by  the  stroke  of  a  mallet. 
A  tooth  on  the  end  of  the  knife  is  inserted  in  the  split  thus  made, 
to  hold  the  cleft  open.     A  cion  is  inserted  at  each  end  of  the 

407 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

Split,  SO  that  there  may  be  two  chances  for  it  to  "stick"  fas<- 
and  grow,  instead  of  one.  Each  cion  is  a  bit  of  a  twig,  bearing 
two  or  three  buds,  and  sharpened  by  two  slanting  cuts  to  fit 
the  cleft  stub.  When  set,  there  should  be  a  bud  on  a  level  with 
the  top  of  the  stub.  It  should  be  held  tight  between  the  lips 
of  the  cleft,  by  the  "spring"  of  the  two  sides  (the  tooth  being 
removed  now),  and  the  green  cambium  of  cion  and  stock  should 
pinch.  Now  grafting  wax  is  moulded  about  the  graft  and  the 
work  is  complete. 

The  best  time  to  graft  is  just  before  the  buds  swell  in  the 
spring.  If  all  is  well,  leaves  will  shoot  upon  the  cions  as  April 
comes  on;  if  one  fails,  no  matter.  By  grafting  one-third  of  the 
limbs  each  year  for  three  years  the  whole  treetop  can  be  changed 
from  one  variety  to  another.  Several  varieties  may  be  grafted 
on  one  tree. 

Budding  is  usually  done  in  summer  or  early  fall.  Shield 
budding  is  the  common  nursery  method.  A  T-shaped  cut  through 
the  bark  of  the  slender  whip  is  made  on  the  north  side  just  above 
the  ground.  A  twist  of  the  knife  loosens  the  four  corners  of  the 
bark.  An  oval  bit  of  bark  with  a  bud  in  its  centre  is  cut  from  a 
twig  of  the  desired  variety;  a  leaf  stem  serves  as  a  convenient 
handle.  The  disc  of  bark  bearing  the  bud  is  slipped  down  under 
the  thin  flaps  of  bark  on  the  stock.  They  hold  the  bud  in  place 
against  the  cambium  of  the  stock.  A  wrapping  of  raffia  protects 
and  binds  the  wound.  It  is  cut  as  soon  as  the  bud  "sticks,"  or 
it  would  impede  the  growth.  The  stem  above  is  cut  off,  so  that 
the  treetop  formed  later  may  be  the  outgrowth  of  this  bud. 
Budding  is  usually  done  upon  seedlings  of  one  season's  growth, 
and  is  ordinarily  intrusted  to  an  expert,  with  a  helper  to  tie  the 
buds  he  sets.  A  record  of  three  thousand  buds  a  day  is  not  un- 
usual. 

Weeping  forms  are  propagated  by  grafting  cions  from  weep- 
ing trees  u]X)n  erect  stocks.  The  popular  notion  that  they  are 
produced  by  inserting  the  buds  upside  down  is  entirely  false. 
Horticultural  varieties  are  all  grafted,  e.  g.,  cut-leaved,  variegated, 
pyramidal  and  double-flowered  varieties  of  standard  species. 
These  peculiarities  are  originally  discovered  as  seedling  varia- 
tions in  the  nursery  rows  or  "freak"  branches  on  normal  trees. 
A  good  character  is  hoarded,  emphasised  and  multiplied;  then 
exploited  as  a  new  variety.     It  would  not  come  true  from  seed, 

498 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

even  if  it  appeared  first  in  a  seedling.     It  is  too  new  to  be  fixed, 
except  by  grafting  cions  from  the  original  tree. 

The  extent  to  which  grafting  and  budding  can  be  practised 
was  at  first  much  exaggerated.     Virgil  prophesied  thus: 

"Thou  shalt  lend 
Grafts  of  rude  arbute  unto  the  walnut  tree: 
Shalt  bid  the  unfruitful  plane  sound  apples  bear, 
Chestnuts  the  beech,  the  ash  blow  white  with  the  pear, 
And  under  the  elm,  the  sow  on  acorns  fare." 

Pliny's  report  of  "cherry  growing  upon  the  willow,  the  plane 
upon  the  laurel,  the  laurel  upon  the  cherry,  and  fruits  of  various 
tints  and  hues  all  springing  from  the  same  tree  at  once,"  is  like 
other  of  his  vain  imaginings, 

Abram  Cowley,  in  1666,  comes  nearer  the  truth,  as  he  should 
with  centuries  of  experience  to  lean  upon,  in  these  lines: 

"We  nowhere  Art  do  so  triumphant  see. 
As  when  it  Grafts  or  Buds  the  Tree; 

He  bids  the  ill-natur'd  Crab  produce 
The  gentle  Apple's  Winy  Juice 

He  does  the  savage  Hawthorn  teach 
To  bear  the  Medlar  and  the  Pear 
He  bids  the  rustic  Plum  to  rear 
A  noble  Trunk  and  be  a  Peach." 

The  modern  rule  of  "seed  on  seed  and  pit  on  pit'  is  embodied 
in  this  account.  The  species  named  are  all  in  the  same  botanical 
family  at  least.  Plums  are  budded  upon  peach  stocks  in  the 
South.  Peach-rooted  trees  thrive  better  in  the  hot,  sandy  soil 
than  plum-rooted  trees  do.  In  the  Northern  States  peaches  are 
budded  on  plum  stocks  which  are  hardier  in  the  native  kinds. 
Crab  apples,  native  to  various  regions,  prove  good  stocks  for 
introduced  varieties  of  apples. 

The  limits  of  grafting  are  not  very  well  defined  yet.  The 
safest  and  most  practicable  method  is  to  inter-graft  varieties  of 
one  species.  Remoter  relationships  admit  of  union  sometimes, 
as  the  peach  and  plum,  which  are  of  different  species;  by  some 
authorities  these  are  considered  of  different  genera.  The  moun- 
tain ash  has  served  as  a  stock  for  apples — again,  two  different 
genera.     But  these  instances  are  plainly  beyond  safe  limits. 

The  origination  of  new  varieties  by  hybridisation  is  an  entirely 

499 


How  Trees  are  Multiplied 

different  subject.  Its  variations  come  through  the  seeds.  Here 
the  pollen,  scattered  in  various  ways  when  plants  blossom,  falls 
on  the  pistils  of  flowers  somewhat  indiscriminately.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  wind-fertilised  flowers  which  produce  pollen  in 
abundance  and  of  a  dry,  powdery  sort.  The  pollen  lies  inert  on 
the  stigmas  of  alien  species.  It  fertilises  those  of  its  own  kind. 
There  are  intermediate  varietal  relationships  and  very  closely 
related  species  in  certain  families.  In  these  cases  natural  crosses 
occur,  flowers  being  fertilised  by  pollen  of  another  species.  Seeds 
thus  set  produce  hybrid  plants,  new  kinds  having  characters  of 
their  two  parents.  Thus  the  species  of  willows  are  hopelessly 
intermixed.  Natural  crosses  between  oaks  are  frequently  dis- 
cernible in  the  woods.  The  white  oak  crosses  with  several 
species  in  its  own  (annual)  group.  The  biennial  or  black  oaks 
also  intercross  among  themselves.  But  black  and  white  oaks 
do  not  cross. 

Artificial  crosses  are  frequently  made  by  plant  breeders 
for  scientific  and  economic  reasons.  Some  of  the  best  horticultural 
varieties  of  fruits  and  flowers  are  artificial  hybrids.  Among  these 
are  the  Kieffer  pear,  the  wild  goose  plum,  and  various  roses, 
grapes,  begonias,  cannas  and  pelargoniums.  Hybrids  are  propa- 
gated by  division. 


500 


CHAPTER    VII:     HOW   TREES   ARE   MEASURED 

I  WAS  walking  one  day  with  a  forester  trained  in  the  Black 
Forest.  A  beautiful  shagbark  of  unusual  height  attracted  my 
attention.  I  asKed  how  tall  he  thought  it  was.  Imagine  my 
surprise  when  he  shut  up  like  a  jack-knife — his  hips  the  hinge, 
his  head  between  his  knees,  his  back  to  the  tree.  Not  satisfied 
with  the  first  inverted  glimpse  he  thus  obtained,  he  moved  a  step 
or  two  nearer  to  the  tree  and  looked  again.  Then  he  straightened 
up,  smiled  at  my  bewilderment,  paced  the  distance  to  the  foot 
of  the  tree,  and  said  that  it  was  about  ninety  feet  high. 

MEASURING   HEIGHT 

This  method  of  estimating  the  heights  of  trees  is  common 
among  German  foresters.  At  a  distance  just  equal  to  the  tree's 
height,  the  observer,  with  his  head  between  his  knees,  sees  the 
top  of  the  tree  and  no  higher.  To  get  this  location  is  very  easy; 
then  there  is  left  nothing  to  do  but  to  pace  off  the  distance. 

The  tree's  shadow  on  bright  days  may  be  measured,  then 
the  shadow  of  any  short  object  standing  erect — a  man,  a  fence  post 
or  a  sapling.  As  the  man's  shadow  is  to  his  height,  so  is  the  tree's 
shadow  to  its  height.  Suppose  a  six-foot  man  casts  a  ten-foot 
shadow,  and  the  tree's  shadow  is  seventy  feet.  The  proportion 
reads: 

lo  :6  "70:  x;  then =:x.     The  tree  is  forty-two  feet   high. 

A  third  simple  method  is  interesting.  Set  a  perpendicular 
pole  about  five  feet  high  in  the  ground  at  a  distance  about  equal 
to  the  tree's  height  from  the  base  of  it.  Between  this  short 
pole  and  the  tree,  in  line  with  both,  set  a  taller  pole,  near  enough 
so  that,  sighting  from  the  top  of  the  short  pole  to  the  top  of  the 
tree,  the  line  of  vision  crosses  the  tall  pole.  Have  this  point 
marked.  Now  sight  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  mark  the  place 
where  the  line  of  vision  crosses  the  taller  pole.     Measure  now  the 

501 


How   Trees  are  Measured 

distance  between  the  poles,  the  distance  between  the  short  pole 
and  the  tree,  and  the  distance  between  the  two  marks  on  the  tall 
pole.  Suppose  the  marks  on  the  pole  to  be  six  feet  apart,  the 
poles  five  feet  apart,  and  the  short  pole  forty  feet  from  the  tree. 
Then  we  have  two  similar  triangles  and  a  proportion  with  three 
known  quantities.  The  distance  between  the  poles  is  to  the 
distance  from  the  short  pole  to  the  tree  as  the  distance  between 
the  marks  on  the  tall  pole  is  to  height  of  the  tree.     5  :  40  ::  6  :  x. 

Solved, =48.    The  tree  is  forty-eight  feet  high. 

A  fourth  method  involves  a  right-angled  isosceles  triangle 
and  a  plumb  line,  but  it  is  extremely  simple,  and  is  in  common 
use  by  men  who  go  out  to  estimate  standing  timber  in  terms 
of  board  measure.  Take  a  square  of  pasteboard  or  shingle,  and 
cut  it  in  two  diagonally.  One  of  these  halves  is  your  tool.  To 
the  square  corner  hang  a  plumb  line — a  string  with  a  weight 
attached — to  indicate  when  you  hold  the  triangle  so  that  its 
sides  are  exactly  vertical  and  horizontal.  Sight  along  the  diagonal, 
stepping  backward  or  forward  until  the  top  of  the  tree  is  in  line 
with  the  diagonal  and  your  eye.  Now  sight  along  the  horizontal 
base  line  of  the  triangle  to  get  the  point  on  the  tree  trunk  at  the 
height  of  your  eye.  The  tree's  height  above  this  point  is 
equal  to  your  distance  from  the  tree,  for  it  is  one  base  of 
an  isosceles  right-angled  triangle  similar  to  your  tool.  Pace 
the  distance  to  the  tree,  add  your  height,  and  you  have 
the  tree's  height.  In  this  method  of  measurement,  level 
ground  is  necessary  to  the  amateur.  The  practised  eye  makes 
due  allowance  for  inequalities,  which  must  be  taken  as  they 
come  in  the  woods. 

The  Faustman  "mirror  hypsometer"  is  a  clever  little  instru- 
ment by  which  the  observer  may  get  the  height  of  trees  by  simply 
pacing  the  distance  from  its  base  to  the  point  where  the  treetop 
is  in  line  with  an  eye  piece  and  a  hair  line  set  six  inches  away. 
The  treetop  appears  to. the  observer,  a  slide  is  moved  up  to  the 
figure  corresponding  to  the  distance,  a  plummet  swings  over  a 
scale,  and  the  figure  it  covers,  reflected  by  a  mirror  to  the  observer's 
eye,  is  the  tree's  height.  This  convenient  tool  does  away  with 
computations,  and  enables  the  user  to  accomplish  much  in  a 
short  time. 

502 


How  Trees  are  Measured 
MEASURING   DIAMETER 

A  tree's  diameter  is  measured  by  calipers,  which  consist 
of  a  graduated  rule,  marked  in  inches  and  fractions,  a  fixed  arm 
forming  a  right  angle  at  one  end,  and  a  movable  arm,  parallel 
with  the  first  one,  sliding  on  the  rule.  The  rule  is  set  against  a 
tree  above  the  bulge  of  the  base.  The  fixed  arm  touches  it  at 
one  point,  and  the  sliding  arm  comes  up  to  a  point  on  the  bark 
diametrically  opposite.  The  base  of  this  arm  indicates  the 
diameter  of  the  tree  on  the  scale  of  inches. 

Logs  and  standing  timber  are  measured  by  this  tool.  Calipers 
for  ordinary  work  have  rules  four  to  five  feet  long.  Few  trees 
require  longer  ones. 

MEASURING   VOLUME 

Standing  trees  are  assumed  to  be  regular  geometrical  solids, 
resting  on  a  circular  base  and  tapering  to  the  limbs,  a  compromise 
between  a  cone  and  a  cylinder. 

To  get  the  solid  contents  of  a  trunk,  the  area  of  the  base  is 
multiplied  by  one-half  the  altitude.  With  a  pair  of  calipers 
and  any  one  of  the  four  methods  of  obtaining  the  tree's  height 
its  cubical  contents  are  easily  computed.  The  forester  cannot 
stop  to  multiply  and  compute  the  circular  base  on  which  the  tree 
rests.     He  uses  a  table  where  these  are  worked  out. 

Timber  is  measured  in  board  feet  oftener  than  by  volume. 
A  board  foot  is  a  foot  square  and  one  inch  thick;  there  are  twelve 
board  feet  in  one  cubic  foot.  It  is  generally  estimated  that  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  a  log  is  sawdust,  slabs  and  defective  wood. 
Allowance  is  therefore  made  for  these  losses.  Much  depends 
upon  how  the  logs  are  sawed. 

A  "cruiser"  was  an  old-time  woodsman  who  went  into  the 
forest  with  a  compass,  and,  pacing  off  the  distances,  located  and 
estimated  the  timber  in  tracts  with  obscure  boundaries.  Once 
is  was  saw  stuff  only  that  he  calculated.  Now  not  only  sawlogs, 
bi't  ties  and  poles  and  fuel  are  taken  account  of  in  these  estimates. 

By  tables  known  as  "Log  Scales"  the  number  of  feet,  board 
measure,  a  given  tree  will  yield  is  quickly  found.  Height  and 
diameter  being  known,  the  table  gives  the  contents.  In  measuring 
standing  timber  it  is  customary  for  two  measurers  to  go  ahead 

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How  Trees  are  Measured 

and  a  tally  keeper  to  record  their  work.  Each  tree  is  marked  to 
prevent  counting  it  twice.  Sheets  for  different  kinds  of  trees 
and  columns  and  lines  for  different  heights  and  diameters  of 
trees  are  provided  in  the  record  book.  From  this  notebook  and 
its  tally  marks  the  solid  contents  of  a  tract  of  woods  is  easily 
estimated  at  home  or  in  the  field,  in  terms  ot  board  measure  or 
by  cord  measure.     A  cord  is  128  cubic  feet. 

"Log  scalers"  or  measurers  record  how  many  board  feet 
a  log  will  cut.  These  men  carry  a  scale  rule,  which  they  apply 
to  the  small  end  of  the  log.  From  the  diameter  it  measures 
four  inches  are  deducted.  The  square  of  the  balance  is  the 
log's  contents  in  board  feet,  provided  the  length  is  sixteen  feet. 
Allowance  is  made  for  logs  longer  or  shorter  than  the  standard. 
The  table  with  these  results  worked  out  for  logs  from  ten  to 
sixty  inches  in  diameter,  and  for  twelve,  fourteen  and  sixteen 
feet  in  length,  constitute  the  Doyle-Scribner  Log  Scale  in  common 
use.  It  is  a  compact  table,  containing  in  four  columns,  of  fifty 
lines  depth,  results  that  save  much  toilsome  multiplying.  It  is  so 
simple,  however,  that  any  intelligent  woodchopper  can  reconstruct 
his  own  table  in  an  evening,  if  he  loses  one.  The  four  inches 
deducted  allow  for  ordinary  waste  in  sawing.  Very  crooked, 
knotty  or  otherwise  defective  logs  have  a  greater  deduction  made 
at  the  discretion  of  the  scaler. 

MEASURING   ANNUAL    GROWTH 

Cut  down  a  tree,  measure  the  diameter  of  its  stump  and 
count  the  rings  in  the  outside  inch  of  wood — the  first  inch  inside 
the  bark.  Multiply  the  diameter  by  the  number  of  rings  to  this 
inch.  Divide  400  by  the  product  obtained  by  this  multiplication. 
The  quotient  is  the  percentage  of  yearly  increase  of  the  tree. 

This  seems  like  an  arbitrary  formula,  and  it  is  not  accurate 
to  a  hair.  But  it  is  a  practical  method  for  estimating  the  yearly 
accretion  that  a  tree  makes.  It  is  the  method  used  by  the  Bureau 
of  Forestry  in  estimating  the  annual  growth  of  woodlots,  and  it 
is  so  simple  that  anyone  can  use  it.  Farmers  can  tell  how  much 
interest  they  are  getting  by  letting  their  trees  grow,  and  when 
they  are  cutting  into  their  wood  principal  in  harvesting  the  crop. 
It  replaces  guesswork  by  knowledge. 

One  tree  does  not  make  a  forest,  nor  a  woodlot.  But  one 
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How  Trees  are  Measured 

tree  is  a  key  to  the  rest.  Take  each  kind  of  tree  by  itself.  Cut 
sixteen  or  twenty  white  oaks  of  different  sizes  and  grown  under 
varying  conditions  at  different  places  on  the  woodlot.  Their 
average  will  fairly  represent  the  individuals  of  this  species.  Take 
the  tulip  trees  in  the  same  way,  and  get  the  increase  of  the  average 
tree.  When  the  different  species  have  been  considered  separately, 
they  may  be  averaged  to  get  the  general  per  cent,  of  growth  for  all. 
Then  the  owner  knows  about  what  amount  of  wood  cut  in  a 
winter  will  be  replaced  by  the  growth  of  the  following  summer. 
The  secret  of  success  in  the  best-kept  forests  of  Germany  and 
France  is  the  management  that  does  not  cut  more  than  the 
annual  increase  will  restore.  It  explains  the  perennial  vigour 
and  productiveness  of  these  secular  forests. 


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CHAPTER   VIII:    THE   PRUNING  OF  TREES 

Pruning  is  the  cutting  out  of  parts  of  a  tree  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  parts  that  remain.  Cleaning  might  better  designate 
the  removal  of  dead  wood.  Trimming  is  the  shaping  of  the  out- 
Hne,  as  the  shearing  of  hedges  and  individuals  of  box  and  yew 
into  formal  or  grotesque  figures.  Training  is  the  bringing  of  the 
tree  to  some  desired  arrangement  of  its  limbs,  as  the  espalier 
fruit  trees,  that  lie  flat  against  a  wall  in  European  gardens. 

All  green  plants  need  sun  and  air,  as  well  as  room  for  roots. 
Trees  crowd  out  other  plants  in  close  forests.  Where  thousands 
of  saplings  start  in  a  plot  of  woodland,  only  hundreds  reach  middle 
life,  and  only  tens,  maturity.  In  every  treetop  the  story  of 
continuous  thinning  is  repeated.  The  trunk  and  limbs  are  full 
of  knots  which  the  bark  has  healed  over.  They  are  records  of 
twigs  and  large  branches  that  failed.  A  dozen  apple  blossoms 
make  up  a  single  cluster.  Two  or  three  apples  at  most  mature,  and 
they  are  inferior  to  the  apple  that  grows  alone,  sole  survivor  of  the 
dozen  May  promises.  Every  well-grown  leaf  nurses  a  bud  at  its 
base.  Next  year  these  buds  send  out  shoots,  each  with  leaves 
that  nurture  other  buds.  These  twigs  are  stifled  by  the  crowding. 
The  weaklings  die.  On  the  stronger  ones  the  leaves  in  the  shade 
turn  yellow  and  fall.  The  weak  buds  fail  even  to  start  in  sprmg. 
As  the  tree's  crown  grows  larger,  many  branches  are  overshadowed. 
Their  leaves  languish  and  die.  The  whole  bough  declines,  and  at 
length  snaps  off.  Nature  sacrifices  the  many  to  the  few — the 
weak  for  the  good  of  the  strong.  It  is  the  law  of  the  survival  of 
the  fittest. 

Pruning  is  a  practice  we  learn  directly  from  Nature.  Yet 
there  are  those  who  decry  it  as  "unnatural"!  The  difference 
is  that  man  does  a  much  better  job — where  he  knows  what  he  is 
about.  The  quack  tree  doctor,  alas!  too  often  takes  the  case, 
and  then  it  were  far  better  to  have  let  Nature  manage  the  affair 
herself.  The  peripatetic  tree  pruner  is  almost  always  a  tree 
butcher,  a  menace  to  the  well-being  of  any  self-respecting,  tree- 
loving  community.     He  preys  upon  the  good  intentions  and  the 

506 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

credulity  of  the  public.  His  glibness  passes  for  scientific  knowledge 
with  people  who  are  themselves  ignorant  of  the  life  and  the  needs 
of  their  trees.  Too  often  they  succumb  to  his  arguments  and  let 
him  scrape  and  hack  and  doctor  the  trees  as  he  sees  fit.  It  is 
probably  an  indignant  neighbour  who  expatiates  on  the  havoc 
wrought.  The  dazed  owner,  with  flattened  purse  and  a  sense 
of  failure  and  disillusion,  bewails  what  cannot  be  undone.  The 
tree  pruner  is  gone,  so  the  vengeance  that  should  cut  short  his 
profitable  career  follows  him  afar  off. 

This  is  plain  justice  to  the  family  and  to  the  community  and 
to  the  trees: — If  a  tree  is  worth  pruning  at  all  it  is  worth  the 
owner's  while  to  inform  himself  as  to  the  best  method  and  then 
stand  by  and  see  that  his  directions  are  carried  out,  unless  there 
is  some  man  of  well-known  intelligence  who  can  be  trusted  to  do 
it  properly.  We  shall  come  to  recognise  one  day  that  the  trees 
of  a  community  are  common  property  in  the  best  sense,  and  no 
man  has  a  right  to  prune  them  or  cut  them  down  unless  he  acts 
as  a  duly  appointed  representative  of  all  the  people. 

HOW  TO   CUT  OFF   A    LIMB 

"The  best  pruning  tool  is  the  thumb  and  finger."  So  it  is, 
even  for  trees  in  their  infantile  stages.  Pinching  back  tender  shoots 
forms  the  tree's  head  to  the  owner's  liking,  and  yearly  attention 
keeps  it  under  control.  This  is  the  ideal  way.  In  practice, 
however,  limbs  must  be  cut  off — sometimes  very  large  ones. 
Pruning  knives  and  shears  and  the  long-armed,  strong-jawed 
pruners  will  easily  cut  limbs  to  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in  thickness. 
After  this,  a  good  saw  is  the  right  tool.  Axes  and  hatchets  are 
unfit  for  use  in  pruning,  as  they  leave  the  cut  surface  uneven  and 
tear  the  bark. 

The  limb  should  be  sawed  off  smooth  and  clean  on  a  level 
with  the  surrounding  bark.  There  will  be  some  projection,  inevit- 
ably, for  the  limb  has  a  flaring  base.  But  no  projecting  stub 
of  the  branch  itself  should  be  permitted  to  remain.  Better  far  a 
larger  wound  made  by  sawing  well  down  in  the  enlarged  basal  part. 
If  any  tearing  of  the  bark  has  occurred,  unevennesses  should  be 
trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife. 

The  healing  of  the  wound  must  be  a  slow  process,  for  the 
inner  bark  has  to  'l^nn  a  layer  of  new  tissue  that  gradually  rolls 

507 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

in  and  closes  over  the  solid  wood  at  the  centre.  There  is  no 
union  between  the  wood  and  the  healing  bark,  for  the  former 
is  practically  dead.  Being  porous,  it  absorbs  rain  that  follows 
down  its  tubular  wood  fibres.  Germs  of  wood-destroying  fungi, 
afloat  in  the  air  from  rotting  trees  and  twigs  in  the  neighbourhood, 
lodge  in  the  exposed  wound,  germinate,  and  send  their  filamentous 
hyphae  down  into  the  stub  and  on  toward  the  heart  of  the  tree. 
Sugary,  starchy  cell  contents  moistened  by  the  rain  make  the  best 
possible  soil  for  such  fungi.  Better  leave  the  tree  unpruned  than 
to  expose  the  inert  heart  wood  by  careless  work. 

A  covering  of  any  waterproof  substance  protects  the  helpless 
tree  against  invasion  by  its  worst  enemies.  A  cheap  oil  paint 
like  linseed  oil  and  white  lead  fills  the  surface  pores  and  lasts  a 
long  time.  It  should  be  generously  applied,  so  that  no  entrance 
is  left  for  disease.  It  likewise  checks  the  bleeding,  or  flow  of  sap, 
which  dries  the  exposed  stub  and  makes  more  room  for  rain  to  enter 
with  its  accumulation  of  dirt  and  disease  spores.  Meanwhile, 
the  new  bark  rolls  in,  and  when  it  meets  over  the  wound  the  paint 
has  served  its  purpose.  The  covered  wood  has  been  kept  sound. 
It  is  often  years  before  the  process  is  complete,  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  wound  and  the  rate  of  the  tree's  growth.  In  many 
cases  the  paint  needs  renewing. 

THAT   VICIOUS    LONG   STUB 

Hired  men  set  to  pruning  trees  are  almost  sure  to  leave  stubs. 
They  will  argue  that  this  is  the  best  way.  Go  for  your  answer 
to  trees  thus  pruned  in  previous  years.  They  are  plenty  in  any 
neighbourhood.  The  stub  decays,  its  bark  sloughs  off  at  length, 
and  the  bark  at  the  base  can  never  hope  to  heal  the  wound  until 
it  swallows  the  stub  entire,  or  the  latter  rots  off  at  the  base.  In  the 
first  case  it  is  a  delay  of  years.  In  the  last,  it  means  the  invasion 
of  rot  into  the  heart  of  the  tree.  A  long  stub,  therefore,  always 
threatens  the  health  of  the  tree,  is  a  blot  upon  its  beauty,  and  a 
monument  to  the  laziness  and  ignorance  or  dishonesty  of  the 
man  who  pruned  by  this  pernicious  method. 

TEN    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

I.  Pruning  the  roots  lessens  the  food  supply,  and  so  retards 
top  growth. 

508 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

2.  Pruning  the  top  invigorates  the  branches  that  remain, 
the  root  system  being  unchanged. 

3.  Removing  terminal  buds  induces  forking,  thus  thickening 
the  branching  system.  It  checks  wood  production,  and  en- 
courages the  production  of  flowers  and  fruit. 

4.  Unpruned  trees  tend  to  wood  production. 

5.  Summer  pruning  reduces  the  struggle  among  leaves  and 
twigs  for  light  and  produces  stronger  buds  for  spring. 

6.  Winter  pruning  removes  superfluous  buds,  inducing 
greater  vigour  in  those  that  are  left  to  develop. 

7.  Dead  wood  should  be  taken  out  at  any  season  and  burned. 

8.  The  best  time  to  prune,  generally  speaking,  is  just  before 
growth  starts  in  spring. 

9.  Early  winter  pruning  is  undesirable  because  the  healing 
of  wounds  must  wait  till  spring. 

10.  Yearly  pruning  is  better  than  pruning  at  less  frequent 
intervals. 

PRUNING    SHADE    TREES 

An  ideal  shade  tree  has  the  character  of  its  species  or  variety, 
as  the  oval  of  the  hard  maple  or  the  broad  dome  of  the  white  oak 
or  the  fan  top  of  the  elm.  It  has  the  greatest  possible  foliage 
mass  on  a  sturdy  framework  of  trunk  and  limbs.  To  keep  this 
dome  intact,  losing  just  enough  for  the  health  of  the  leaves,  is  the 
object  of  pruning.  It  needs  only  the  removal  of  dead  and  broken 
limbs  and  of  those  that  interfere  and  crowd.  Wayward  limbs 
are  cut  back  to  preserve  the  tree's  symmetry.  Long,  heavy 
limbs  that  threaten  to  split  away  from  the  trunk  by  their  weight 
are  cut  back. 

In  fact,  shade  trees  take  care  of  themselves  almost  altogether. 
Accidents  to  their  limbs  are  usually  responsible  for  conditions  that 
make  pruning  necessary. 

PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  TREES 

Here  is  a  wide  range  of  choice.  If  foliage  is  the  ornamental 
feature,  or  a  multitude  of  flowers,  no  matter  how  small,  little 
thinning  of  branches  will  be  required.  If  size  of  flowers  is  more 
important  than  numbers,  thinning  should  be  thorough.  Late- 
blooming  kinds  are  best  pruned  in  spring:  early-blooming  kinds, 

509 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

directly  after  the  fading  of  the  flowers.  The  energies  of  bud 
formation  are  thus  concentrated  on  the  branches  that  remain. 

Dwarf  forms  of  trees  are  kept  in  trim  by  pruning  the  roots 
with  a  sharp  spade,  and  by  "heading  in"  the  branches  severely. 
Shearing  keeps  a  tree  in  formal  shape.  Weeping  trees  and  others 
of  peculiar  habits  are  trimmed  to  preserve  their  characteristics. 

In  all  ornamental  trees  care  must  be  taken  to  cut  off  shoots 
that  start  below  the  bud  or  graft.  The  stock  is  of  a  different 
kind,  and  these  low  shoots  therefore  introduce  a  false  note  into 
the  top  grown  from  the  cion  or  bud. 

PRUNING    EVERGREENS 

The  best  form  a  conifer  can  have  is  its  natural,  pyramidal 
one,  tapering  to  the  sky.  The  end  bud,  or  leader,  should  never 
be  cut.  When  this  is  destroyed  the  central  shaft  branches,  and 
the  tree's  beauty  gives  place  to  oddity.  The  lower  limbs  of 
evergreens  should  lie  upon  the  ground,  if  they  can  be  kept  green 
and  healthy.  Spruces  especially  hold  these  branches  late.  If 
limbs  are  sparse,  pinching  out  terminal  buds  on  the  lateral  branches 
will  force  out  new  shoots  from  side  buds,  soon  producing  a  compact 
dome  of  foliage.  Symmetry  should  be  preserved  by  heading  in 
wayward  branches.  Formal  shapes  are  produced  by  clipping  and 
shearing.  Evergreens  generally  have  resinous  sap  which  covers 
wounds.  Such  need  no  paint  to  prevent  inoculation  by  fungous 
diseases  while  healing. 

PRUNING    FRUIT  TREES 

This  is  a  very  large  and  special  subject.  Methods  depend 
upon  the  aims  of  the  owners.  While  the  trees  are  young  they 
are  pruned  to  shape  and  thinned  to  induce  vigour.  As  fruiting  age 
comes  on  they  are  checked  by  heading  back  terminal  buds. 
This  diverts  the  tree's  forces  from  wood  production  to  fruiting. 
If  the  best  fruit  is  desired,  thinning  of  twigs  and  especially  of 
fruit  clusters  while  green  is  practised. 

Pruning  is  an  annual  practice  with  the  best  fruit  growers. 
A  fruit  tree  left  to  its  own  devices  for  years  produces  firewood. 
The  severe  pruning  that  follows  this  neglect  produces  a  forest  of 
"water  sprouts"  or  "suckers"  the  next  year.  It  takes  a  long 
time  to  get  such  a  tree  checked  and  back  into  bearing. 

510 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

The  cutting  off  of  lower  limbs  to  overcome  the  interfering  of 
neighbouring  trees  in  an  orchard  is  a  bad  practice.  It  elevates 
the  bearing  area,  until  ladders  are  necessary  to  reach  the  lowest 
fruit.  Better  take  out  alternate  trees,  or  best  of  all,  plant  origin- 
ally at  the  proper  distances,  setting  short-lived  fruits  between. 

Yearly  pruning  will  prevent  interference  by  training  the 
orchard  trees  to  a  narrower  habit.  By  the  "thumb-and-fmger" 
pruning  mentioned  before,  a  tree  may  be  shaped  to  the  low,  round 
head,  or  sent  upward  into  a  tall,  narrow  one.  It  takes  the  heaviest 
tools  to  convert  them  into  the  Japanese  parasol  form.  Such  an 
orchard  tree  makes  life  miserable  for  the  pickers  and  is  a  living 
witness  of  the  obtuse  and  neglectful  character  of  the  owner. 

PRUNING   FOREST  TREES 

This  is  a  practice  that  belongs  to  intensive  forestry.  It  is  a 
part  of  a  type  of  silviculture  that  crops  land  with  trees  as  the 
careful  farmer  does  with  grain.  If  a  dense  stand  does  not  "clean 
itself"  of  lower  limbs  by  Nature's  pruning,  there  is  cheap  labour 
to  do  the  work,  and  sale  for  the  limbs  as  fagots,  or  as  charcoal. 
Thus  in  various  European  forests  it  pays  to  prune  trees.  In 
America  it  rarely  pays  yet.  The  illustration  of  pruning  white-pine 
seedlings  in  small  woodlots  (see  page  477)  is  a  notable  exception. 
White  pine  does  not  clean  itself  of  branches,  even  dead  ones, 
as  most  trees  do.  This  fact  greatly  impairs  the  quality  of  the 
timber,  for  dead  knots  abound  in  it.  Only  trees  intended  for  a 
mature  first-grade  crop  can  be  pruned  with  profit. 

Judicious  selective  cuttings  which  keep  the  forest  cover 
intact  bring  about  natural  pruning  by  the  choking  out  and  chafing 
of  lower  limbs. 

GENERAL  TREE   SURGERY 

Capital  operations  in  tree  surgery  are  performed  with  notable 
success  nowadays.  When  a  great  limb  cracks  away  from  the 
trunk,  threatening  the  admission  of  water  and  disease  germs 
into  the  cleft,  an  iron  bolt  of  proper  length  and  strength  is  pro- 
vided. An  auger  hole  is  bored  through  the  limb  a  foot  or  two 
above  its  base,  and  another  in  line  with  it  through  the  main  trunk. 
Inserting  the  bolt,  through  both  limb  and  trunk,  the  nut  is 

511 


The  Pruning  of  Trees 

screwed  on  as  tight  as  possible.  This  brings  the  lips  of  the  crack 
together  and  holds  them.  A  wise  precaution  is  to  wash  the  wound 
with  some  antiseptic,  as  coal  tar  or  paint,  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

Lightning  often  tears  away  part  of  a  tree,  exposing  the  heart 
wood  over  an  area  so  large  that  the  tree  cannot  be  expected  to 
heal  it.  When  it  is  desirable  to  save  the  tree,  several  methods 
are  possible.  Thorough  painting  of  the  wound  is  effectual  if 
repeated  as  the  paint  wears  off.  A  hollow,  as  of  a  limb  torn  out, 
may  be  filled  with  cement  after  an  antiseptic  dressing.  The 
outer  bark  has  to  bring  its  edges  together  over  the  cement.  A 
very  successful  protection  is  tar.  Sheet  iron,  tar  paper,  etc., 
tacked  on  over  wounds  that  have  not  been  treated  to  check 
invasion  of  tree  diseases,  are  of  doubtful  advantage.  Outside 
they  look  snug  and  neat,  but  underneath  insects  harbour  and 
fungi  thrive  in  the  moist  darkness  which  is  the  most  favourable 
condition  for  their  development.  A  tree  thus  protected  (?)  often 
goes  over  in  a  storm,  revealing  a  rotten  heart  that  has  developed 
since  the  accident  that  tore  off  its  limb. 

A  hollow  tree,  or  one  with  a  cheesy  heart,  may  be  opened 
(if  there  is  no  opening  on  the  side),  scraped  clean  of  its  corrupt 
interior  substance,  and  filled  with  cement.  With  this  pillar 
of  stone  fitted  inside  it,  the  tree  is  no  longer  a  hollow  shell  weak 
enough  for  wind  to  overthrow  it.  Its  disease  checked,  it  may 
take  on  a  new  lease  of  life.  Historic  trees,  especially,  justify 
thorough  renovation  and  bolstering  inside;  but  the  average  old 
tree,  weakened  by  accident  and  disease,  is  best  cut  down  and  a 
young  one  given  its  place. 


5»2 


Copyright,  190o.  t  y  D-ui  le  My.  F;i  .-  & 


TULIP    TREE     {Liriodendron  Tulipifera) 


CHAPTER   IX:   THE   ENEMIES   OF  TREES 

In  every  treetop  we  can  read  the  story  of  a  long  fight.  Leaf, 
flower  and  fruit,  bud,  twig  and  branch,  contest  unceasingly  for 
room  and  food  and  sun.  Underground,  the  roots  have  their  own 
struggle  for  the  bounty  of  the  soil.  Always  the  struggle  is  un- 
equal, the  weak  succumbing  to  the  strong.  Where  tens  succeed, 
hundreds  and  thousands  fail. 

In  the  woods  the  story  is  the  same.  Neighbour  trees  contend 
as  do  neighbour  branches.  Nature  thins  and  prunes,  discarding 
all  but  the  fittest.  Many  people  understand  that  the  best  forests 
are  those  in  which  Nature  has  her  own  way.  But  only  from 
Nature's  point  of  view.  She  is  the  great  impartial  all-Mother, 
and  is  as  much  interested  in  the  well-being  of  a  fungus  that  de- 
stroys a  tree  as  in  the  tree  itself.  A  virgin  forest  is  a  battleground 
where  varied  and  multitudinous  natural  forces  meet  and  fight  for 
supremacy. 

The  noble  forests  of  the  Cascade  range  in  Washington  and 
Oregon  best  illustrate  the  victory  of  trees  over  all  other  forms 
of  vegetation.  The  pine  forests  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  of  the 
South,  the  broad-leaved  forests  of  the  Ohio  and  lower  Mississippi 
Valleys,  all  showed  how  trees  triumphed  in  days  gone  by  over 
inimical  forces  of  Nature.  The  meagre  fringe  of  trees  along  streams 
in  the  arid  West,  the  stunted  growth  of  northernmost  woods, 
show  how  trees  are  affected  by  drought  and  cold.  The  dis- 
tribution of  forests  and  their  condition  are  traceable  to  well- 
known  causes. 

Some  of  the  enemies  of  the  forest  are  natural;  some  are 
attributable  to  man  and  his  civilisation.  In  many  instances 
responsibility  is  divided.  One  enters  and  leaves  the  door  open 
for  others. 

The  chief  enemies  of  forests  are  fires  and  insects.  Winds, 
frost,  lightning,  snow,  hail;  ice,  drought  and  flood  are  atmospheric 
in  origin.  Fungi  decompose  dead  wood,  doing  the  forest  a  service 
by  enriching  the  soil.  But  many  of  them  menace  sound  trees 
wherever  their  bark  is  broken.     Grazing  and  wasteful  lumbering 

513 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

are  two  abuses  of  the  first  magnitude.  Beside  these,  man  is 
responsible  for  most  forest  fires. 

Cold  is  the  barrier  that  sets  a  hmit  to  each  species  of  trees 
at  a  certain  degree  of  latitude  and  at  a  certain  altitude  above  the 
sea.  Few  species  are  hardy  enough  to  reach  into  British  America, 
or  to  climb  high  up  on  mountains. 

Frost  damages  forests  by  nipping  the  buds  and  tender  shoots, 
by  actually  causing  tree  trunks  as  well  as  branches  to  burst  open 
after  the  freezing  of  sap  in  spring,  and  by  heaving  the  porous  soil 
so  that  saplings  of  all  ages  are  uprooted.  Frost  often  destroys 
seeds  before  they  are  ripe,  and  while  they  are  germinating. 

Snow  and  ice  burden  trees  in  winter  time,  doing  great  damage 
to  their  tops — often  maiming  young  trees  for  life.  Broad- 
leaved  trees  avoid  much  injury  by  their  deciduous  habit,  but 
evergreens  suffer  where  snows  are  heavy  and  winters  long.  Ex- 
treme toughness  and  flexibility  of  limb  characterise  trees  that 
successfully  throw  off  their  snow  burdens  spring  after  spring. 
The  Western  mountain  hemlock,  crouching  on  the  most  exposed 
ridges  of  the  coast  mountains,  is  a  good  example. 

Hail  beats  off  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots  of  trees,  especially 
in  the  warmer  states.  It  destroys  flowers  and  unripe  fruits, 
and  bruises  young  growth. 

Lightning  shatters  trees,  and  leaves  them  a  prey  to  the 
attacks  of  insects  and  fungi.  The  chief  harm  caused  by  it  is  the 
starting  of  forest  fires.  Compared  with  this,  the  other  damage  it 
does  is  slight. 

Winds  lash  the  trees,  breaking  and  maiming  them.  Hurri- 
canes plough  their  paths  through  the  woods.  This  exposes  the 
trees  left  on  the  border  of  the  swath  to  a  new  danger.  Their 
support  on  the  open  side  is  gone;  they  fall  by  reason  of  the  inade- 
quacy of  their  roots  to  hold  them  securely  in  the  ground.  Roots 
do  not  go  deep  unless  they  must.  Winds  fan  small  fires  into 
conflagrations.  Beneficent  carriers  of  pollen  and  distributors 
of  seed,  they  also  carry  infection  from  diseased  trees  to  sound 
ones,  lodging  spores  in  fresh  wounds  to  eat  down  to  the  tree's 
heart  or  to  prey  upon  leaf  or  twig  or  bark.  Each  species  finds 
its  habitat. 

Fungi  are  flowerless  vegetable  organisms  that  multiply  by 
spores.  The  mushrooms  are  the  familiar  fruiting  organs  of  under- 
ground  species.     Rust,   mildew,   blight  and   rot  of  fruit  or  of 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

wood  are  also  among  the  well-known  fungous  growths  that 
disfigure  trees.  The  shelf  fungi  are  the  largest.  Many  kinds  of 
destroying  fungi  may  attack  a  single  tree.  Every  enfeebled  tree 
is  increasingly  vulnerable.  Dead  trees  are  gradually  devoured 
by  fungous  organisms. 

Protection  against  fungous  diseases  is  not  practicable  yet 
in  the  forests.  In  orchards  and  home  grounds  and  parks  spraying 
is  used  as  a  preventive.  Compounds  of  copper  destroy  the  spores 
of  fungi.  It  is  asserted  that  one  part  of  copper  sulphate  in  ten 
thousand  parts  of  water  will  prevent  the  germination  of  a  spore 
of  apple  scab  or  pear-leaf  blight.  Lime  water  is  added  to  keep  the 
copper  sulphate  from  burning  the  foliage.  Copper,  lime,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  water  make  the  so-called  "Bordeaux  mixture" — 
the  standard  fungicide  in  the  orchards  and  vineyards  of  Europe  and 
America.  Two  or  three  sprayings  a  year,  the  first  just  before  the 
leaves  open,  will  keep  a  healthy  forest  tree  free  from  fungous 
troubles,  while  neighbour  trees  and  their  fruit  are  badly  damaged 
by  rot  and  other  fungous  attacks. 

Bacterial  diseases  that  enter  the  growing  shoots  of  trees  and 
develop  within  them  are  well  illustrated  by  the  "fire  blight"  of 
the  pear.  No  fungicide  can  reach  and  check  this  disorder.  The 
affected  parts  should  be  cut  off  and  burned.  Often  burning  the 
whole  tree  is  the  only  safe  method,  as  otherwise  contagion  will 
spread  to  other  trees. 

Constitutional  diseases  are  found  among  trees,  as  well  as  in 
the  human  family,  and  no  explanation  of  their  causes  nor  hint 
of  proper  treatment  has  been  discovered.  "Peach  yellows" 
is  an  example.  It  is  the  moral,  if  not  the  legal,  obligation  of  every 
owner  of  a  tree  thus  afflicted  to  dig  it  out  and  burn  it,  root  and 
branch,  in  order  that  the  disease  may  be  kept  from  spreading. 
Tree  diseases  are  not  all  disseminated  by  the  wind.  Some  live 
underground,  carrying  infection  by  contact  of  root  tips  from 
unsound  to  sound  trees. 

Insects  form  a  large  body  of  the  enemies  of  trees,  inflicting 
untold  damage  each  year  upon  orchards  and  forests,  and  upon 
trees  everywhere.  Each  species  has  its  insect  enemies,  not  one, 
but  more — often  many.  There  are  borers  that  infest  the  solid 
wood,  channelling  it  and  ruining  it  for  timber,  or  working  just 
under  the  bark,  sapping  the  cambium,  which  is  the  tree's  life. 
Some  borers  work  in  the  twigs,  causing  the  young  shoots  to  die 

515 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

and  snap  off.  Black  locust,  one  of  the  most  valuable  post  timbers, 
is  ruined  wherever  it  grows  now  in  the  East  by  the  locust  borer. 

Sucking  insects  are  a  vast  aggregation  of  species  whose  bond 
of  similarity  is  the  beak  or  proboscis,  by  means  of  which  they 
puncture  the  skin  of  fruits,  leaves,  twigs  or  roots  and  suck  the 
juices  there  found.  To  this  class  belong  the  deadly  scale  insects, 
the  plant  lice,  bark  lice,  true  bugs,  weevils,  etc. 

Chewing  insects  eat  the  substance  of  the  leaf  or  other  parts. 
The  caterpillars  of  many  butterflies,  moths  and  beetles  are 
chewers.     Borers  belong  to  this  class. 

It  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to  attempt  in  this  volume  a 
discussion  of  a  subject  so  vast  as  the  insect  enemies  of  trees  and 
the  methods  science  has  devised  to  combat  them.  Horticulture 
has  led  the  way,  of  course.  Publications  covering  all  that  is 
known  on  the  subject  are  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Experiment  stations  in  the  different  states  are  investigating  this 
subject  and  reporting  progress  in  bulletins,  which  anyone  within 
the  state  may  have  for  the  asking.  Besides,  a  growing  body  of 
literature  on  the  subject  is  being  issued  by  various  publishers  of 
scientific  books. 

Spraying  and  fumigation  are  the  two  methods  now  in  use 
for  the  wholesale  destruction  of  insects.  They  are  developed  to  a 
high  degree  by  fruit  growers.  Power  spraying  has  been  intro- 
duced by  park  commissioners  in  a  few  large  cities  for  the  protection 
of  shade  trees.  It  promises  to  grow  in  popularity  wherever 
public  spirit  is  strong  and  trees  are  threatened,  as  they  are 
with  the  gypsy-moth  plague  near  Boston.  Study  of  the  life 
history  of  different  insects  and  fungi  reveals  their  various  weak 
points  and  helpless  stages.  The  principles  and  practice  of  spray- 
ing depend  for  success  upon  this  intimate  knowledge. 

Boring  insects  cannot  be  reached  by  spraying.  They  are  dug 
out  of  fruit  trees  or  destroyed  by  running  a  wire  up  the  burrows, 
It  is  the  grub  that  does  the  damage. 

Chewing  insects  that  live  on  trees  are  killed  by  spraying  poison 
on  their  food.  Paris  green,  dissolved  in  water,  and  arsenate  of 
lead  are  commonly  used.  The  younger  insects  are  sprayed  the 
better. 

Sucking  insects  are  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene  and  water, 
or  with  an  emulsion  of  whale-oil  soap,  and  with  lime  and  sulphur 
washes.    The  oil  chokes  the  breathing  tubes  which  are  along  the 

5.6 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

sides  of  the  body.  The  whale-oil  soap  chokes  and  is  also  injurious 
to  the  delicate  body  wall.  So  is  the  lime  and  sulphur  solution. 
Scale  insects,  plant  lice  and  all  soft-bodied  insects  of  whatever 
eating  habits  are  thus  treated. 

Fumigation  chokes  the  insects  with  poisonous  gas.  Hydro- 
cyanic-acid gas,  confined  by  a  canvas  tent  that  completely  covers 
a  tree,  destroys  all  insect  life  in  a  few  minutes.  This  is  an  ex- 
pensive method,  but  it  is  used  in  orange  groves  in  California  as 
the  best  means  of  checking  scale  insects.  As  these  insects  do  not 
fly  nor  walk,  but  settle  down  after  birth,  a  tree  once  cleared  of 
the  nuisance  is  not  likely  to  become  infested  again  for  some  time. 

man's  damage  to  the  forests 

Clearing  of  wooded  lands  was  the  pioneer's  duty  and  necessity. 
He  had  to  make  room  for  the  civilisation  that  followed  him. 
The  Eastern  country  was  so  generally  covered  with  forests  that 
farms  could  be  made  only  by  clearing  the  land.  This  made 
trees  the  chief  enemy  to  be  overthrown — the  greatest  of  all  the 
weeds  that  the  farmer  battled  against. 

Wasteful  lumbering  came  next,  and  took  the  best  logs  from 
the  virgin  forests,  leaving  all  the  "slash"  behind  to  dry  and  feed 
terrible  forest  fires.  An  unreasonable  rate  of  taxation  dis- 
couraged the  buying  and  holding  of  lands  by  lumber  companies. 
When  the  sawmills  left,  the  land  was  waste,  unfit  for  the  use  of 
man. 

Fire  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  forests  in  this  country.  Hunters 
carelessly  leave  their  campfires  still  alive;  cinders  from  locomotives 
ignite  dry  rubbish;  farmers  burning  brush  over  cleared  land  let 
the  fires  get  beyond  control.  Spite  against  the  owners  sometimes 
finds  expression  in  firing  a  forest.  Lightning  sets  fires  and 
winds  spread  them. 

Fortunes  are  swept  away  each  year  in  standing  timber;  lives 
and  property  are  destroyed  in  the  track  of  the  fire.  Young 
growth  of  seedling  trees,  the  forests  of  the  future,  are  wiped  out. 
Tree  seeds  are  consumed,  and  the  leaf  mould,  that  precious  porous 
blanket  that  holds  the  food  and  drink  for  all  the  trees,  that  is  the 
nursery  of  seedlings  and  the  anchorage  of  the  old  trees — this  is 
reduced  to  an  ash  heap.  All  the  organisms  of  the  soil  that  con- 
verted the  forest  litter  into  loam  are  killed;  and  the  litter  is  also 

5'7 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

gone,  so  that  there  is  no  means  of  restoring  promptly  the  supply 
of  humus  necessary  for  seed  to  germinate. 

Trees  fall  over  in  such  a  "burn."  Grass,  one  of  the  forest's 
ancient  enemies,  creeps  in.  The  sun  and  wind  steal  the  soil  water: 
it  runs  off  as  floods  in  spring  rains,  overflowing  streams  that  run 
dry  in  summer.  Gullies  are  formed  where  the  cracked  soil 
washes.  Insects  and  fungi  attack  trees,  young  and  old,  which 
were  crippled  but  not  killed  by  the  fire.  A  severe  fire  destroys 
the  forest  equilibrium  utterly,  reducing  the  area  to  a  desert  state. 

Fires  under  control  are  sometimes  justified  in  forests  of 
indifferent  quality.  Tracts  covered  with  blueberry  and  black- 
berry are  systematically  burned  in  Maine  and  other  states  because 
the  new  growth  fruits  better  than  the  old  canes.  In  other 
regions  forests  are  fired  to  open  them  and  improve  the  grazing. 
A  great  many  fires  are  set  for  this  purpose  by  sheep  men  in  remote 
mountainous  woodlands  belonging  to  the  Government  or  to 
private  parties  who  know  nothing  of  this  systematic  wholesale 
stealing. 

PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRE 

Practically  no  attention  has  been  given  to  providing  fire 
lanes  through  American  forests  for  the  checking  of  fires  when  they 
start.  This  belongs  to  intensive  forestry,  and  we  have  not  come 
to  that  yet.  Consequently  fires  find  us  unprepared.  A  small 
ground  fire  can  usually  be  put  out  near  its  beginning  by  beating 
it  with  branches  bearing  mops  of  green  leaves.  A  narrow  track 
of  dirt  or  sand  thrown  about  the  burning  area  will  help  to  keep 
it  within  bounds.  Throwing  earth  or  sand  on  the  smouldering 
leaf  mould  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  choking  out  fire.  If  there 
is  time,  a  belt  can  be  burned  across  the  path  of  the  fire  which  will 
end  it.     Digging  narrow  trenches  is  also  effective. 

Fires  that  sweep  the  forest  crown  can  be  stayed  only  by 
openings  that  they  cannot  bridge — broad,  natural  fire  lanes. 
With  a  wind  blov/ing,  such  a  conflagration  flings  firebrands  in 
all  directions,  lighting  new  fires  in  the  rubbish  that  litters  the 
forest  floor. 

Fighting  a  forest  fire  is  almost  hopeless  after  it  once  gets 
under  way.  A  ground  fire  may  be  impossible  to  locate,  though 
the  smoke  indicates  its  existence,  and  approximately  its  place. 
Slash  makes  progress  and  fire  fighting  in  the  woods  very  toilsome 

5.8 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

work.  After  a  fire  is  believed  to  be  extinguished  it  often  smoulders 
and  breaks  out  with  renewed  violence  later  on.  Or  it  may  seem 
under  control  over  most  of  its  area,  and  by  suddenly  climbing 
a  dead  tree  be  out  of  reach,  start  a  fresh  blaze  among  the  treetops 
and  threaten  a  much  larger  territory.  The  broad-leaved  trees 
are  less  likely  to  spread  a  fire  than  the  inflammable,  resinous 
conifers. 

Gracing  as  practised  in  this  country  is  sometimes  as  destruc- 
tive to  forests  as  fire.  Over-graiing  is  the  proper  term,  for  a 
flock  of  sheep  is  generally  kept  in  a  section  of  woods  until  every- 
thing green  within  reach  has  disappeared.  Sheep  nibble  and 
gnaw  and  crop  roots  and  saplings,  and  their  little  feet  pack  and 
tear  open  the  leaf  mould,  trampling  out  the  life  of  all  young  growth 
they  do  not  eat.  They  are  especially  destructive  to  young 
coniferous  growth.  A  lease  of  a  tract  for  grazing  generally 
means  desolation  in  the  wake  of  the  flock,  as  far  as  all  under- 
growth is  concerned.  Government  lands  have  been  grazed 
to  their  lasting  damage  by  sheep  men  without  leave  from 
any  authority.  This  is  being  stopped  wherever  reservations 
are  patrolled. 

Cattle  do  less  harm  in  grazing  than  sheep  and  goats.  They 
do  not  keep  so  close  together,  their  feet  do  not  cut  into  the  soil 
so  deep,  nor  do  they  strip  all  growths  clean  as  they  go,  unless 
driven  to  it  by  drought.  Horses  do  less  harm  than  cattle.  Hogs 
prevent  much  young  growth  by  eating  tree  seeds,  especially  those 
of  beech,  oak  and  other  nut  trees. 

Grazing  should  be  prohibited  in  young  woods,  and  permitted 
but  sparingly  in  old  forests.  In  fact,  a  forest  should  have  no 
openings  in  its  roof,  and  so  no  grass  on  the  forest  floor. 

ENEMIES   OF    CITY   TREES 

Trees  in  cities  lead  a  hard  life.  The  air  is  charged  with  smoke, 
soot  and  noxious  gases.  These  clog  the  leaf  doorways,  thus 
interfering  with  the  tree's  life  processes.  Paved  streets  and  side- 
walks prevent  the  proper  ventilation  and  watering  of  the  soil. 
The  roots  need  to  breathe  as  well  as  the  leaves.  Leaks  in  sewer 
pipes  and  gas  mains  often  sufi"ocate  a  tree  through  its  roots. 

Regrading  and  filling  in  change  the  ground  level,  and  trees 
are  left  with  roots  exposed  or  buried  deeper  than  before.     Either 

519 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

is  a  distinct  damage,  which  lowers  the  tree's  vitaUty,  and  in 
extreme  cases  kills  it  outright.  The  soil  of  towns  is  often  "made," 
containing  refuse,  such  as  tin  cans,  glass  bottles,  ashes  and  cinders 
— anything  but  good  soil.  Roots  obliged  to  batten  on  such  pas- 
turage can  hardly  be  expected  to  keep  the  top  growing  well. 

Excavations  for  buildings  and  for  the  laying  of  sewer  pipes, 
water  and  gas  mains  generally  ignore  the  trees  whose  roots  lie 
in  the  way.  Whatever  interferes  is  cut  out  without  thought  of 
the  rights  of  the  community  in  the  trees  that  give  beauty  and 
shade  to  its  streets. 

Horses  gnaw  the  bark  and  kill  by  girdling  unguarded  trees 
used  as  hitching  posts  in  front  of  stores.  This  may  be  seen  in 
small  towns  where  no  public  sentiment  in  defense  of  street  trees 
has  been  aroused.  Bruising  and  scraping  of  the  bark  by  contact 
with  loaded  wagons  and  other  heavy  vehicles  produce  the  disabled, 
ugly  trees  one  sees  along  streets  and  in  congested  market  places. 

GUARDS    FOR   STREET   TREES 

The  cheap  and  effective  roll  of  heavy  woven  wire  is  often 
seen  in  this  country.  The  wooden  boxing  of  erect  slats  is  strong 
but  ugly.  Iron  rods  secured  by  iron  hoops  are  developed  in 
ornamental  designs  in  many  of  the  parks  of  European  cities, 
and  oftenest  in  connection  with  an  iron  grill  or  circular  openwork 
plate  that  lies  under  the  tree  in  paved  streets  that  have  had  their 
grade  raised.  The  tree  has  its  old  level  for  the  space  of  the 
diameter  of  the  grill,  through  which  air  and  water  are  admitted 
to  the  soil  about  the  roots.  It  is  common  in  more  obscure  streets 
to  use  wicker  guards  or  to  make  jackets  of  small  upright  poles 
wired  securely  together  around  young  trees.  Old  trees  are  often 
merely  set  around  with  short  stone  pillars  to  keep  vehicles  away. 
Grills  and  guards  of  iron  around  park  trees  are  sometimes  made 
less  conspicuous  by  a  seat  that  encircles  the  tree  protected.  On 
country  roads  in  France  thorn  branches  are  tied  on  young  trees 
as  guards. 

In  all  cases  guards  should  be  roomy  enough  to  allow  of 
many  years  of  growth  before  they  could  fit  snugly.  As  these 
protections  are  permanent  necessities  to  exposed  trees  they 
should  be  strongly  made,  and  secured  to  the  trees  so  that  they 
will  not  work  loose. 

i;2o 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 
INJURIES   TO  TREES   FROM    ELECTRIC  WIRES 

The  damage  done  to  roadside  trees  offsets  to  an  alarming 
degree  the  benefits  derived  by  the  public  from  the  telephone 
and  the  trolley.  The  poles  are  set  in  the  line  of  the  trees,  and 
the  wires  threaded  between  them.  The  limbs  that  might  strike 
the  wire  when  the  wind  is  high  are  hacked  off.  Miles  of  road  are 
lined  with  trees  ruthlessly  beheaded  and  utterly  ruined  under 
the  direction  of  the  foreman  in  charge  of  the  pole  setting.  The 
workmen  proceed  rapidly  through  a  section  of  country,  passing 
from  one  property  to  another.  They  keep  an  eye  out  for  ob- 
jections; the  owners  could  make  them  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 
But  rarely  is  there  concerted  action,  unless  it  be  a  mass  meeting 
to  bewail  the  damage  after  it  is  done.  Then  things  settle  down, 
and  the  poor  maimed  trees  do  their  best  to  heal  their  wounds 
and  to  grow  new  tops.  As  they  reach  up  they  encounter 
the  wires,  and  this  interferes  with  the  service.  The  offend- 
ing trees  are  shorn  again.  They  finally  become  stunted  old 
pollards,  throwing  up  groves  of  straight  water  sprouts, 
year  by  year,  if  they  are  by  nature  inclined  to  sprout  from 
stubs. 

"Burns"  that  cost  the  lives  of  large  limbs  are  proved  to 
result  from  contact  with  electric  wires  passing  through  treetops. 
Proofs  are  also  indubitable  that  trees  are  killed  by  the  same 
cause.  Investigations  made  by  the  Experiment  Station  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  in  1903  led  to  the  following 
conclusions  (Bulletin  No.  91): 

1 .  The  high  resistance  offered  by  trees  serves  as  a  protection 
against  death  from  an  electrical  contact.* 

2.  There  are  cases  where  the  direct  current,  used  in  operating 
street  railways,  has  killed  large  shade  trees. 

3.  Electrical  currents  act  as  stimulants  to  growth  up  to  a 
certain  degree  of  intensity.  Beyond  that  degree,  growth  is 
retarded,  and  the  death  current  is  the  maximum. 

4.  The  greatest  damage  caused  by  alternating  and  direct 
currents  is  by  local  burnings.  The  stronger  the  voltage  the 
greater  the  injury. 

5.  There  is  practically  little  or  no  leakage  from  wires  during 

*  Wood  is  a  non-conductor  when  dry,  but  when  wet  it  is  a  partial  conductor.    After  a 
rain  one  often  sees  sparks  in  trees  caused  by  electric  wires  that  touch  the  branches. 

521 


The  Enemies  of  Trees 

dry  weather.  In  wet  weather  a  film  of  water  covers  the  tree 
and  leakage  is  likely  to  occur.  If  insulation  is  defective  and 
contact  between  wire  and  tree  exists,  grounding  results,  and  the 
tree  is  burned  where  the  wire  touches  it. 

6.  While  no  instance  has  shown  death  produced  by  alternating 
current,  yet  the  proofs  are  absolute  that  this  cause  maims  and 
disfigures  young  trees  so  badly  that  it  amounts  to  their 
destruction. 

7.  Arc  lights  in  close  proximity  to  trees  cannot  be  discovered 
to  be  accountable  for  any  sickliness  these  trees  exhibit.  Poverty 
of  the  soil,  paving,  etc.,  are  generally  the  causes. 

8.  Linemen's  spurs  do  great  damage  to  the  bark  of  young 
trees. 

9.  Wounds  caused  by  climbing  and  ill-advised  pruning 
and  by  burning  leave  trees  an  easy  prey  to  insect  and  fungous 
enemies. 

10.  There  is  no  permanent  recovery  possible  to  the  trees 
while  the  wires  remain  in  place  and  in  use. 

fVhat  will  mitigate  this  trouble? 

1.  In  cities,  the  laying  of  wires  underground. 

2.  In  villages,  carrying  the  wires  across  the  back  of  lots 
instead  of  the  front. 

3.  Lifting  wires  higher  by  using  taller  poles. 

4.  Giving  a  competent  committee  power  to  act  for  the  com- 
munity to  prevent  the  defacing  of  roadside  trees  by  corporations 
owning  franchises,  and  ignoring  the  law  and  the  rights  of  property 
owners  along  their  rights  of  way. 

5.  Forcing  corporations  to  put  necessary  pruning  in  the 
hands  of  competent  men. 

6.  Forcing  trolley  and  electric  light  companies  to  preserve 
the  beauty  of  the  highway,  even  at  a  sacrifice  of  short  cuts  and 
conveniences  they  customarily  exact  without  payment  from  a 
long-suffering  public. 

7.  Organising  in  every  community  in  the  interests  of  civic 
beauty,  with  a  strong,  fearless  committee  to  defend  the  trees 
against  the  vandalism  of  pole-setting,  wire-stringing  corporations. 
Let  them  be  well  informed  on  the  legal  side  of  their  cause,  and 
vigilant  to  have  the  law  enforced. 

522 


The   Enemies   of  Trees 

8.  Emphasising  in  and  out  of  season  the  fact  that  the  beauti- 
fying of  grounds  adds  to  the  market  value  of  real  estate.  Ordering 
their  rights  of  way  well  planted  and  well  kept  is  not  mere  philan- 
thropy on  the  part  of  railway  corporations.  It  is  paying  business. 
Trolley  companies  may  eventually  learn  to  count  avenues  of 
trees  as  valuable  assets. 


523 


PART  III 
THE  USES   OF  WOOD 


CHAPTER   I:   THE  USES  OF  WOOD 

"  It  is  certain  and  demonstrable  that  all  arts  and  artisans  whatsoever  must 
fail  and  cease,  if  there  were  no  timber  and  wood  in  a  nation  (for  he  that  shall  take 
his  pen,  and  begin  to  set  down  what  art,  mystery,  or  trade  belonging  any  way  to 
human  life,  could  be  maintained  and  exercised  without  wood,  will  quickly  find 
that  I  speak  no  paradox).  .  .  .  We  had  better  be  without  gold  than  without 
timber."— _/(?/4«  Evelyn. 

This  is  the  age  of  steel.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
metal  will  take  the  place  of  wood  much  more  than  now.  Although 
steel  frames  have  replaced  timbers  in  ships,  bridges  and  many- 
storied  buildings,  the  demand  for  wood  in  the  bulk  of  the  world's 
industries  grows  stronger  and  prices  are  rising.  The  fires  of 
factory,  mill  and  household  in  this  country  are  more  than  half 
of  them  fed  to-day  with  wood.  Coal  (a  fossil  wood),  oil  and  gas, 
happily  come  in  to  check  the  too  rapid  consumption  of  our  forests 
for  fuel. 

Trees  grow,  therefore  wood  is  cheaper  than  metals.  It  is 
easily  worked  with  tools  into  desired  shapes  and  sizes.  It  is 
held  securely  by  nails  and  by  glue.  It  is  practically  permanent 
when  protected  by  paint;  under  water  or  in  the  ground  it  outlasts 
metal.  Its  strength  and  lightness  adapt  it  to  varied  uses.  Its 
lightness  makes  it  easy  to  handle.  It  preserves  the  flavour  of 
wines  as  no  other  material  can  do.  It  is  a  non-conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity.  Many  woods  are  marked  by  patterns  of 
infinite  variety  and  beauty,  whose  very  irregularities  constitute 
an  abiding  charm.  To  this  is  added  a  fine  blending  of  colours 
and  a  lustre  when  polished  that  give  woods  a  place  in  the  decorative 
arts  that  can  be  taken  by  no  other  substance. 

Precious  woods,  worth  their  weight  in  gold,  are  not  unknown 
to-day.  ■  A  wagonload  of  satinwood  worth  $75,000  was  delivered 
to  an  English  furniture  manufactory  recently.  It  was  cut  for 
veneer  work,  sixteen  thin  sheets  to  the  inch.  The  price  paid 
per  square  foot  was  one  pound  sterling.  Peacocks'  feathers, 
arabesq'aes,  and  wonderful  mythological  beasts  are  revealed  by 
the  saw  that  cuts  through  the  gnarled  butts  of  maple,  birch  and 

527 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

yew,  and  through  the  burls  that  stand  out  like  excrescenses  on 
ash  and  other  trees.  Imperfections  in  the  normal  grain  are 
responsible  for  these  figures  and  colouring.  It  is  the  sawing 
that  makes  the  most  of  these  good  points.  In  woods  like  oak 
there  are  broad,  radial  bands  of  "medullary  rays,"  which  quart*""- 
sawing  reveals.  They  are  fully  exposed  by  sawing  through  ^\ie 
centre  of  a  log,  and  when  polished  gleam  with  "mirrors,"  the 
cabinetmaker's  delight.  The  larger  the  log  the  larger  proportion 
of  this  valuable  mirrored  wood  it  will  yield. 

White  oak,  which  contains  a  large  percentage  of  pith  rays 
and  reveals  these  mirrors  to  perfection  when  "quarter-sawed," 
is  now  largely  used  in  veneering.  So  are  the  curly  and  bird's-eye 
maples  and  birches,  and  the  exotic  woods,  mahogany,  rosewood 
and  satinwood.  The  layer  glued  on  the  cheap  frames  of  piano 
cases  and  all  manner  of  furniture  is  often  but  a  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  Black-walnut  stumps  are  bought  for  veneer 
wherever  they  can  be  found. 

It  is  hopeless  to  try  to  list  the  uses  of  wood — even  of  our 
native  kinds — with  fulness  and  accuracy.  The  lumber  trade  is  in 
unstable  equilibrium.  Certain  kinds  of  lumber  are  giving  out — 
the  black  walnut,  for  instance.  Substitution  of  cheaper  woods 
by  furniture  factories  is  a  symptom  that  the  supply  of  good 
lumber  is  running  low  and  prices  high.  A  few  years  ago  red 
oak  was  discarded.  Only  white  oak  was  suitable  for  furniture 
and  oak  interior  finish.  To-day  no  distinction  is  made  between 
these  two  species.  White  oak  is  scarce  and  is  used  for  the  most 
expensive  work.  Red  oak  is  the  bulk  of  the  supply.  To  the 
general  public  oak  is  oak,  and  the  manufacturer  and  retailer 
are  not  inclined  to  bother  the  buyer  with  hair-splitting  distinctions. 
In  fact,  most  "oak"  furniture  that  sells  at  low  prices  is  elm, 
whose  coarse,  muddy  grain  is  a  poor  imitation  of  oak. 

Spruce  forests  were  ignored  by  lumbermen  and  esteemed 
worthless  by  the  general  public  twenty-five  years  ago.  Then  the 
pulp  industry  sprung  up,  and  spruce  wood  made  the  best  paper. 
The  pulp  men  bought  tracts  of  spruce  forests,  and  the  mills 
now  consume  thousands  of  acres  a  year.  So  great  has  been  the 
drain  upon  these  forests  that  already  pulp  makers  are  looking 
to  Canada  as  the  source  of  future  supplies.  Regenerative  forestry 
is  being  put  into  force  in  many  thousand  acres  to  maintain  the 
spruce  crop  on  the  same  land.    Spruce  wood  brings  $6  to  $7 

528 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

per  cord  at  the  pulp  mills,  and  even  spruce  stumps  are  bought 
at  I15  per  thousand  feet.  This  revolution  of  values  brings 
spruce  up  until  it  costs  more  than  Southern  pine  in  the  market — 
a  condition  of  affairs  unthinkable  in  the  lumber  trade  a  few  years 
ago. 

Paper  making  has  raised  cottonwood  and  other  soft,  white 
woods  to  a  rank  above  ordinary  hardwoods,  among  which  they 
were  counted  by  foresters  as  mere  nurse  trees  and  forest  weeds. 
A  state  forester  recently  said:  "If  I  could  change  all  the  trees 
in  the  state  forests  to  poplars  I  would  add  greatly  to  the  wealth 
these  acres  represent.  The  pulp  and  paper  mills  would  take 
every  stick  we  could  cut  and  beg  for  more.  We  could  set  our 
own  price." 

Twenty  years  ago  white  pine  was  still  king  of  soft-wood 
lumbers.  Its  day  is  past,  partly  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the 
virgin  growth  in  great  Northern  pineries,  partly  by  reason  of  the 
exploitation  of  Southern  pines.  The  "black  sap"  of  Southern 
pines,  seasoned  slowly  in  the  lumber  pile,  darkened  the  wood  and 
made  it  impossible  as  a  competitor  of  white  pine  in  the  markets. 
But  kiln-drying  makes  yellow  pine  white,  so  that  the  yellow 
pines  of  the  South  now  furnish  handsome  flooring,  interior  finish 
and  general  building  material  in  vast  quantities.  It  is  also  used 
for  furniture  and  for  ties. 

FOREST   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  Naval-Stores  Industry.  Turpentine  gathering  in  the 
longleaf  pine  woods  began  with  the  settlement  of  the  country, 
and  torms  one  of  its  greatest  forest  industries.  Vast  quantities 
of  tar,  rosin  and  turpentine  have  been  consumed,  chiefly  in  ship- 
yards in  this  and  other  countries,  until  the  steel  craft  replaced 
the  wooden.  Now  other  industries  consume  the  surplus  output 
of  these  turpentine  orchards. 

A  pocket  several  inches  wide  and  deep  is  cut  near  the  base 
of  a  tree.  It  holds  two  or  three  pints  of  the  resin.*  The  bark  and 
the  outer  wood  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  are  chipped  off  for  a  consider- 
able distance  above  the  pocket.  The  exposed  wood  bleeds  resin, 
which  is  regularly  dipped  from  the  pocket  by  a  man  with  a  ladle 

*R£sin  is  the  crude  liquid  ;   rosin  is  the  hard,  brittle  substance   left  after  the  turpentiiw 
is  extracted. 

529 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

and  a  pail,  who  gathers  the  flow  and  carries  it  in  barrels  to  the 
still.  Once  a  week  from  March  till  November  the  chipping  is 
repeated,  and  two  inches  are  added  to  the  height  of  the  chipped 
area.  If  this  fresh  wounding  did  not  occur,  the  flow  would  cease 
by  the  hardening  of  the  resin. 

One  man  tends  ten  thousand  "boxes,"  and  should  get  forty 
barrels  at  each  round,  or  "dip."  Eight  to  ten  circuits  are  made 
for  collecting  in  the  thirty-two  weeks  the  resin  flows.  The  hard 
gum  that  accumulates  in  cold  weather  is  also  gathered.  The 
yield  of  "dip"  to  "scrape"  in  this  first  season  is  as  four  to  one. 
As  the  trees  are  drained,  the  surface  exposed,  becoming  larger, 
yields  m.ore  of  the  hardened  gum,  and  the  grade  of  the  products 
deteriorates.  The  fourth  year  the  orchard  is  abandoned  by  the 
largest  operators,  who  move  to  pastures  new.  Small  owners 
box  their  trees  much  longer,  rest  them  a  few  years,  then  box 
again  on  bark  before  untouched. 

In  the  still,  the  resin  is  melted  and  the  volatile  turpentine 
driven  off  and  collected  in  barrels.  The  fire  goes  out  and  the 
residue  in  the  retort  is  drawn  off  through  strainers  into  barrels, 
where  it  solidifies  when  cool  into  rosin.  The  price  of  turpentine 
varies  from  twenty-eight  cents  to  forty  cents  per  gallon;  that  of 
rosin  is  about  |2  per  barrel. 

The  wastefulness  of  the  old  boxing  methods  shocks  every 
intelligent  observer.  Better  ways  are  being  introduced,  which, 
while  more  expensive,  yet  pay  for  the  trouble  in  the  generous 
increase  in  yield  and  the  improving  of  the  quality  of  the  turpentine 
and  rosin.  The  cup  devised  by  Mr.  Schuler  (see  Bulletin  13, 
Division  of  Forestry)  takes  the  place  of  the  deep,  injurious  pocket 
made  in  old-fashioned  boxing  and  does  away  with  dirt  and  chips 
in  the  crude  turpentine. 

While  the  timber  is  not  directly  injured  by  the  boxing,  the 
pine  orchards  fall  a  prey  to  fungi  and  insects,  the  trunks  are 
weakened  by  deep  boxes,  and  the  wounds  destroy  the  cambium, 
semi-girdling  the  trees  and  necessarily  lowering  their  vitality. 
The  demoralised  condition  of  an  abandoned  orchard  under  the 
ordinary  careless  management  points  to  the  trees'  early  death. 

Pine  tar  has  long  been  extracted  from  the  longleaf  by  piling 
dry  wood,  limbs,  roots,  and  stumps,  cut  in  small  sizes,  closely 
in  a  clay-lined  pit,  covering  it  with  sods  and  earth,  and  burning 
it  with  smouldering  fires  lit  below  at  small  apertures.    A  passage- 

530 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

way  provided  from  the  pit  leads  the  oozing  resin  to  the  barrels. 
After  a  week  or  more  this  pine  tar  begins  to  flow  and  continues 
/or  several  weeks.  The  quality  is  much  lower  than  that  produced 
in  retorts,  for  it  is  mixed  with  dirt.  Boiling  down  pine  tar  until 
it  loses  one-third  its  weight  makes  a  sticky  mass  called  pitch. 
The  wood  in  the  pit  is  transformed  into  charcoal. 

This  pit  method  of  extracting  tar  and  making  charcoal  is  a 
crude  prototype  of  the  process  of  dry  or  destructive  distillation 
of  wood. 

The  Dry-Distillaiion  Process.— Whdit  the  oil  mill  is  to  the 
cotton  field  the  still  is  to  the  forest.  Its  work  is  to  dispose  of  the 
refuse  and  to  turn  it  into  gold.  Crooked  branches,  knots,  root 
stubs — sound  wood  the  lumberman  ignores — is  cut  up  and 
packed  into  a  retort.  A  furnace  underneath  heats  this  air-tight 
chamber  to  6oo°-8oo°  F.  The  water  goes  off  as  steam  in  a  coil  or 
worm,  upon  which  cold  water  is  played  in  order  to  cool  and  condense 
its  contents.  A  wood  gas  is  next  driven  off.  Then  a  brownish 
liquid  flows  out.  This  contains  wood  vinegar,  used  extensively 
in  dyeworks,  and  acetic  acid,  which  is  made  into  vinegar.  There 
is  also  present  wood  alcohol,  useful  to  the  manufacturing  chemist, 
and  in  many  other  industries.  Tar  and  creosote  are  also 
yielded  by  maple,  beech,  and  birch,  the  preferred  woods  at 
the  regular  acid  mills.  After  twelve  hours,  the  retort  is 
emptied  and  refilled.  The  wood  is  found  to  be  transformed 
into  charcoal.  Many  acid  mills  are  located  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania. 

In  the  longleaf  pine  woods  the  crooked,  knotty  top  stuff  and 
root  stubs  are  the  richest  in  resin.  These  yield  in  distillation 
the  greatest  quantity  of  tar  and  turpentine  and  the  highest 
qualities  of  these  products,  also  the  best  charcoal.  Beside  this 
process  the  old  method  of  burning  the  wood  in  kilns  or  pits  in 
hillsides  and  ladling  the  tar  into  barrels  was  most  slovenly  and 
wasteful.  Many  valuable  volatile  substances  that  are  now 
captured  in  the  coil  formerly  escaped  in  smoke. 

The  most  remarkable  invention  is  a  method  by  which  ethyl- 
alcohol,  the  highest  grade  known,  is  derived  by  distillation  from 
sawdust,  and  an  equally  high  grade  of  charcoal  is  left.  It  is 
the  Classen  method,  introduced  from  Germany  a  year  ago,  and  it 
promises  to  utilise  the  greatest  nuisances  of  the  sawmill,  the 
sawdust  and  slabs. 

531 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

SOME    INTERESTING   MINOR    INDUSTRIES 

"Top  stuff"  in  European  forests  is  cut  and  bound  in  neat 
bundles  of  fagots.  Even  small  twigs  are  utilised  as  fuel.  In  the 
Southern  pineries  a  similar  industry  has  cut  "fat  pine"  into 
small  kindling  wood  for  use  in  Northern  cities. 

Brushwood  is  used  in  the  construction  of  earthworks  and 
jetties  to  keep  the  channels  of  rivers  narrow  and  deep.  The 
lower  course  of  the  Mississippi  has  been  improved  by  sinking 
out  from  shore  latticework  of  limbs  bound  together.  These 
sink,  become  loaded  with  silt,  and  act  as  a  barrier  to  prevent  the 
crumbling  of  the  banks.  The  force  of  great  waves,  striking  a 
latticework  of  branches,  is  broken  into  innumerable  harmless 
ripples.    Jetties  are  much  cheaper  to  build  than  retaining  wails. 

The  great  wickerware  industry  of  Europe,  now  beginning  to 
establish  itself  in  this  country,  consumes  only  the  year's  growth 
on  certain  supple  varieties  of  willow. 

Young  growth  of  white  birch  that  springs  up  in  low  ground 
in  New  England  is  being  consumed  in  quantities  by  spool  factories 
and  manufactories  of  toys  and  other  small  wares.  The  trees 
are  used  when  scarcely  larger  than  cornstalks  in  some  of  these 
factories. 

Christmas  trees  for  cities  of  the  East  strip  hundreds  of  acres 
of  young  hemlock  and  balsam  firs  each  year.  In  the  South 
young  longleaf  pines  are  shipped  North,  and  hollies  and  magnolias 
of  all  sizes  are  cut  and  stripped  of  their  branches  for  Christmas 
decoration. 

In  all  this  we  see  that  the  lumberman  has  left  behind  much 
forest  wealth,  and  people  are  learning  to  gather  up  the  refuse 
and  turn  it  to  account.  The  small  sawmill  is  having  its  day  in 
many  wooded  regions  of  the  country,  making  money  in  ways 
which  the  big  mill  overlooked.  There  is  much  good  stuff  in 
slabs,  albeit  sap  wood  is  less  sound  and  harder  to  season  than  heart 
wood.  Lath  and  shingles  can  be  got  out  of  logs  unfit  for  first- 
class  boards.  Tops  of  trees  contain  posts,  stakes  and  hop  and 
bean  poles.  There  is  no  better  firewood  than  limbs  from  one  to 
two  inches  in  diameter.  Fuel  which  consumes  much  crooked 
hardwood-stuflF  yields  at  last  one  of  the  best  of  fertilisers. 

Tanbark  comes  from  many  oaks  and  from  hemlock  in  this 
country.    Chestnut  and  the  black  oaks  are  richest  in  tannin. 

532 


The  Uses  of  \/Vood 

The  tanbark  oak  of  California  is  exceptionally  rich,  and  its  ex- 
termination by  peelers  is  inevitable  unless  protective  measures 
are  adopted  soon.  The  same  may  be  said  of  hemlock  in  many 
regions,  though  hemlock  has  a  much  more  extensive  range.  In 
sections  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  England  hillsides  are  covered 
with  peeled  hemlocks  of  all  ages,  the  trees  being  destroyed  for 
their  bark  alone. 

There  are  many  tropical  trees  and  other  plants  that  yield 
tannin.  Quebracho  wood,  a  South  American  tree,  is  the  source 
of  tannin  extract  that  is  imported  by  American  tanneries  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Our  native  black  mangrove  or  blackwood, 
on  the  Florida  coast  and  neighbouring  keys  and  in  the  delta  of  the 
Mississipi,  is  a  valuable  source  of  tannin,  though  it  grows  in 
inaccessible  swamps,  full  of  fever  and  other  dangers. 

The  method  of  getting  out  hemlock  bark  is  described  in  the 
chapter:   "A  Lumber  Camp  of  To-day." 

Among  the  products  of  native  trees  the  nuts  are  important. 
Their  food  value  is  coming  to  be  appreciated  at  home  and  abroad. 
The  hickories  include  the  pecan  and  two  shagbarks,  both  nuts 
of  commercial  importance.  Walnuts  and  chestnuts  are  secondary. 
Beech  and  acorn  mast  fatten  hogs  and  furnish  a  living  to  in- 
numerable birds  and  wild  game,  as  also  do  berries,  plums  and  other 
tree  fruits.  Flowers  of  locust  and  basswood,  plum  and  cherry 
pasture  honey  bees.  So  do  many  trees  of  less  conspicuous 
inflorescence. 

Gums  of  balsam  fir  and  other  conifers,  sweet  gum  and  wax 
myrtle,  berries  of  buckthorns,  wild  cherry  and  holly,  roots  of 
sassafras,  twigs  of  witch  hazel,  all  yield  drugs.  Our  Southern 
silva  furnishes  valuable  dyewoods.  Sugar  from  the  sap  of  maples 
forms  an  important  and  delicious  food  product. 

In  the  Old  World  and  in  the  tropics  are  trees  whose  great 
value  to  the  human  race  is  suggested  by  the  mere  mention  of  their 
names.  The  cinchona  tree  yields  quinine  from  its  |)ark.  The 
juice  of  certain  trees  hardens  into  rubber.  Para,  the  Brazilian 
seaport,  is  the  great  distributor  of  rubber  to  the  world,  and  the 
silvas  of  the  Amazon  the  great  producers.  Lacquer  varnish  is  the 
juice  of  a  sumach  in  Japan.  Nutmeg  and  mace  and  cloves  and 
allspice  grow  on  trees  in  tropical  countries.  The  palms  feed, 
clothe  and  house  people. 

It  is  an  endless  story — the  useful  products  of  trees,  cultivated 
533 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

and  growing  wild  on  the  earth.  The  tropical  woods  are  full  of 
undiscovered  possibilities.  Our  own  rich  forest  flora  has  but 
begun  to  show  its  value  to  man. 

THE    FOREST  AS   A   UNIT 

In  a  literal  and  an  emphatic  sense  the  wooden  walls  of  a 
nation  are  its  forests.  The  trees  on  mountain  slopes  restrain  the 
waterflow  in  the  valleys,  preventing  flood  and  drought,  and  thereby 
hoarding  for  cities  their  supply  of  water.  Trees  temper  climate, 
drain  swamps,  add  a  stimulating  tonic  to  the  air,  and  take  from 
it  the  poisonous  carbonic-acid  gas.  The  pine  forests  are  sought 
by  invalids  for  the  healing  of  lung  troubles  in  every  country. 
Our  Adirondacks  and  the  Colorado  mountains  have  their  proto- 
types in  the  pine-clad  health  resorts  of  southwestern  France  and 
the  region  around  Baden  in  Germany,  whose  famous  Black 
Forest  has  a  balsamic  breath. 

European  nations  that  have  cut  down  their  forests  and  failed 
to  store  them  have  proved  their  national  weakness  and  their 
dependence  upon  wiser  neighbours.  The  Mediterranean  countries 
are  among  the  foolish — buying  lumber  continually  from  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Germany,  and  suffering  in  climate,  water  supply  and 
in  the  poverty  of  the  peasant  class,  the  results  of  having  no  home 
forests. 

Tree  roots  are  rock  breakers,  able  to  make  their  way  even 
through  granite  boulders.  The  root  hairs  excrete  an  acid  that 
eats  away  limestone  and  disintegrates  rock  particles,  while  the 
mighty  pressure  of  growth  is  crowding  the  sides  of  cracks  apart. 
In  time,  with  water  and  frost  and  other  forces  co-operating,  the 
forbidding  rock  ledges  have  a  crumbling  layer  kept  from  blowing 
away  by  the  falling  leaves  and  sheltering  undergrowth.  The 
leaf  carpet  rots,  earthworms  mingle  its  substance  with  this 
"rock  meal,"  and  the  name  of  the  mixture  is  soil — broken-down 
vegetable  and  mineral  substance  yielding  plant  food  to  the 
hungry  roots  of  trees. 

Thus  a  forest  makes  soil,  deepening  and  enriching  it  the  more 
the  roots  take  from  it.  "Virgin  soil"  is  that  which  has  been 
covered  with  trees  for  hundreds  of  years.  Waste  land  moist 
enough  to  grow  trees  may  be  reclaimed  by  this  agency  in  a  few 
years.     Even  semi-arid  regions  will  grow  trees  if  only  the  proper 

534 


The  Uses  of  Wood 

ones  are  chosen.  This  is  the  lesson  Kansas  and  Nebraska  are 
learning  after  long  experiment  and  repeated  failure. 

The  meaning  of  trees  in  a  landscape — the  beauty  value  of 
them — is  oftenest  overlooked  by  those  who  have  always  seen 
them.  When  crossing  such  a  monotonous  stretch  of  treeless 
country  as  the  plains  of  Arizona  that  wait  for  irrigation,  the 
Easterner  for  the  first  time  has  a  full  appreciation  of  the  beauty 
of  his  familiar  wooded  hillsides,  and  tree-lined  streets.  Out  of 
homesickness  for  forest  scenery,  as  well  as  the  necessity  for  pro- 
tection and  wood  supply,  came  the  great  tree-planting  crusade 
that  swept  over  the  Middle  West  and  will  yet  dot  every  state 
with  homes  surrounded  by  groves. 

It  is  proper  to  recognise  here  the  influence  that  men  have 
unconsciously  drunk  in  from  trees.  Myth  and  song  have  remem- 
bered and  repeated  the  feelings  of  primitive  races  to  whom  trees 
gave  shelter  and  raiment  and  food.  The  old  Druids  worshipping 
the  oak  expressed  a  veneration  which  we  all  inherit,  whatever 
our  race  and  line.  Contact  with  trees  is  a  purifying,  uplifting 
experience.  Work  in  the  woods  develops  a  hardy,  clean  and 
intelligent  race.  When  we  lose  our  wonted  strength  of  mind  and 
body  go  to  to  the  woods  to  find  it. 


^^•5 


CHAPTER   II:     WOOD   PRESERVATION 

The  tendency  of  wood  to  rot  when  exposed  to  the  weather, 
and  especially  when  placed  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  when 
partially  submerged  in  water,  fresh  or  salt,  is  something  every- 
body knows.  Season  a  stick  of  timber,  then  build  it  into  your 
house  where  it  never  gets  damp  and  it  is  practically  imperishable. 
But  lay  it  in  the  sill,  and  unless  the  foundation  is  exceptionally 
high,  dampness  may  creep  up  and  fungous  disease  attack  and 
ultimately  destroy  the  timbers  upon  which  your  house  rests. 
No  matter  how  long  the  albuminous  substance  in  the  cells  of  sap 
wood  has  been  dry  and  inert,  moisture  softens  it  and  it  becomes 
a  favourable  soil  for  wood-destroying  fungi.  Rot  is  the  result. 
Every  decayed  twig  in  the  woods  is  a  menace  to  the  healthy  trees. 
In  time  it  scatters  disease  far  and  wide. 

A  telegraph  pole  a  few  years  old  breaks  off  at  the  ground  in  a 
stiff  wind  storm.  It  is  rotten  to  the  heart.  But  the  wood  above 
ground  is  sound;  so  it  is  below  the  surface.  This  is  not  a  marvel. 
Rot  is  an  organism  that  breathes  while  it  grows.  Oxygen  avail- 
able for  growth  is  not  found  far  below  the  entrance.  Rot  is 
dependent  on  moisture;  the  wind  keeps  the  exposed  parts  of  the 
pole  dry.  Hence  the  rot  is  restricted  to  a  narrow  zone — the 
surface  of  the  soil — and  the  broken  ends  show  how  far  its  growth 
has  proceeded.  Posts  break  off  at  the  ground  for  like  cause. 
Piles  in  wharves  rot  oflF  at  some  point  between  high  and  low  water 
mark.  Railroad  ties  and  paving  blocks  suffer  a  more  general 
decadence.  Mine  timbers  fall  a  prey  to  their  own  particular 
subterranean  fungi. 

Weathering  boards  turn  grey  in  the  alternation  of  sun  and 
rain,  heat  and  cold.  The  outer  fibres  weaken  and  disintegrate. 
Oak  can  be  scraped  off  with  the  fmger  nail.  Hornets  chew  it  into 
pulp  to  build  their  paper  castles. 

The  protection  and  preservation  of  wood  has  been  one  of 
the  problems  of  civilisation.  A  vast  body  of  experience  has 
accumulated,  and  we  are  nearer  to-day  to  a  satisfactory,  a  trium- 

536 


Wood  Preservation 

phant,  solution  of  the  problem  than  ever  before.  Decay  is  some- 
thing that  enters  wood  from  the  outside,  at  some  time.  To 
prevent  the  entrance  of  the  spores  of  the  disease  into  sound 
timber  is  to  save  it.  A  protective  covering  that  will  effectively 
do  this  is  the  quest  of  science  and  of  all  the  wood-consuming 
industries.  One  of  the  earliest  hints  came  to  men  before  the 
days  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  lasting  qualities  of  charred 
wood  were  observed.  So  they  learned  to  char  the  lower  parts  of 
all  stakes,  posts  and  poles  before  setting  them  in  the  ground. 
The  ancient  practice  is  still  held  to  in  many  regions.  The  timbers 
in  salt  mines  last  indefinitely.  So  the  suggestion  to  soak  posts 
in  brine  has  been  eagerly  followed.  But  the  salt  soon  leaches  out 
in  contact  with  soil  water.  Impregnation  of  timbers  with  chemi- 
cals has  been  practised  commercially  for  about  one  hundred 
years.  Numerous  preparations  and  processes  have  been  tried 
with  varying  success.  Chloride  of  zinc  and  of  mercury,  sulphate 
of  iron  and  of  copper,  and  other  things  have  had  their  advocates. 
Most  of  them  fail  because  the  preservatives  are  lost  to  the  sur- 
rounding soil  or  water,  in  a  short  time.  Some  are  too  expensive 
to  be  practical.  Impregnation  by  soaking,  steeping,  boiling 
and  pressure  has  been  tried.  High  temperature,  while  it  produces 
thorough  impregnation,  has  a  disintegrating  effect  upon  the  wood 
fibres  as  a  whole.  Soaking  takes  too  much  time.  Pressure 
requires  elaborate  and  expensive  machinery.  Each  seems  to 
have  its  drawbacks. 

Creosote  oil,  a  by-product  of  illuminating  gas,  is  believed  now 
to  be  the  best  substance  available  for  impregnation,  and  the 
following  the  best  method  of  treating  the  timbers.  Seasoned 
railroad  ties  are  placed  in  a  tank  in  the  hot  oil  until  a  high  temper- 
ature is  reached.  The  oil  is  drawn  off,  and  a  cold  supply  pumped 
in.  The  sudden  cooling  and  condensing  of  gases  and  vapour  in 
the  wood  cells  produce  a  vacuum  suction,  to  which  is  added  the 
force  of  capillarity.     Thus  oil  is  forced  into  the  wood. 

Creosote  oil  has  the  following  good  points:  (i)  It  fills  the 
cells  with  oil,  thus  keeping  water  out.  (2)  It  does  not  leach  or 
lose  strength  in  water  or  soil.  (3)  It  is  a  fungicide,  and  is  also 
poisonous  to  boring  insects  and  crustaceans,  like  the  white  ants, 
the  ship  worm,  and  the  Limnoria,  creatures  that  honeycomb 
furniture,  ship  bottoms  and  wharves,  giving  no  visible  warning 
until  the  structure  is  a  wreck.     Creosote  prevents  the  rusting  of 

537 


Wood  Preservation 

spikes  and  nails  driven  into  timbers  treated.  They  remain  tight 
whatever  happens.  Creosote  can  be  thoroughly  appHed  with 
moderate  cheapness.  It  can  be  had  in  large  quantities  from  gas 
works.  The  average  tie  of  white  oak  costs  sixty  cents  and  thirty 
cents  to  lay  it.  Creosoting  costs  but  twenty  cents  additional. 
Treated  ties  are  still  sound  after  untreated  ones  have  been  replaced 
several  times. 

A  very  fortunate  coincidence  was  discovered  in  the  course 
of  the  investigations  on  wood  preservation.  Hard  woods,  like 
white  oak  and  longleaf  pine,  do  not  absorb  preservatives  as 
rapidly  nor  as  thoroughly  as  cheaper,  more  porous  woods,  with 
thicker  sap  wood,  like  red  oak  and  Cuban  pine.  Therefore,  the 
cheap  woods,  well  saturated,  outlive  the  dear  ones.  White  oak, 
for  which  railroads  oflFer  fifty  cents  a  tie,  will  bring  double  that 
sum  at  the  furniture  factory.  Railroads  cannot  longer  afford 
to  use  white  oak.  Beech,  properly  impregnated,  will  outlast 
white  oak.  Its  normal  life  of  five  years  can  be  extended  to 
twenty-five  years. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry,  with  the  co-operation  of  railroad 
corporations  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  has  elaborate 
experiments  in  progress  bearing  upon  the  preservation  of  wood. 
The  work  is  disinterested  and  scientific,  and  creosoting  is  the 
method  that  has  proved  best.  The  important  railroad  systems 
of  England  and  the  Continent  have  reached  the  same  conclusion. 
Creosoting  ties  is  there  as  much  a  matter  of  course  as  laying  them. 
The  higher  prices  and  greater  scarcity  of  timber  in  Europe  ex- 
plain why  they  are  so  far  in  advance  of  us  in  the  practice  of  wood 
preservation. 

The  importance  of  thoroughly  seasoning  wood  before  im- 
pregnating it  with  chemicals  cannot  be  over-estimated.  Green 
wood,  full  of  sap,  resists  the  entrance  of  any  substance,  especially 
oils.  Even  if  this  difficulty  could  be  surmounted,  the  seasoning 
of  wood  produces  cracks  through  which  decay  gets  in,  and  im- 
pregnation counts  for  naught.  Before  treating,  railroad  ties  are 
bored  with  holes  for  the  entrance  of  the  spikes,  so  that  even 
these  small  apertures  oflFer  no  untreated  surfaces  for  water 
containing  disease  spores  to  enter. 

Creosoting  paving  blocks,  piles  for  bridges,  wharves  and 
cribs  and  the  exposed  hulls  of  wooden  vessels  is  successfully 
and    extensively    done    nowadays.     The    ship    worm    does    not 


Wood  Preservation 

like  the  taste  of  treated  wood,  though  this  attenuated  crustacean 
bores  his  way  through  the  hardest  of  wood  (except  green  heart) 
that  is  not  medicated  to  discourage  him. 

Trees  that  fall  in  bogs  and  lakes  lie  too  far  down  for  destruc- 
tion by  fungous  organisms.  The  water-soaked  fibres  have  their 
protoplasmic  contents  dissolved  out,  and  mineral  substances 
held  in  the  water  are  deposited  by  slow  degrees.  Bog  oak  of 
Ireland  is  black  as  ebony  from  bark  to  pith.  It  is  also  heavy 
by  the  weight  of  the  mineral  substance  that  impregnates  its 
cells.  Wood  impregnation  by  natural  processes  reaches  its 
highest  perfection  in  the  petrifactions  that  occur.  The  petrified 
forest  of  Arizona  contains  trees  which  preserve  their  form  and 
structure,  even  to  wood  rings,  but  silica  has  been  infiltrated  to 
the  utmost  cell,  turning  the  whole  tree  into  agate,  chalcedony 
or  other  forms  of  quartz.  Montana  has  an  extensive  forest  of 
trees  turned  to  stone  of  a  translucent,  opaline  character.  The 
colours  are  blue,  white  and  smoky  black.  Doctor  Merrill  of  the 
National  Museum  found  this  forest  in  1903,  and  his  report  wisely 
withholds  its  location.  It  is  scarcely  desirable  that  this  remark- 
able opalised  wood  should  be  nabbed  by  a  syndicate  and  cut  up 
into  paper  weights — a  fate  that  has  overtaken  the  fossil  forest  of 
Arizona. 

Paint  gives  effectual  protection  to  wood  exposed  to  the 
weather,  with  its  alternation  of  heat  and  cold,  sun  and  rain. 
It  needs  renewing  every  few  years.  The  basis  of  paint  is  oil — 
pure  linseed  oil  being  the  best.  Ground  pigments  mixed  into 
the  oil  until  it  has  the  consistency  of  rich  cream  supply  colour 
and  filling.  The  paint  applied,  the  oil  soaks  in  and  fills  the  wood 
cells,  while  the  pigments  form  a  protective  layer,  or  film,  over 
the  surface.  When  this  layer  cracks  and  scales  off,  a  fresh 
painting  is  needed  Oil  alone  is  a  protective  covering.  Or  oil 
may  be  left  out,  and  pigments  dissolved  in  other  liquids  may  be 
applied.  Whitewash  is  a  familiar  example  of  this  treatment. 
All  such  applications  last  but  a  short  time.  In  the  chapter 
that  follows  some  account  is  given  of  the  processes  that  preserve 
wood  and  at  the  same  time  beautify  it. 


539 


CHAPTER    III:    THE   FINISHING  OF  WOODS 

The  various  processes  to  which  wood  is  treated  under  this 
head  accomphsh  one  or  more  of  these  results:  (i)  They  preserve 
it;  (2)  they  make  it  easy  to  keep  clean;  (3)  they  beautify  it,  by 
bringing  out  the  grain  or  by  covering  it  with  a  uniform  colour. 

Paint  has  long  been  the  standard  finish  for  woods  of  cheap 
quality  exposed  to  the  air,  for  inside  and  outside  work.  It  is  a 
preservative,  filling  the  pores  of  the  wood  with  pigments  mixed 
with  oil;  and  it  satisfies  the  tastes  of  all,  being  made  in  an  infinite 
variety  of  colours,  shades  and  tints.  It  conceals  knots,  cracks 
and  other  defects,  producing  a  smooth,  shining,  uniform  surface. 

"Graining"  is  a  base  imitation  of  the  natural  grain  of  oak 
and  other  woods.  As  a  child  I  watched  a  man  at  this  work. 
Yellow  paint  had  dried  fairly  on  a  cheap,  white-pine  door.  A 
light  brushing  of  brown  paint  was  spread  unevenly  over  one 
panel.  Then  one  thumb,  wrapped  with  a  rag,  was  dipped  into 
the  brown  paint,  and  a  knot  with  radiating  brown  streaks  was 
set  in  each  end  of  the  panel.  One  or  two  scattered  little  knots 
were  thrown  in  for  good  measure.  Then  the  artistic  thumb 
retired,  and  a  comb  came  into  commission.  The  blade  of  it 
drawn  over  the  plain  brown  field  scraped  off  narrow  lines  of  the 
dark  colour  and  left  the  yellow  showing  through  in  parallel, 
alternating  lines.  An  agitated  sidewise  motion  of  the  comb 
produced  a  "curly"  patch  on  a  field  intended  to  imitate  the 
grain  of  oak  with  its  spring  and  summer  wood  of  alternating 
yellow  and  brown. 

There  may  be  such  a  thing  as  good  graining.  I  can  see  only 
ugly,  insincere  imitation  in  it.  A  painted  door  makes  no  pretence 
to  be  a  hard  wood,  therefore  it  is  honest.     A  grained  door  is  not. 

Staining.  Pigments  dissolved  in  water  or  in  other  liquids 
stain  wood  to  any  desired  colour.  Nut  galls  and  various  dyestuffs 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  Creosote  oil,  properly  coloured,  is 
a  popular  stain  for  shingles.  It  is  a  preservative,  and  gives  a 
soft,  dull  finish,  being  absorbed  without  concealing  the  texture 
of  the  wood.    This  sort  of  staining  is  a  far  more  artistic  colour 

540 


The  Finishing  of  Woods 

process  than  painting,  when  the  outside  finish  of  houses  is  con- 
sidered. Being  a  rough  finish,  it  is  not  employed  on  interiors 
unless  a  rustic  scheme  is  being  followed. 

Staining  is  also  an  important  part  of  the  finishing  of  ex- 
pensive hardwood  interiors.  Even  the  best  white  oak  is  treated 
to  a  little  yellow  to  give  it  a  creamier  colour.  "Weathered  oak" 
owes  its  age  to  fumes  of  ammonia  or  to  burnt  umber  as  a  rule,  and 
Flemish  oak  to  darker  dyes.  The  bog  oak  of  Ireland  is  black  as 
soot,  but  an  imitation  is  produced  by  staining  any  of  our  oaks 
black.  It  takes  a  connoisseur  to  tell  the  genuine  from  the  bogus. 
Ebony  and  teak  are  easily  imitated.  Elm  masquerades  as  oak, 
birch  as  mahogany.  Yet  staining  is  a  legitimate  practice.  The 
handsomest  of  mahogany  has  had  a  little  Venetian  red  worked  into 
its  pores  to  brighten  the  grain  and  make  the  colour  even. 

Filling.  Coarse-grained  woods  are  very  porous  and  easily 
dented,  and  do  not  take  a  good  polish  unless  a  filler  is  used.  A 
great  many  different  substances  are  used  to  replace  the  air  in 
these  wood  cells.  In  fact  there  are  very  few  woods  that  are  not 
both  filled  and  stained  before  they  are  ready  to  be  polished. 
"White  fillers"  are  tinted  before  they  are  applied.  Some  woods 
are  filled  with  plaster  of  Paris,  moistened  with  water  or  spirits 
after  being  rubbed  into  the  surface  as  a  powder.  Whiting  and 
pumice  are  also  used.  Glue  and  patent  wood  sizings,  even  tallow 
with  plaster  of  Paris,  are  used.  A  popular  filler  is  ordinary 
varnish.  When  the  filler  is  dry  the  surface  is  hard  and  ready 
for  the  finishing  process. 

Garnishing.  Varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  shellac  in  spirits. 
The  volatile  liquid  elements  dry  away,  and  a  shiny,  hard  coating 
of  the  shellac  remains.  It  shows  white  lines  when  scratched  with 
a  pin'.  Varnish  combined  with  stain  is  a  popular  finish  for 
cheap  woodwork.  The  best  varnish  is  made  of  white  shellac; 
through  it  the  grain  of  the  v/ood  shows  as  if  through  a  pane  of 
polished  glass. 

After  the  filler,  which  raises  the  grain  into  a  rough  surface, 
there  is  a  rubbing  down  with  pumice  or  fine  sandpaper.  Other- 
wise the  varnish  emphasises  the  roughness. 

Polishing.  Every  fine  piece  of  furniture  or  of  woodwork  is 
polished  to  bring  out  the  beauty  of  its  grain  and  colouring.  The 
marvellous  lustre  of  ^iano  cases  and  rich  furniture  is  due  as 
much  to  the  faithful  rubbing  with  an  old  rag  as  to  any  other  trick 

541 


The  Finishing  of  Woods 

of  the  trade.  Not  just  any  old  rag,  but  one  specialised  and 
mellowed  by  long  years  of  use.  "French  polish"  is  the  highest 
art  in  the  finishing  of  woods. 

Good  taste  prefers  the  soft,  waxy  lustre  to  the  gleaming 
surface  of  new  varnish.  A  rag.  with  rotten  stone  to  dip  it  in 
occasionally,  and  patient,  long-continued  rubbing,  eliminates 
"the  vulgar  shine."  Soft  pine,  stained  red,  varnished,  then 
"pummied"  (rubbed  with  powdered  pumice  stone),  gives  a  very 
satisfactory  cherry  finish. 

Wax  -polishing  is  a  dull  finish,  made  simply  by  saturating 
the  surface  of  coarse-grained  woods  with  melted  beeswax  mixed 
with  turpentine.  Rosin  added  makes  a  harder  surface.  One 
rag  rubs  in  the  polish.  Another  wipes  off  all  excess.  A  third 
rag  polishes  the  surface.  It  is  a  laborious  method,  but  it  pays 
in  utility  and  looks.  Oak  dining  tables,  if  varnished,  turn  white 
where  hot  dishes  touch  them.  Wax  polishing  is  not  discoloured 
by  heat,  so  it  is  preferable. 

Oil  polishing  is  very  often  seen  in  the  finishing  of  handsome 
hard  pine.  As  much  pure  linseed  oil  as  the  smoothed  surface 
will  absorb;  then  rub,  rub,  rub!  This  brightens  the  rich  orange 
red  of  the  grain  and  makes  the  intricate  and  beautiful  patterns 
of  it  stand  out  with  striking  clearness  through  the  transparent 
dressing.  A  soft  lustre  follows  persistent  rubbing.  This  process 
is  by  no  means  restricted  to  pine.  Any  wood  with  handsome 
grain  warrants  the  oil  finish. 

Glaring  is  a  process  used  in  finishing  fretwork  which  cannot 
be  reached  by  the  polishing  rag  or  that  is  too  frail  to  be  rubbed. 
Spindles  of  fancy  chairs  and  cabinets,  grilled  archways  and  the 
like  require  it,  while  the  rest  of  the  article  is  polished.  Inlay 
work  is  often  glazed.  The  preparation  is  made  of  some  choice 
gum  dissolved  in  methylated  spirits.  This  enamelling  of  wood 
to  a  china-like  finish  is  comparable  to  the  lacquer  work  of  the 
Japanese  artisans,  a  secret  process  which  produces,  from  the 
milky  juice  of  a  tree  closely  related  to  our  own  poison  sumach,  a 
coating  that  resembles  patent  leather  on  boxes  and  innumerable 
fancy  articles  made  out  of  the  soft,  white  magnolia  wood. 


542 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Doubleday.  Page  &  Company 

FLOWER    AND    BUD    OF    GREAT    RHODODENDRON    { Rhododendron  maximum) 


CHAPTER    IV:   WOODEN   PAPER 

Once  upon  a  time  paper  grew  on  trees,  and  within  the  past 
quarter  of  a  century  the  world  has  turned  again  to  the  forests 
as  the  source  of  its  supply.  Thin  sheets  of  the  inner  bark  of 
birch  in  America  and  Europe,  and  of  the  paper  mulberry  in 
Asiatic  countries  preserved  the  crude  characters  by  which  primitive 
peoples  expressed  themselves.  The  names — beech,  heece,  hoc, 
bok,  buch,  hook — link  the  past  with  the  present  in  the  races  sprung 
from  Teutonic  stock.  They  sent  messages  from  tribe  to  tribe 
written  in  symbols  on  thin  beechen  boards — their  first  written 
communications.  Afterward,  the  old  Scandinavian  and  Icelandic 
runes  were  written  on  the  same  sort  of  wood,  and  many  boards 
constituted  a  book.  The  word  "liber,"  Latin  for  "book,"  is  the 
name  of  the  inner  bark  of  trees;  in  botany  the  term  has  always 
been  used.  The  word  "library,"  therefore,  has  a  long  and 
interesting  pedigree. 

The  reed,  papyrus,  was  harvested  for  paper  in  the  days  of 
antiquity,  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Nile.  Thin  sheets  of  the 
pith  of  this  slender  plant  formed  the  books  of  early  Egypt. 
Libraries  of  these  ancient  writings  were  preserved  in  the  Pyramids. 
The  narrow,  thin  strips  of  pith  were  joined  by  overlapping  their 
margins  and  by  lining  each  sheet  thus  formed  with  a  similar 
one  whose  strips  were  at  right  angles  with  the  strips  of  the 
first  one.  The  two  sheets,  made  one  by  pressure,  formed  a 
page  beside  which  the  boards  of  the  beechen  books  seem  very 
clumsy  indeed. 

The  fibres  of  cotton,  wool,  flax,  and  silk,  gathered  as  rags, 
cleaned,  bleached  and  shredded,  furnished  the  better  qualities 
of  paper  in  later  times.  They  still  do.  But  such  paper  is  ex- 
pensive. The  crude  materials  cannot  be  gathered  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  supply  the  demand  for  it.  Straw,  hemp  and  other 
grass  fibres  serve  for  paper  of  coarse  grades. 

To-day,  as  of  old,  our  paper  grows  on  trees,  for  nothing  has 
been  discovered  to  substitute  for  rags;  so  wooden  paper,  not  so 
good,  but  the  best  thing  so  far  to  be  had,  has  come  to  fill  the 

543 


Wooden  Paper 

demand.  No  longer  the  liber,  merely,  but  the  whole  bulk  of  the 
wood  substance  is  used. 

The  first  manufacturers  of  paper  from  wood  pulp  were  the 
white-faced  hornets,  whose  grey  nests  are  sedulously  let  alone 
by  the  sophisticated  roamer  of  the  woods  in  summer,  and  often 
ignorantly,  in  winter,  too,  though  the  citadel  is  empty  and  might 
be  taken.  The  wavy  lines  of  shaded  colour,  each  about  an  inch 
long  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  are  mouthfuls  of  wood 
fibre  gathered  from  the  surface  of  unpainted  posts  or  rails,  or 
dead  limbs  weatherworn  but  not  decayed.  Chewed  into  a  ball 
by  the  tireless  wasp,  this  pulp  is  skilfully  spread  and  attached 
to  the  thin  edge  of  the  wall  that  is  building.  It  dries  into  tough 
paper,  whose  texture  and  colour  vary  with  the  species  of  wood 
the  insect  collects  from.  Men  were  slow  to  learn  of  the  hornet, 
but  they  were  driven  to  it.  The  immense  increase  in  the  demand 
for  paper  has  had  to  be  met.  Forests  of  spruce  are  raised  in  Europe 
like  any  other  crop  for  the  supplying  of  the  paper  mills.  The 
trees  grow  uniform  like  corn  in  a  field.  They  are  thinned  and 
tended  throughout  their  lives.  A  certain  part  of  the  forests 
are  cut  clean  each  year  and  the  land  reset  with  seedling  trees. 
By  the  time  its  turn  comes  round  again,  this  area  has  another 
crop  ready  for  harvest.  The  limbs  even,  and  the  trees  taken  out 
by  the  thinning  process,  go  to  the  pulp  factory. 

In  America  great  quantities  of  spruce  and  other  woods  are 
yearly  cut  for  pulp.  A  single  large  New  York  daily  newspaper 
consumes  i8o  tons  of  spruce  paper  in  a  single  issue.  It  takes 
250  cords  of  wood  to  make  this  much  paper.  In  course  of  a  year 
this  one  order  will  clear  18,000  acres  of  spruce  timber,  as  it  averages 
among  our  Northern  mountain  forests.  When  we  consider 
the  newspapers  and  books  each  day  brings  forth,  the  paper  used 
in  other  ways — the  manifold  uses  to  which  paper  pulp  is  put 
beside  paper  making — we  are  not  surprised  that  the  pulp  makers 
are  concerned  as  to  the  future  sources  of  the  raw  materials  that 
feed  their  mills. 

PAPER   FROM   GROUND   WOOD 

Ordinary  news  paper  is  made  by  grinding  the  wood,  cleared 
of  bark  and  knots,  and  pressing  it  into  thin  sheets.  It  is  not 
strong  nor  durable,  but  it  outlasts  the  interest  of  the  reader  who 

.. 544      .     -         .  V        .      . 


Wooden  Paper 

buys  it.     It  goes  from  the  rubbish  heap  in  vast  quantities  back 
to  the  paper  mill,  to  be  bleached  and  used  over  and  over  again. 

THE   MAKING   OF   SULPHITE 

There  is  a  new  process  of  separating  the  wood  fibres  from 
other  organic  substance  by  chemicals.  Everything  but  the 
tough  cellulose  is  removed,  and  it  makes  a  strong  paper.  I 
visited  one  of  these  mills.  The  chemicals  used  produce  a  pulp 
called  in  trade  "sulphite." 

The  Wood.  This  mill,  on  the  bank  of  the  Delaware,  soon 
consumed  all  the  available  wood  on  the  hill  slopes  of  the 
neighbourhood.  Now  the  supply  comes  in  on  cars  from  regions 
more  remote.  Hemlock  and  spruce  are  the  only  kinds  used 
here.  They  are  sound  and  green  and  cost  at  the  mill  about  |6 
per  cord.  The  sticks  average  six  inches  to  eight  inches  in 
diameter,  and  are  sawed  in  two-foot  lengths.  The  smaller  the 
sticks,  the  greater  the  bulk  of  clear  stock  per  cord  and  the  less 
waste  in  bark. 

The  blocks  of  wood  are  stored  in  the  basement  and  go  in  their 
turn  to  the  peeling  machine,  whose  knives  remove  the  bark  in 
thin  slivers,  leaving  the  blocks  white  and  smooth.  The  bark  is 
carried  into  the  furnace,  for  it  has  considerable  fuel  value,  and 
must  be  put  out  of  the  way.  The  blocks  next  pass  to  a  machine 
where  they  are  chipped  into  flakes,  much  like  chips  on  a  woodpile. 
These  are  carried  to  a  great  cauldron  called  the  "Digester," 
with  capacity  of  four  or  five  tons  of  chips. 

The  Acid  Solution.  In  the  end  of  the  building  farthest 
away  from  the  stored  blocks  of  wood  are  the  raw  materials 
that  combine  to  convert  wood  into  sulphite.  In  one  bin  is  dry 
sulphur,  or  brimstone,  shovelled  in  by  the  ton.  In  another  is 
air-slacked  lime.  Into  a  large  tank  of  lime  water  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur  are  introduced.  The  acid  solution  thus 
produced  is  the  liquor  poured  over  the  chips  in  the  digester. 
Under  a  pressure  of  eighty  pounds  of  steam  the  chips  cook  for 
about  twelve  hours  or  longer.  The  judgment  of  an  experienced 
tester  is  needed  to  decide  when  the  cooking  is  done. 

To  scoop  out  this  mass  of  hot  pulp,  reeking  with  strong 
chemicals,  would  seem  a  dangerous  as  well  as  difficult  operation. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  very  simply  done.  A  tube  at  the  bottom 
of  the  digester  is  now  opened.      It  leads  to  an  empty  receiving 

545 


Wooden  Paper 

Vat.  The  steam  pressure  is  increased  above,  and  the  mass  is 
driven  out  by  the  blast,  leaving  the  walls  of  the  digester  as  clean 
as  if  they  had  been  scrubbed. 

The  cooking  has  chemically  freed  the  wood  fibre  from  every- 
thing else.  It  remains  to  get  the  delicate  white  threads  separated 
from  the  mass  of  waste  with  which  they  are  now  associated  in  the 
vat.  Washing  and  screening  are  the  means  of  freeing  the  fibres. 
The  processes  now  are  purely  mechanical.  Water  is  introduced, 
and  by  churning  and  draining  alternately  the  acid  solution  is 
washed  out.  Then  the  pulp  passes,  thinly  spread,  over  sets  of 
screens  that  take  out  the  coarsest  of  the  impurities,  brown  flakes 
of  pith  rays,  uncooked  knots,  and  bits  of  foreign  matter. 

Water  streams  over  and  through  the  screens,  carrying  the 
fine  white  fibres  with  it.  There  is  a  wide,  endless  apron  of  linen, 
like  a  gigantic  roller  towel,  that  revolves  at  right  angles  with 
the  screening  tables.  As  the  water  pours  over  this  the  fibres 
lodge  on  the  cloth,  and  as  the  dripping,  tightly  stretched  sheet 
of  linen  passes  between  the  two  big  steel  rollers  at  the  end  the 
filmy  layer  of  fibres  has  most  of  the  water  squeezed  out,  and 
adheres  as  a  damp,  matted  sheet  of  cotton  wool  to  the  upper 
wheel. 

A  continual  winding  of  this  coating  of  fibres  thickens  the 
roll  on  the  steel  cylinder  until  it  is  like  table  felt  of  heavy  quality. 
The  machinery  need  not  stop  while  it  is  removed.  A  pocket 
knife  is  run  from  end  to  end  of  the  cylinder  of  steel.  The  next 
revolution  lays  the  white  sheet  of  sulphite  on  the  table  in  front  of 
the  machine.  The  thin  film  on  the  steel  is  the  beginning  of  another. 

This  is  sulphite.  It  has  the  colour  of  unbleached  linen  or 
muslin.  In  fact,  it  looks  much  like  felt,  its  fibres  being  merely 
pressed  together — not  woven.  It  is  folded  clumsily  and  stacked 
for  the  present.  In  this  form  it  dries  gradually  for  use  or  ship- 
ment later,  or  it  may  be  used  at  once. 

The  Making  of  Paper.  In  this  mill  manufacture  goes  further 
than  in  many.  Sulphite  is  made  into  paper.  Not  the  highest 
grades,  for  the  refuse  of  a  woollen  mill  up  stream  pollutes  the 
water,  so  that  an  expensive  system  of  filters  would  be  required  if 
the  manufacture  of  the  better  papers  were  attempted. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  paper  making  is  to  bring  out 
the  rolls  of  sulphite  and  throw  them  into  a  tank  with  plenty  of 
water.     A  central  revolving  shaft  bears  heavy  arms  under  water 

546 


\A^ooden   Paper 

that  mix  the  contents  of  the  tank  into  a  uniform,  pulpy  consis- 
tency. The  motion  is  continuous  and  vigorous,  giving  the  tank 
its  name — "the  beater."  This  is  the  stage  in  paper  making 
where  the  character  of  the  product  is  determined.  Usually  a 
definite  order  limits  both  quality  and  quantity.  Here  colouring 
is  put  in.  "Fillers"  of  clay,  talc  or  starch  add  consistency  and 
weight.  "Sizing"  of  alum  and  rosin  or  of  animal  glue  bind  the 
fibres  and  make  the  paper  take  a  higher  polish.  There  is  a  recipe 
for  each  paper  in  the  sample  book.  The  beater  corresponds  to 
the  cook's  mixing  bowl  in  the  kitchen. 

From  the  beater  the  pulp  is  drawn  off  into  the  "stock  chest," 
another  vat  with  a  slowly  moving  paddle  that  keeps  the  ingre- 
dients thoroughly  mixed.  This  is  close  to  the  paper  machine, 
and  the  liquid  contents  of  it  are  screened  again  to  take  out  still 
smaller  impurities,  if  the  paper  is  required  to  be  free  from  specks 
and  other  small  blemishes. 

The  Mill.  The  paper  mill  is  long  and  narrov/,  with  many 
cylindrical  rollers,  some  covered  with  revolving  bands  of  cloth  that 
act  as  carriers — others  of  bare,  shining  steel.  The  fluid  pulp  that 
drains  through  the  screens  falls  on  a  moving  sheet  of  bronze  wire 
netting,  woven  so  fine  that  only  the  water  goes  through.  This 
netting  is  like  the  linen  roller  towel  under  the  first  screens — it  is  an 
endless  apron,  and  leads  around  the  lower  one  of  a  pair  of  rollers, 
bringing  to  them  a  thin  but  continuous  layer  of  wet  wood  fibre. 
The  upper  roller  is  wrapped  with  cloth,  to  which  the  film  of  fibres 
sticks  while  the  wire  net  turns  back  clean  to  the  point  of  begin- 
ning. Its  sole  duty  is  to  bring  the  pulp  to  the  first  pair  of  rollers, 
and  there,  giving  it  up,  return  for  more.  Pressed  into  a  sheet 
by  the  close-set  rollers,  the  fibres  cling  to  each  other  and  give  up 
more  water  to  the  absorbent  cloth.  The  sheet  may  now  be 
called  paper.  It  gains  strength  and  compactness  as  it  is  drawn 
from  one  set  of  rollers  to  another;  it  ceases  to  drip  water  into  the 
trough  below.  Taut  and  firm  it  winds  through  a  maze  of  a  dozen 
hot  rollers,  and  the  last  sign  of  moisture  rises  in  steam.  Next  it 
goes  through  rollers  called  calendars,  whose  high  pressure  gives 
the  paper  a  polished  surface  almost  equal  to  their  own.  Now 
knives  trim  the  margins,  cut  the  sheet  into  required  widths,  and 
wind  it  on  wooden  spools  for  market.  The  machine  relinquishes 
these  to  men  who  weigh  and  mark  the  spools  and  stack  them  aside. 

There  is  need  of  but  few  men  in  a  mill  where  the  machinery 

547 


Wooden  Paper 

is  SO  intelligent.  They  are  needed  when  the  sheet  breaks,  which 
occasionally  happens.  Ordinarily  the  machine  makes  pulp  into 
paper  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  and  without  help  or  guidance. 

There  seems  to  be  no  waste  in  this  mill.  The  first  screen- 
ings are  made  into  coarse  wrapping  paper  such  as  hardware  and 
furniture  are  done  up  in.  Though  ugly  and  spotted,  it  is  fairly 
strong.  The  second  screenings  make  a  finer  grade  of  paper. 
The  trimmings  and  broken  sheets  go  back  into  the  beater,  and 
come  to  the  mill  again  as  pulp.  Each  sort  of  waste  accumulates, 
waits  its  turn,  and  is  in  time  converted  into  paper  that  matches 
it  in  quality. 

There  is '  much  paper  making  along  our  northern  border, 
and  much  grief  that  there  is  a  duty  that  restricts  the  importation 
of  wood  from  the  ample  spruce  forests  of  Canada.  The  American 
paper  makers  would  have  the  duty  taken  off  their  wood  sup- 
plies and  laid  on  Canadian  paper,  sulphite,  etc.  This  is  "human 
nature" — self  interest. 

The  mills  of  northern  New  York  are  often  highly  specialised. 
Paper  mills  all  about  Carthage  get  their  sulphite  and  ground 
wood  from  a  single  factory.  A  firm  in  Watertown  makes  exclu- 
sively the  coloured,  super-calendered  paper  used  for  the  covers  of 
magazines.  There  is  a  mill  in  Carthage  which  makes  nothing 
but  tissue  paper.  It  is  a  new  mill  and  a  growing  business,  but 
its  daily  output  already  averages  seventeen  tons  of  marketable 
product.  Some  of  the  largest  mills  make  only  wall  papers.  Others 
make  in  vast  quantities  the  paper  on  which  the  great  dailies  are 
printed. 

Certain  woods  are  adapted  to  special  uses.  Our  postal 
cards  are  all  made  of  the  soft  yellowish  wood  of  the  tulip  tree, 
also  known  as  the  tulip  poplar  or  whitewood.  Cottonwoods  and 
their  relatives — the  true  poplars — likewise  the  basswoods  or 
lindens,  make  excellent  paper.  Their  wood  is  white  and  soft 
and  the  fibres  are  small  and  uniform  in  size. 

A  pulp  mill  or  paper  plant  cannot  be  shifted  from  place  to 
place  as  a  sawmill  can.  It  is  too  elaborate  and  expensive.  The 
forests  about  it  are  soon  stripped  of  suitable  material,  and  then 
the  item  of  transportation  of  wood  enters  the  expense  account, 
and  adds  greatly  to  the  cost  of  pulp  and  paper.  A  Fond  du  Lac, 
Wisconsin,  mill,  having  exhausted  its  own  woods,  is  now  making 
pulp  out  of  spruce  that  grows  on  the  mountains  of  Virginia. 

548 


PART  IV 
THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES 


CHAPTER    I:     THE  WORK   OF  THE   LEAVES 

The  swift  unfolding  of  the  leaves  in  spring  is  always  a  miracle. 
One  day  the  budded  twigs  are  still  wrapped  in  the  deep  sleep  of 
winter.  A  trace  of  green  appears  about  the  edges  of  the  bud 
scales — they  loosen  and  fall,  and  the  tender  green  shoot  looks 
timidly  out  and  begins  to  unfold  its  crumpled  leaves.  Soon  the 
delicate  blade  broadens  and  takes  on  the  texture  and  familiar 
appearance  of  the  grown-up  leaf.  Behold!  while  we  watched  the 
single  shoot  the  bare  tree  has  clothed  itself  in  the  green  canopy  of 
summer. 

How  can  this  miracle  take  place?  How  does  the  tree  come 
into  full  leaf,  sometimes  within  a  fraction  of  a  week?  It  could 
never  happen  except  for  the  store  of  concentrated  food  that  the 
sap  dissolves  in  spring  and  carries  to  the  buds,  and  for  the  remark- 
able activity  of  the  cambium  cells  within  the  buds. 

What  is  a  bud?  It  is  a  shoot  in  miniature — its  leaves  or 
flowers,  or  both,  formed  with  wondrous  completeness  in  the 
previous  summer.  About  its  base  are  crowded  leaves  so  hardened 
and  overlapped  as  to  cover  and  protect  the  tender  shoot.  All  the 
tree  can  ever  express  of  beauty  or  of  energy  comes  out  of  these 
precious  little  "growing  points,"  wrapped  up  all  winter,  but 
impatient,  as  spring  approaches,  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the 
south  wind  and  sun. 

The  protective  scale-leaves  fall  when  they  are  no  longer 
needed.  This  vernal  leaf  fall  makes  little  show  on  the  forest 
floor,  but  it  greatly  exceeds  in  number  of  leaves  the  autumnal 
defoliation. 

Sometimes  these  bud  scales  lengthen  before  the  shoot  spares 
them.  The  silky,  brown  scales  of  the  beech  buds  sometimes  add 
twice  their  length,  thus  protecting  the  lengthening  shoot  which 
seems  more  delicate  than  most  kinds,  less  ready  to  encounter 
unguarded  the  wind  and  the  sun.  The  hickories,  shagbark  and 
mockernut,  show  scales  more  than  three  inches  long. 

Many  leaves  are  rosy,  or  lilac  tinted,  when  they  open — the 
waxy  granules  of  their  precious  "leaf  green"  screened  by  these 

551 


The  Work  of  the  Leaves 

colored  pigments  from  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  Some  leaves  have 
wool  or  silk  growing  like  the  pile  of  velvet  on  their  surfaces.  These 
hairs  are  protective  also.  They  shrivel  or  blow  away  when  the 
leaf  comes  to  its  full  development.  Occasionally  a  species  retains 
the  down  on  the  lower  surface  of  its  leaves,  or,  oftener,  merely  in 
the  angles  of  its  veins. 

The  folding  and  plaiting  of  the  leaves  bring  the  ribs  and  veins 
into  prominence.  The  delicate  green  web  sinks  into  folds  between 
and  is  therefore  protected  from  the  weather.  Young  leaves 
hang  limp,  never  presenting  their  perpendicular  surfaces  to 
the  sun. 

Another  protection  to  the  infant  leaf  is  the  pair  of  stipules 
at  its  base.  Such  stipules  enclose  the  leaves  of  tulip  and  magnolia 
trees.  The  beech  leaf  has  two  long  strap-like  stipules.  Linden 
stipules  are  green  and  red — two  concave,  oblong  leaves,  like  the 
two  valves  of  a  pea  pod.  Elm  stipules  are  conspicuous.  The 
black  willow  has  large,  leaf-like,  heart-shaped  stipules,  green  as 
the  leaf  and  saw-toothed. 

Most  stipules  shield  the  tender  leaf  during  the  hours  of  its 
helplessness,  and  fall  away  as  the  leaf  matures.  Others  persist, 
as  is  often  seen  in  the  black  willows. 

With  this  second  vernal  leaf  fall  (for  stipules  are  leaves)  the 
leaves  assume  independence,  and  take  up  their  serious  work. 
They  are  ready  to  make  the  living  for  the  whole  tree.  Nothing 
contributed  by  soil  or  atmosphere — no  matter  how  rich  it  is — 
can  become  available  for  the  tree's  use  until  the  leaves  receive 
and  prepare  it. 

Every  leaf  that  spreads  its  green  blade  to  the  sun  is  a  labora- 
tory, devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  starch.  It  is,  in  fact,  an 
outward  extension  of  the  living  cambium,  thrust  out  beyond  the 
thick,  hampering  bark,  and  specialised  to  do  its  specific  work 
rapidly  and  effectively. 

The  structure  of  the  leaves  must  be  studied  with  a  microscope. 
This  laboratory  has  a  delicate,  transparent,  enclosing  wall, 
with  doors,  called  stomates,  scattered  over  the  lower  surface. 
The  "leaf  pulp"  is  inside,  so  is  the  framework  of  ribs  and  veins, 
that  not  only  supports  the  soft  tissues  but  furnishes  the  vascular 
system  by  which  an  incoming  and  outgoing  current  of  sap  is  kept 
in  constant  circulation.  In  the  upper  half  of  the  leaf,  facing  the 
sun,  the  pulp  is  in  "palisade  cells,"  regular,  oblong,  crowded 

552 


The  Work  of  the  Leaves 

together,  and  perpendicular  to  the  flat  surface.  There  are  some- 
times more  than  one  layer  of  these  cells. 

In  the  lower  half  of  the  leaf's  thickness,  between  the  palisade 
cells  and  the  under  surface,  the  tissue  is  spongy.  There  is  no 
crowding  of  cells  here.  They  are  irregularly  spherical,  and  cohere 
loosely,  being  separated  by  ample  air  spaces,  which  communicate 
with  the  outside  world  by  the  doorways  mentioned  above.  An 
ordinary  apple  leaf  has  about  one  hundred  thousand  of  these 
stomates  to  each  square  inch  of  its  under  surface.  So  the  ventila- 
tion of  the  leaf  is  provided  for. 

The  food  of  trees  comes  from  two  sources — the  air  and  the 
soil.  Dry  a  stick  of  wood,  and  the  water  leaves  it.  Burn  it  now, 
and  ashes  remain.  The  water  and  the  ashes  came  from  the  soil. 
That  which  came  from  the  air  passed  off  in  gaseous  form  with  the 
burning.  Some  elements  from  the  soil  also  were  converted  by  the 
heat  into  gases,  and  escaped  by  the  chimneys. 

Take  that  same  stick  of  wood,  and,  instead  of  burning  it  in 
an  open  fireplace  or  stove,  smother  it  in  a  pit  and  burn  it  slowly, 
and  it  comes  out  a  stick  of  charcoal,  having  its  shape  and  size  and 
grain  preserved.  It  is  carbon,  its  only  impurity  being  a  trace  of 
ashes.  What  would  have  escaped  up  a  chimney  as  carbonic-acid 
gas  is  confined  here  as  a  solid,  and  fire  can  yet  liberate  it. 

The  vast  amount  of  carbon  which  the  body  of  a  tree  contains 
came  into  its  leaves  as  a  gas,  carbon  dioxide.  The  soil  furnished 
various  minerals,  which  were  brought  up  in  the  "crude  sap." 
Most  of  these  remain  as  ashes  when  the  wood  is  burned.  Water 
comes  from  the  soil.  So  the  list  of  raw  materials  of  tree  food  is 
complete,  and  the  next  question  is:  How  are  they  prepared  for  the 
tree's  use? 

The  ascent  of  the  sap  from  roots  to  leaves  brings  water  with 
mineral  salts  dissolved  in  it.  Thus  potassium,  calcium,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  sulphur,  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  are  brought  to  the 
leaf  laboratories — some  are  useful,  some  useless.  The  stream 
of  water  contributes  of  itself  to  the  laboratory  whatever  the  leaf 
cells  demand  to  keep  their  own  substance  sufficiently  moist,  and 
those  molecules  that  are  necessary  to  furnish  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
for  the  making  of  starch.  Water  is  needed  also  to  keep  full  the 
channels  of  the  returning  streams,  but  the  great  bulk  of  water  that 
the  roots  send  up  escapes  by  evaporation  through  the  curtained 
doorways  of  the  leaves. 

553 


The  "Work  of  the  Leaves 

Starch  contains  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  last  two 
in  the  exact  proportion  that  they  bear  to  each  other  in  water, 
H2O.  The  carbon  comes  in  as  carbon  dioxide,  CO2.  There  is  no 
lack  of  this  familiar  gas  in  the  air.  It  is  exhaled  constantly  from 
the  lungs  of  every  animal,  from  chimneys  and  from  all  decaying 
substances.  It  is  diffused  through  the  air,  and,  entering  the  leaves 
by  the  stomates,  comes  in  contact  with  other  food  elements  in  the 
palisade  cells. 

The  power  that  runs  this  starch  factory  is  the  sun.  The 
chlorophyll,  or  leaf  green,  which  colours  the  clear  protoplasm  of  the 
cells,  is  able  to  absorb  in  daylight  (and  especially  on  warm,  sunny 
days)  some  of  the  energy  of  sunlight,  and  to  enable  the  protoplasm 
to  use  the  energy  thus  captured  to  the  chemical  breaking  down  of 
water  and  carbon  dioxide,  and  the  re-uniting  of  their  free  atoms 
into  new  and  more  complex  molecules.  These  are  molecules  of 
starch,  CeHioOs. 

The  new  product  in  soluble  form  makes  its  way  into  the  cur- 
rent of  nutritious  sap  that  sets  back  into  the  tree.  This  is  the 
one  product  of  the  factory — the  source  of  all  the  tree's  growth — for 
it  is  the  elaborated  sap,  the  food  which  nourishes  every 
living  cell  from  leaf  to  root  tip.  It  builds  new  wood  layers, 
extends  both  twigs  and  roots,  and  perfects  the  buds  for  the 
coming  year. 

Sunset  puts  a  stop  to  starch  making.  The  power  is  turned 
off  till  another  day.  The  distribution  of  starch  goes  on.  The 
surplus  is  unloaded,  and  the  way  is  cleared  for  work  next  day. 
On  a  sunless  day  less  starch  is  made  than  on  a  bright  one. 

Excess  of  water  and  of  free  oxygen  is  noticeable  in  this  making 
of  starch.  Both  escape  in  invisible  gaseous  form  through  the 
stomates.  No  carbon  escapes,  for  it  is  all  used  up,  and  a  con- 
tinual supply  of  CO2  sets  in  from  outside.  We  find  it  at  last  in 
the  form  of  solid  wood  fibres.  So  it  is  the  leaf's  high  calling  to 
take  the  crude  elements  brought  to  it,  and  convert  them  into  food 
ready  for  assimilation. 

There  are  little  elastic  curtains  on  the  doors  of  leaves,  and 
in  dry  weather  they  are  closely  drawn.  This  is  to  prevent  the 
free  escape  of  water,  which  might  debilitate  the  starch-making 
cells.  In  a  moist  atmosphere  the  doors  stand  wide  open.  Evapo- 
ration does  not  draw  water  so  hard  in  such  weather,  and  there  is 
no  danger  of  excessive  loss.     "The  average  oak  tree  in  its  five 

554 


The  Work  of  the  Leaves 

active  months  evaporates  about  28,000  gallons  of  water" — an 
average  of  about  187  gallons  a  day. 

In  the  making  of  starch  there  is  oxygen  left  over — just  the 
amount  there  is  left  of  the  carbon  dioxide  when  the  carbon  is 
seized  for  starch  making.  This  accumulating  gas  passes  into  the 
air  as  free  oxygen,  "purifying"  it  for  the  use  of  all  animal  life, 
even  as  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide  does. 

When  daylight  is  gone,  the  exchange  of  these  two  gases  ceases. 
There  is  no  excess  of  oxygen  nor  demand  for  carbon  dioxide  until 
business  begins  in  the  morning.  But  now  a  process  is  detected 
that  the  day's  activities  had  obscured. 

The  living  tree  breathes — inhales  oxygen  and  exhales  carbonic- 
acid  gas.  Because  the  leaves  exercise  the  function  of  respiration, 
they  may  properly  be  called  the  lungs  of  trees.  For  the  respira- 
tion of  animals  differs  in  no  essential  from  that  of  plants. 

The  bulk  of  the  work  of  the  leaves  is  accomplished  before 
midsummer.  They  are  damaged  by  whipping  in  the  wind,  by 
the  ravages  of  fungi  and  insects  of  many  kinds.  Soot  and  dust 
clog  the  stomates.  Mineral  deposits  cumber  the  working  cells. 
Finally  they  become  sere  and  russet  or  "die  like  the  dolphin," 
passing  in  all  the  splendour  of  sunset  skies  to  oblivion  on  the  leaf 
mould  under  the  trees. 


555 


CHAPTER   II :    THE  GROWTH  OF  A  TREE 

The  great  chestnut  tree  on  the  hillside  has  cast  its  burden 
of  ripe  nuts,  flung  down  the  empty  burs,  and  given  its  yellow 
leaves  to  the  autumn  winds.  Now  the  owner  has  cut  down  its 
twin,  which  was  too  near  a  neighbour  for  the  well-being  of  either, 
and  is  converting  it  into  lumber.  The  lopped  limbs  have  gone 
to  the  woodpile,  and  the  boards  will  be  dressed  and  polished  and 
used  for  the  woodwork  of  the  new  house.  Here  is  our  opportunity 
to  see  what  the  bark  of  the  living  tree  conceals — to  study  the 
anatomy  of  the  tree — to  learn  something  of  grain,  and  wood  rings 
and  knots. 

The  most  amazing  fact  is  that  this  "too,  too  solid  flesh"  of 
the  tree  body  was  all  made  of  dirty  water  and  carbonic-acid  gas. 
Well  may  we  feel  a  kind  of  awe  and  reverence  for  the  leaves  and 
the  cambium — the  builders  of  this  wooden  structure  we  call  a 
tree.  The  bark,  or  outer  garment,  covers  the  tree  completely, 
from  tip  of  farthest  root  to  tip  of  highest  twig.  Under  the  bark 
is  the  slimy,  colourless  living  layer,  the  cambium,  which  we  may 
define  as  the  separation  between  wood  and  bark.  It  seems  to 
have  no  perceptible  diameter,  though  it  impregnates  with  its 
substance  the  wood  and  bark  next  to  it.  This  cambium  is  a 
continuous  under  garment,  lining  the  bark  everywhere,  covering 
the  wood  of  every  root  and  every  twig  as  well  as  of  the  trunk 
and  all  its  larger  divisions. 

Under  the  cambium  is  the  wood,  which  forms  the  real  body 
of  the  tree.  It  is  a  hard  and  fibrous  substance,  which  in  cross 
section  of  root  or  trunk  or  limb  or  twig  is  seen  to  be  in  fine,  but 
distinctly  marked,  concentric  rings  about  a  central  pith.  This 
pith  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  twigs. 

Now,  what  does  the  chestnut  tree  accomplish  in  a  single 
growing  season?  We  have  seen  its  buds  open  in  early  spring 
and  watched  the  leafy  shoots  unfold.  Many  of  these  bore  clus- 
ters of  blossoms  in  midsummer,  long  yellow  spikes,  shaking  out 
a  mist  of  pollen,  and  falling  away  at  length,  while  the  incon- 
spicuous green  flowers  developed  into  spiny,  velvet-lined  burs 

556 


The  Growth  of  a  Tree 

that  gave  up  in  their  own  good  time  the  nuts  which  are  the  seeds 
of  the  tree. 

The  new  shoots,  having  formed  buds  in  the  angles  of  their 
leaves,  rest  from  their  labours.  The  tree  had  added  to  the  height 
and  breadth  of  its  crown  the  exact  measure  of  its  new  shoots. 
There  has  been  no  lengthening  of  limb  or  trunk  But  under- 
ground the  roots  have  made  a  season's  growth  by  extending 
their  tips.  These  fresh  rootlets  clothed  with  the  velvety  root 
hairs  are  new,  just  as  the  shoots  are  new  that  bear  the  leaves 
on  the  ends  of  the  branches. 

There  is  a  general  popular  impression  that  trees  grow  in  height 
by  the  gradual  lengthening  of  trunk  and  limbs.  If  this  were 
true,  nails  driven  into  the  trunk  in  a  vertical  line  would  gradually 
become  farther  apart.  They  do  not,  as  observation  proves. 
Fence  wires  stapled  to  growing  trees  are  not  spread  apart  nor 
carried  upward,  though  the  trees  may  serve  as  posts  for  years, 
and  the  growth  in  diameter  may  swallow  up  staple  and  wire  in 
a  short  time.  Normal  wood  fibres  are  inert  and  do  not  lengthen. 
Only  the  season's  rootlets  and  leafy  shoots  are  soft  and  alive  and 
capable  of  lengthening  by  cell  division. 

The  work  of  the  leaves  has  already  been  described.  The 
return  current,  bearing  starch  in  soluble  form,  flows  freely  among 
the  cells  of  the  cambium.  Oxygen  is  there  also.  The  cambium 
cell  in  the  growing  season  fulfils  its  life  mission  by  absorbing  food 
and  dividing.  This  is  growth — and  the  power  to  grow  comes 
only  to  the  cell  attacked  by  oxygen.  The  rebuilding  of  its  tissues 
multiplies  the  substance  of  the  cambium  at  a  rapid  rate.  A  cell 
divides,  producing  two  "daughter  cells."  Each  is  soon  as  large 
as  its  parent,  and  ready  to  divide  in  the  same  way.  A  cambium 
cell  is  a  microscopic  object,  but  in  a  tree  there  are  millions  upon 
millions  of  them.  Consider  how  large  an  area  of  cambium  a 
large  tree  has.  It  is  exactly  equivalent  to  the  total  area  of  its 
bark.  Two  cells  by  dividing  make  four.  The  next  division 
produces  eight,  then  sixteen,  thirty-two,  sixty-four,  in  geometric 
proportion.  The  cell's  power  and  disposition  to  divide  seems 
limited  only  by  the  food  and  oxygen  supply.  The  cambium 
layer  itself  remains  a  very  narrow  zone  of  the  newest,  most  active 
cells.  The  margins  of  the  cambium  are  crowded  with  cells  whose 
walls  are  thickened  and  whose  protoplasm  is  no  longer  active. 
The  accumulation  of  these  worn-out  cells  forms  the  total  of  the 

557 


The  Growth  of  a  Tree 

season's  growth,  the  annual  ring  of  wood  on  one  side  of  the  cam- 
bium and  the  annual  layer  of  bark  on  the  other. 

What  was  once  a  delicate  cell  now  becomes  a  hollow  wood 
fibre,  thin  walled,  but  becoming  thickened  as  it  gets  older.  For 
a  few  years  the  superannuated  cell  is  a  part  of  the  sap  wood  and 
is  used  as  a  tube  in  the  system  through  which  the  crude  sap 
mounts  to  the  leaves.  Later  it  may  be  stored  full  of  starch, 
and  the  sap  will  flow  up  through  newer  tubes.  At  last  the  walls 
of  the  old  cell  harden  and  darken  with  mineral  deposits.  Many 
annual  rings  lie  between  it  and  the  cambium.  It  has  become  a 
part  of  the  heart  wood  of  the  tree. 

The  cells  of  its  own  generation  that  were  crowded  in  the 
other  direction  made  part  of  an  annual  layer  of  bark.  As  new 
layers  formed  beneath  them,  and  the  bark  stretched  and  cracked, 
they  lost  their  moisture  by  contact  with  the  outer  air.  Finally 
they  became  thin,  loose  bark  fibres,  and  scaled  off. 

The  years  of  a  tree's  life  are  recorded  with  fair  accuracy  in 
the  rings  of  its  wood.  The  bark  tells  the  same  story,  but  the  record 
is  lost  by  its  habit  of  sloughing  off  the  outer  layers.  Occasionally 
a  tree  makes  two  layers  of  wood  in"  a  single  season,  but  this  is 
exceptional.  Sometimes,  as  in  a  year  of  drought,  the  wood  ring 
is  so  small  as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable. 

Each  annual  ring  in  the  chestnut  stump  is  distinct  from 
its  neighbouring  ring.  The  wood  gradually  merges  from  a  dark 
band  full  of  large  pores  to  one  paler  in  colour  and  of  denser  texture. 
It  is  very  distinct  in  oak  and  ash.  The  coarser  belt  was  formed 
first.  The  spring  wood,  being  so  open,  discolours  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  dust  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  closer  summer  wood 
is  paler  in  colour  and  harder,  the  pores  almost  invisible  to  the 
unaided  eye.  The  best  timber  has  the  highest  percentage  of 
summer  wood. 

If  a  tree  had  no  limbs,  and  merely  laid  on  each  year  a  layer 
of  wood  made  of  parallel  fibres  fitted  on  each  other  like  pencils 
in  a  box,  v/ood  splitting  would  be  child's  play  and  carpenters 
would  have  less  care  to  look  after  their  tools.  But  woods  differ 
in  structure,  and  all  fall  short  of  the  woodworker's  ideal.  The 
fibres  of  oak  vary  in  shape  and  size.  They  taper  and  overlap 
their  ends,  making  the  wood  less  easily  split  than  soft  pine,  for 
instance,  whose  fibres  are  regular  cylinders,  which  lie  parallel, 
and  meet  end  to  end  without  "breaking  joints." 


The   Growth  of  a  Tree 

Fibres  of  oak  are  also  bound  together  by  flattened  bundles 
of  horizontal  fibres  that  extend  from  pith  to  cambium,  insinuated 
between  the  vertical  fibres.  These  are  seen  on  a  cross  section  of 
a  log  as  narrow,  radiating  lines  starting  from  the  pith  and  cutting 
straight  through  heart  wood  and  sap  wood  to  the  bark.  A 
tangential  section  of  a  log  (the  surface  exposed  by  the  removal 
of  a  slab  on  any  side)  shows  these  "pith  rays,"  or  "medullary 
rays"  as  long,  tapering  streaks.  A  longitudinal  section  made 
from  bark  to  centre,  as  when  a  log  is  "quarter-sawed"  shows 
a  full  side  view  of  the  "medullary  rays."  They  are  often  an 
inch  wide  or  more  in  oak;  these  wavy,  irregular,  gleaming  fibre 
bands  are  known  in  the  furniture  trade  as  the  "mirrors"  of  oak. 
They  take  a  beautiful  polish,  and  are  highly  esteemed  in  cabinet 
work.  The  best  white  oak  has  20  per  cent,  to  25  per  cent,  of  its 
substance  made  up  of  these  pith  rays.  The  horny  texture  of  its 
wood,  together  with  its  strength  and  durability,  give  white  oak 
an  enviable  place  among  timber  trees,  while  the  beauty  of  its 
pith  rays  ranks  it  high  among  ornamental  woods. 

The  grain  of  wood  is  its  texture.  Wide  annual  rings  with 
large  pores  mark  coarse-grained  woods.  They  need  "filling" 
with  varnish  or  other  substance  before  they  can  be  satisfactorily 
p)olished.  Fine-grained  woods,  if  hard,  polish  best.  Trees  of 
slow  growth  usually  have  fine-grained  wood,  though  the  rule  is 
not  universal. 

Ordinarily  wood  fibres  are  parallel  with  their  pith.  They 
are  straight  grained.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  constantly 
encountered.  The  chief  cause  of  variation  is  the  fact  that  tree 
trunks  branch.  Limbs  have  their  origin  in  the  pith  of  the  stems 
that  bear  them.  Any  stem  is  normally  one  year  older  than  the 
branch  it  bears.  So  the  base  of  any  branch  is  a  cone  quite  buried 
in  the  parent  stem.  A  cross  section  of  this  cone  in  a  board 
sawed  from  the  trunk  is  a  knot.  Its  size  and  number  of  rings 
indicate  its  age.  If  the  knot  is  diseased  and  loose,  it  will  fall 
out,  leaving  a  knot  hole.  The  fibres  of  the  wood  of  a  branch  are 
extensions  of  those  just  below  it  on  the  main  stem.  They  spread 
out  so  as  to  meet  around  the  twig  and  continue  in  parallel  lines 
to  its  extremity.  The  fibres  contiguous  to  those  which  were 
diverted  from  the  main  stem  to  clothe  the  branch  must  spread 
so  as  to  meet  above  the  branch,  else  the  parent  stem  would  be 
bare  in  this  quarter.    The  union  of  stem  and  branch  is  weak 

559 


The  Growth  of  a  Tree 

above,  as  is  shown  by  the  dean  break  made  above  a  twig  when 
it  is  torn  off,  and  the  stubborn  tearing  of  the  fibres  below  down 
into  the  older  stem.  A  half  hour  spent  at  the  woodpile  or  among 
the  trees  with  a  jack-knife  will  demonstrate  the  laws  by  which 
the  straight  grain  of  wood  is  diverted  by  the  insertion  of  limbs. 
The  careful  picking  up  and  tearing  back  of  the  fibres  of  bark 
and  wood  will  answer  all  our  questions.  Basswood  whose  fibres 
are  tough  is  excellent  for  illustration. 

When  a  twig  breaks  off,  the  bark  heals  the  wound  and  the 
grain  becomes  straight  over  the  place.  Trees  crowded  in  a  forest 
early  divest  themselves  of  their  lower  branches.  These  die  for 
lack  of  sun  and  air,  and  the  trunk  covers  their  stubs  with  layers 
of  straight-grained  wood.  Such  timbers  are  the  masts  of  ships, 
telegraph  poles  and  the  best  bridge  timbers.  Yet  buried  in 
their  heart  wood  are  the  roots  of  every  twig,  great  or  small, 
that  started  out  to  grow  when  the  tree  was  young.  These  knots 
are  mostly  small  and  sound,  so  they  do  not  detract  from  the 
value  of  the  lumber.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  work  upon  such  a  "stick 
of  timber." 

A  tree  that  grows  in  the  open  is  clothed  to  the  ground  with 
branches,  and  its  grain  is  found  to  be  warped  by  hundreds  of 
knots  when  it  reaches  the  sawmill.  Such  a  tree  is  an  ornament 
to  the  landscape,  but  it  makes  inferior,  unreliable  lumber.  The 
carpenter  and  the  wood  chopper  despise  it,  for  it  ruins  tools  and 
tempers. 

Beside  the  natural  diversion  of  straight  grain  by  knots, 
there  are  some  abnormal  forms  to  notice.  Wood  sometimes 
shows  wavy  grain  under  its  bark.  Certain  trees  twist  in  grow- 
ing, so  as  to  throw  the  grain  into  spiral  lines.  Cypresses  and  gum 
trees  often  exhibit  in  old  stumps  a  veering  of  the  grain  to  the 
left  for  a  few  years,  then  suddenly  to  the  right,  producing  a 
"cross  grain"  that  defies  attempts  to  split  it. 

"Bird's-eye"  and  "curly  maple"  are  prizes  for  the  furniture 
maker.  Occasionally  a  tree  of  swamp  or  sugar  maple  keeps 
alive  the  crowded  twigs  of  its  sapling  for  years,  and  forms  adven- 
titious buds  as  well.  These  dwarfed  shoots  persist,  never  getting 
ahead  further  than  a  few  inches  outside  the  bark.  Each  is  the 
centre  of  a  wood  swelling  on  the  tree  body.  The  annual  layers 
preserve  all  the  inequalities.  Dots  surrounded  by  wavy  rings 
are  scattered  over  the  boards  when  the  tree  is  sawed.    This  is 

560 


The  Growth  of  a  Tree 

bird's-eye  grain,  beautiful  in  pattern  and  in  sheen  and  colouring 
when  polished.  It  is  cut  thin  for  veneer  work.  Extreme  irreg- 
ularity of  grain  adds  to  the  value  of  woods,  if  they  are  capable 
of  a  high  polish.  The  fine  texture  and  colouring,  combined 
with  the  beautiful  patterns  they  display,  give  woods  a  place  in 
the  decorative  arts  that  can  be  taken  by  no  other  material. 


561 


CHAPTER  III:    THE  FALL  OF  THE  LEAVES 

It  is  November,  and  the  glory  of  the  woods  is  departed. 
Dull  browns  and  purples  show  where  oaks  still  hold  their  leaves. 
Beech  trees  in  sheltered  places  are  still  dressed  in  pale  yellow. 
The  elfin  flowers  of  the  witch  hazel  shine  like  threads  of  gold 
against  the  dull  leaves  that  still  cling.  The  trees  lapse  into 
their  winter  sleep. 

Last  week  a  strange  thing  happened.  The  wind  tore  the 
red  robes  from  our  swamp  maples  and  sassafras  and  scattered 
them  in  tatters  over  the  lawn.  But  the  horse  chestnut,  decked 
out  in  yellow  and  green,  lost  scarcely  a  leaf.  Three  days  later, 
in  the  hush  of  early  morning,  when  there  was  not  a  whiflF  of  a 
breeze  perceptible,  the  signal,  "Let  go!"  came,  and  with  one 
accord  the  leaves  of  the  horse  chestnut  fell.  In  an  hour  the 
tree  stood  knee  deep  in  a  stack  of  yellow  leaves;  the  few  that 
still  clung  had  considerable  traces  of  green  in  them.  Gradually 
these  are  dropping,  and  the  shining  buds  remain  as  a  pledge 
that  the  summer  story  just  ended  will  be  told  again  next  year. 

Perhaps  such  a  sight  is  more  impressive  if  one  realises  the 
vast  importance  of  the  work  the  leaves  of  a  summer  accomplish 
for  the  tree  before  their  surrender. 

The  shedding  of  leaves  is  a  habit  broad-leaved  trees  have 
learned  by  experience  in  contact  with  cold  winters.  The  swamp 
magnolia  is  a  beautiful  evergreen  tree  in  Florida.  In  Virginia 
the  leaves  shrivel,  but  they  cling  throughout  the  season.  In 
New  Jersey  and  north  as  far  as  Gloucester,  where  the  tree  occurs 
sparingly,  it  is  frankly  deciduous.  Certain  oaks  in  the  Northern 
States  have  a  stubborn  way  of  clinging  to  their  dead  leaves  all 
winter.  Farther  south  some  of  these  species  grow  and  their 
leaves  do  not  die  in  fall,  but  are  practically  evergreen,  lasting 
till  next  year's  shoots  push  them  off.  The  same  gradual  change 
in  habit  is  seen  as  a  species  is  followed  up  a  mountain  side. 

The  horse  chestnut  will  serve  as  a  type  of  deciduous  trees. 
Its  leaves  are  large,  and  they  write  out,  as  if  in  capital  letters, 
the  story  of  the  fall  of  the  leaf.     It  is  a  serial,  whose  chapters 

562 


905,  by  Doubleday.  Paf;e  &  Comvany 


BIG    TREES    IN    THE    GIANT    FOREST    OF    THE    SEQUOIA   NATIONAL    PARK 
C  A  L I FO  R  N I A     ( Sequoia    Wedingtorda ) 


The  Fall  of  the  Leaves 

run  from  July  until  November.  The  tree  anticipates  the  com- 
ing of  winter.  Its  buds  are  well  formed  by  midsummer.  Even 
then  signs  of  preparation  for  the  leaf  fall  appear.  A  line  around 
the  base  of  the  leaf  stem  indicates  where  the  break  will  be.  Corky 
cells  form  on  each  side  of  this  joint,  replacing  tissues  which  in 
the  growing  season  can  only  be  parted  by  breaking  or  tearing 
them  forcibly.  A  clean-cut  zone  of  separation  weakens  the  hold 
of  the  leaf  upon  its  twig,  and  when  the  moment  arrives  the  light- 
est breath  of  wind — even  the  weight  of  the  withered  leaf  itself — 
causes  the  natural  separation.  And  the  leaflets  simultaneously 
fall  away  from  their  common  petiole. 

There  are  more  important  things  happening  in  leaves  in 
late  summer  than  the  formation  of  corky  cells.  The  plump  green 
blades  are  full  of  valuable  substance  that  the  tree  can  ill  afford 
to  spare.  in  fact,  a  leaf  is  a  layer  of  the  precious  cambium 
spread  out  on  a  framework  of  veins  and  covered  with  a  delicate, 
transparent  skin — a  sort  of  etherealised  bark.  What  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  leaf  pulp  is  in  the  foliage  of  a  large  tree! 

As  summer  wanes,  and  the  upward  tide  of  sap  begins  to 
fail,  starch  making  in  the  leaf  laboratories  declines  proportion- 
ately. Usually  before  midsummer  the  fresh  green  is  dimmed. 
Dust  and  heat  and  insect  injuries  impair  the  leaf's  capacity  for 
work.  The  thrifty  tree  undertakes  to  withdraw  the  leaf  pulp 
before  winter  comes. 

But  how? 

It  is  not  a  simple  process  nor  is  it  fully  understood.  The 
tubes  that  carried  the  products  of  the  laboratory  away  are  bound 
up  with  the  fibres  of  the  leaf's  skeleton.  Through  the  transparent 
leaf  wall  the  migration  of  the  pulp  may  be  watched.  It  leaves 
the  margins  and  the  net  veins,  and  settles  around  the  ribs  and 
mid  vein,  exactly  as  we  should  expect.  Dried  and  shrivelled 
horse-chestnut  leaves  are  still  able  to  show  various  stages  in  this 
*narvellous  retreat  of  the  cambium.  If  moisture  fails,  the  leaf 
bears  some  of  its  green  substance  with  it  to  the  earth.  The 
"breaking  down  of  the  chlorophyll"  is  a  chemical  change  that 
attends  the  ripening  of  a  leaf.  (Leaf  ripening  is  as  natural  as 
the  ripening  of  fruit.)  The  waxy  granules  disintegrate,  and  a 
yellow  liquid  shows  its  colours  through  the  delicate  leaf  walls. 
Now  other  pigments,  some  curtained  from  view  by  the  chlorophyll, 
•others  the  products  of  decomposition,  show  themselves.     Iron  and 

563 


The   Fall  of  the   Leaves 

Other  minerals  the  sap  brought  from  the  soil  contribute  reds 
and  yellows  and  purples  to  the  colour  scheme.  As  drainage 
proceeds,  with  the  chemical  changes  that  accompany  it,  the 
pageant  of  autumn  colours  passes  over  the  woodlands.  No 
weed  or  grass  stem  but  joins  in  the  carnival  of  the  year. 

Crisp  and  dry  the  leaves  fall.  Among  the  crystals  and 
granules  that  remain  in  their  empty  chambers  there  is  little  but 
waste  that  the  tree  can  well  afford  to  be  rid  of — substances  that 
have  clogged  the  leaf  and  impeded  its  work. 

We  have  been  mistaken  in  attributing  the  gay  colours  of 
autumnal  foliage  to  the  action  of  frost.  The  ripening  of  the 
leaves  occurs  in  the  season  of  warm  days  and  frosty  nights,  but 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  two  phenomena  belong  together  as 
cause  and  effect.  Frost  no  doubt  hastens  the  process.  But 
the  chemical  changes  that  attend  the  migration  of  the  carbohy- 
drates and  albuminous  materials  from  the  leaf  back  into  twig 
and  trunk  and  root  for  safe  keeping  go  on  no  matter  what  the 
weather. 

In  countries  having  a  moist  atmosphere  autumn  colours 
are  less  vivid.  England  and  our  own  Pacific  coast  have  nothing 
to  compare  with  the  glory  of  the  foliage  in  the  forests  of  Canada 
and  the  Northeastern  States,  and  with  those  on  the  wooded 
slopes  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 
Long,  dry  autumns  produce  the  finest  succession  of  colours.  The 
most  brilliant  reds  and  yellows  often  appear  long  before  the  first 
frost.  Cold  rains  of  long  duration  wash  the  colours  out  of  the 
landscape,  sometimes  spoiling  everything  before  October.  A 
sharp  freeze  before  the  leaves  expect  it  often  cuts  them  off  before 
they  are  ripe.  They  stiffen  and  fall,  and  are  wet  and  limp  next 
day,  as  if  they  had  been  scalded;  all  their  rich  cell  substance  lost 
to  the  tree,  except  as  they  form  a  mulch  about  its  roots.  But 
no  tree  can  afford  so  expensive  a  fertiliser,  and  happily  they  are 
not  often  caught  unawares. 

Under  the  trees  the  dead  leaves  lie,  forming  with  the  snow 
a  protective  blanket  for  the  roots.  In  spring  the  rains  will  leach 
out  their  mineral  substance  and  add  it  to  the  soil.  The  abundant 
lime  in  dead  leaves  is  active  in  the  formation  of  humus,  which 
is  decayed  vegetable  matter.  We  call  it  "leaf  mould."  So 
even  the  waste  portions  have  their  effectual  work  to  do  for 
the  tree's  good. 

564 


The  Fall  of  the  Leaves 

The  leaves  of  certain  trees  in  regions  of  mild  winters  persist 
until  they  are  pushed  off  by  the  swelling  buds  in  spring.  Others 
cling  a  year  longer,  in  sorry  contrast  with  the  new  foliage.  We 
may  believe  that  this  is  an  indolent  habit  induced  by  climatic 
conditions. 

Leaves  of  evergreens  cling  from  three  to  five  years.  Families 
and  individuals  differ;  altitude  and  latitude  produce  variations. 
An  evergreen  in  winter  is  a  dull-looking  object,  if  we  could  compare 
it  with  its  summer  foliage.  Its  chlorophyll  granules  withdraw 
from  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  They  seek  the  lower  ends  of  the 
palisade  cells,  as  far  as  they  can  get  from  the  leaf  surface,  assume 
a  dull  reddish-brown  or  brownish-yellow  colour,  huddle  in  clumps, 
their  water  content  greatly  reduced,  and  thus  hibernate,  much 
as  the  cells  of  the  cambium  are  doing  under  the  bark.  In  this 
condition,  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  seem  to  do  no  harm, 
and  the  leaves  are  ready  in  spring  to  resume  the  starch-making 
function  if  they  are  still  young.  Naturally,  the  oldest  leaves 
are  least  capable  of  this  work,  and  least  is  expected  of  them. 
Gradually  they  die  and  drop  as  new  ones  come  on.  As  among 
broad-leaved  trees,  the  zone  of  foliage  in  evergreens  is  an  outer 
dome  of  newest  shoots;  the  framework  of  large  limbs  is  practically 
destitute  of  leaves. 


565 


CHAPTER   IV:    HOW  TREES  SPEND  THE 
WINTER 

Nine  out  of  every  ten  intelligent  people  will  see  nothing  of 
interest  in  a  row  of  bare  trees.  They  casually  state  that  buds 
are  made  in  the  early  spring.  They  miss  seeing  the  strength 
and  beauty  of  tree  architecture  which  the  foliage  conceals  in 
summertime.  The  close-knit,  alive-looking  bark  of  a  living  tree 
they  do  not  distinguish  from  the  dull,  loose-hung  garment  worn 
by  the  dead  tree  in  the  row.  All  trees  look  alike  to  them  in 
winter. 

Yet  there  is  so  much  to  see  if  only  one  will  take  time  to  look. 
Even  the  most  heedless  are  struck  at  times  with  the  mystery  of 
the  winter  trance  of  the  trees.  They  know  that  each  spring  re- 
enacts  the  vernal  miracle.  Thoughtful  people  have  put  questions 
to  these  Sphinx-like  trees.  Secrets  the  bark  and  bud  scales  hide 
have  been  revealed  to  those  who  have  patiently  and  importunately 
inquired.  A  keen  pair  of  eyes  used  upon  a  single  elm  in  the 
dooryard  for  a  whole  year  will  surprise  and  inform  the  observer. 
It  will  be  indeed  the  year  of  miracle. 

A  tree  has  no  centre  of  life,  no  vital  organs  corresponding 
to  those  of  animals.  It  is  made  up,  from  twig  to  root,  of  annual, 
concentric  layers  of  wood  around  a  central  pith.  It  is  completely 
covered  with  a  close  garment  of  bark,  also  made  of  annual  layers. 
Between  bark  and  wood  is  a  delicate  undergarment  of  living 
tissue  called  cambium.  This  is  disappointing  when  one  comes 
to  look  for  it,  for  all  there  is  of  it  is  a  colourless,  slimy  substance 
that  moistens  the  youngest  layers  of  wood  and  bark,  and  forms 
the  layer  of  separation  between  them.  This  cambium  is  the 
life  of  the  tree.  A  hollow  trunk  seems  scarcely  a  disability.  The 
loss  of  limbs  a  tree  can  survive  and  start  afresh.  But  girdle 
its  trunk,  exposing  a  ring  of  the  cambium  to  the  air,  and  the  tree 
dies.  The  vital  connection  of  leaves  and  roots  is  destroyed  by 
the  girdling;  nothing  can  save  the  tree's  life.  Girdle  a  limb  or  a 
twig  and  all  above  the  injury  suffers  practical  amputation. 

566 


How  Trees  Spend  t'lic   Winter 

The  bark  protects  the  cambium,  and  the  cambium  is  the 
tissue  which  by  cell  multiplication  in  the  growing  season  produces 
the  yearly  additions  of  wood  and  bark.  Buds  are  growing  points 
set  along  the  twigs.  They  produce  leafy  shoots,  as  a  rule.  Some 
are  specialised  to  produce  flowers  and  subsequently  fruits.  Leaves 
are  extensions  of  cambium  spread  in  the  sun  and  air  in  the  season 
when  there  is  no  danger  from  frosts.  The  leaves  have  been 
called  the  stomachs  of  a  tree.  They  receive  crude  materials 
from  the  soil  and  the  air  and  transmute  them  into  starch  under 
the  action  of  sunlight.  This  elaborated  sap  supplies  the  hungry 
cambium  cells  during  the  growing  season,  and  the  excess  of 
starch  made  in  the  leaf  laboratories  is  stored  away  in  empty 
wood  cells  and  in  every  available  space  from  bud  to  root  tip, 
from  bark  to  pith. 

The  tree's  period  of  greatest  activity  is  the  early  summer. 
It  is  the  time  of  growth  and  of  preparation  for  the  coming  winter 
and  for  the  spring  that  follows  it.  Winter  is  the  time  of  rest — of 
sleep,  or  hibernation.  A  bear  digs  a  hollow  under  the  tree's  roots 
and  sleeps  in  it  all  winter,  waking  in  the  spring.  In  many  ways 
the  tree  imitates  the  bear.  Dangerous  as  are  analogies  between 
plants  and  animals,  it  is  literally  true  that  the  sleeping  bear  and 
the  dormant  tree  have  each  ceased  to  feed.  The  sole  activity 
of  each  seems  to  be  the  quiet  breathing. 

Do  trees  really  breathe?  As  truly  and  as  incessantly  as  you 
do,  but  not  as  actively.  Other  processes  are  intermittent,  but 
breathing  must  go  on,  day  and  night,  winter  and  summer,  as  long 
as  life  lasts.  Breathing  is  low  in  winter.  The  tree  is  not  growing. 
There  is  only  the  necessity  of  keeping  it  alive. 

Leaves  are  the  lungs  of  plants.  In  the  growing  season 
respiration  goes  on  at  a  vigorous  rate.  The  leaves  also  throw 
off  in  insensible  vapour  a  vast  quantity  of  water.  This  is  called 
iranspiraiion  in  plants;  in  animals  the  term  used  \s  perspiration. 
They  are  one  and  the  same  process.  An  average  white-oak  tree 
throws  off  1  50  gallons  of  water  in  a  single  summer  day.  With  the 
cutting  off  of  the  water  supply  at  the  roots  in  late  fall,  transpiration 
is  also  cut  off. 

The  skin  is  the  efficient  "third  lung"  of  animals.  The 
closing  of  its  pores  causes  immediate  suffocation.  The  bark 
of  trees  carries  on  the  work  of  respiration  in  the  absence  of  the 
leaves.     Bark  is  porous,  even  where  it  is  thickest. 

567 


How  Trees  Spend  the  Winter 

Look  at  the  twigs  of  half  a  dozen  kinds  of  trees,  and  find 
the  Httle  raised  dots  on  the  smooth  surface.  They  usually  vary 
in  colour  from  the  bark.  These  are  leniicels,  or  breathing  pores — 
not  holes,  likely  to  become  clogged  with  dust,  but  porous,  corky 
tissue  that  filters  the  air  as  it  comes  in.  In  most  trees  the  smooth 
epidermis  of  twigs  is  shed  as  the  bark  thickens  and  breaks  into 
furrows.  This  obscures,  though  it  does  not  obliterate,  the  air 
passages.  Cherry  and  birch  trees  retain  the  silky  epidermal 
bark  on  limbs,  and  in  patches,  at  least,  on  the  trunks  of  old  trees. 
Here  the  lenticels  are  seen  as  parallel,  horizontal  slits,  open 
sometimes,  but  usually  filled  with  the  characteristic  corky  sub- 
stance.   They  admit  air  to  the  cambium. 

There  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  trees  have  no  buds  until 
spring.  Some  trees  have  very  small  buds.  But  there  is  no  tree 
in  our  winter  woods  that  will  not  freely  show  its  buds  to  anyone 
who  wishes  to  see  them.  A  very  important  part  of  the  summer 
work  of  a  tree  is  the  forming  of  buds  for  next  spring.  Even 
when  the  leaves  are  just  unfolding,  on  the  tender  shoots  a  bud 
will  be  found  in  each  angle  between  leaf  and  stem.  All  summer 
long  its  bud  is  the  especial  charge  of  each  particular  leaf.  If 
accident  destroys  the  leaf,  the  bud  dies  of  neglect.  When  mid- 
summer comes  the  bud  is  full  grown,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  fall  of 
the  leaf  is  anticipated.  The  thrifty  tree  withdraws  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  rich  green  leaf  pulp,  and  stores  it  in  the  twig  to 
feed  the  opening  buds  in  spring. 

What  is  there  inside  the  wrappings  of  a  winter  bud  ?  "A 
leaf,"  is  the  usual  reply — and  it  is  not  a  true  one.  A  bud  is  an 
embryo  shoot — one  would  better  say,  a  shoot  in  miniature.  It 
has  very  little  length  or  diameter  when  the  scales  are  stripped 
off.  But  with  care  the  leaves  can  be  spread  open,  and  their 
shape  and  venation  seen.  The  exact  number  the  shoot  was  to 
bear  are  there  to  be  counted.  Take  a  horse-chestnut  bud 
— one  of  the  biggest  ones — and  you  will  unpack  a  cluster 
of  flowers  distinct  in  number  and  in  parts.  The  bud  of  the 
tulip  tree  is  smaller,  but  it  holds  a  single  blossom,  and 
petals,  stamens  and  pistil  are  easily  recognisable.  Some  buds 
contain  flowers  and  no  leaves.  Some  have  shoots  with  both 
upon  them.  If  we  know  the  tree,  we  may  guess  accurately 
about  its  buds. 

There  is  another  popular  notion,  very  pretty  and  sentimental, 
568 


How  Trees  Spend  the  Winter 

but  untrue,  that  study  of  buds  is  bound  to  overthrow.  It  is  the 
behef  that  the  woolly  and  silky  linings  of  bud  scales,  and  the 
scales  themselves,  and  the  wax  that  seals  up  many  buds  are  all  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  the  bud  warm  through  the  cold  winter. 
The  bark,  according  to  the  same  notion,  is  to  keep  the  tree  warm. 
This  idea  is  equally  untenable.  There  is  but  feeble  analogy 
between  a  warm-blooded  animal  wrapped  in  fur,  its  bodily  heat 
kept  up  by  fires  within  (the  rapid  oxidation  of  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates in  the  tissues),  and  the  winter  condition  of  a  tree. 
Hardy  plants  are  of  all  things  the  most  cold  blooded.  They  are 
defended  against  injuries  from  cold  in  an  effective  but  entirely 
different  way. 

Exposure  to  the  air  and  consequent  loss  of  its  moisture  by 
evaporation  is  the  death  of  the  cambium — that  which  lies  under 
the  thick  bark  and  in  the  tender  tissues  of  the  bud,  sealed  up  in  its 
layers  of  protecting  scales. 

The  cells  of  the  cambium  are  plump  little  masses  of  proto- 
plasm, semi-fluid  in  consistency  in  the  growing  season.  They 
have  plenty  of  room  for  expansion  and  division.  Freezing 
would  rupture  their  walls,  and  this  would  mean  disintegration  and 
death.  Nature  prepares  the  cells  to  be  frozen  without  any 
harm.  The  water  of  the  protoplasm  is  withdrawn  by  osmosis 
into  the  spaces  between  the  cells.  The  mucilaginous  substance 
left  behind  is  loosely  enclosed  by  the  crumpled  cell  wall.  Thus 
we  see  that  a  tree  has  about  as  much  water  in  it  in  winter  as  in 
summer.  Green  wood  cut  in  winter  burns  slowly  and  oozes 
water  at  the  ends  in  the  same  discouraging  way  as  it  does  in 
summertime. 

A  tree  takes  on  in  winter  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
air.  In  cold  weather  the  water  in  buds  and  trunk  and  cambium 
freezes  solid.  Ice  crystals  form  in  the  intercellular  spaces 
where  they  have  ample  room,  and  so  they  do  no  damage 
in  their  alternate  freezing  and  thawing.  The  protoplasm 
stiffens  in  excessive  cold,  but  when  the  thermometer  rises, 
life  stirs  again.  Motion,  breathing  and  feeding  are  essential 
to  cell  life. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  that  buds  freeze  solid.  But  cut  one 
open  in  a  freezing  cold  room,  and  before  you  breathe  upon  it  take 
a  good  look  with  a  magnifier,  and  you  should  make  out  the  ice 
crystals.    The  bark  is  actually  frozen  upon  a  stick  of  green  stove 

560 


How  Trees   Spend  the  Winter 

wood.  The  sap  that  oozes  out  of  the  pith  and  heart  wood  was 
frozen,  and  dripped  not  at  all  until  it  was  brought  indoors. 

What  is  meant  by  the  freezing  of  fruit  buds  in  winter,  by 
which  the  peach  crop  is  so  often  lost  in  Northern  States?  When 
spring  opens,  the  warmth  of  the  air  wakes  the  sleeping  buds.  It 
thaws  the  ice  in  the  intercellular  spaces,  and  the  cells  are  quick 
to  absorb  the  water  they  gave  up  when  winter  approached. 
The  thawing  of  the  ground  surrounds  the  roots  with  moisture. 
Sap  rises  and  flows  into  the  utmost  twig.  Warm  days  in  January 
or  February  are  able  to  deceive  the  tree  to  this  extent.  The 
sudden  change  back  to  winter  again  catches  them.  The  plump 
cells  are  ruptured  and  killed  by  the  "frost  bite." 

It  is  a  bad  plan  to  plant  a  tender  kind  of  tree  on  the  south 
side  of  a  house  or  a  wall.  The  direct  and  the  reflected  warmth  of 
the  sun  forces  its  buds  out  too  soon,  and  the  late  frosts  cut  them 
off.    There  is  rarely  a  good  yield  on  a  tree  so  situated. 

There  is  no  miracle  like  "the  burst  of  spring."  Who  has 
watched  a  tree  by  the  window  as  its  twigs  began  to  shine  in 
early  March,  and  the  buds  to  swell  and  show  edges  of  green  as 
their  scales  lengthened?  Then  the  little  shoot  struggled  out, 
casting  off  the  hindering  scales  with  the  scandalous  ingratitude 
characteristic  of  infancy.  Feeble  and  very  appealing  are  the  limp 
baby  leaves  on  the  shoot,  as  tender  and  pale  green  as  asparagus 
tips.  But  all  that  store  of  rich  nutritive  material  is  backing  the 
enterprise.  The  palms  are  lifted  into  the  air;  they  broaden  and 
take  on  the  texture  of  the  perfect,  mature  leaf.  Scarcely  a  day 
is  required  to  outgrow  the  hesitation  and  inexperience  of  youth. 
The  tree  stands  decked  in  its  canopy  of  leaves,  every  one  of  which 
is  ready  and  eager  to  assume  the  responsibilities  it  faces.  The 
season  of  starch  making  has  opened. 

Cut  some  twigs  of  convenient  trees  in  winter.  Let  them  be 
good  ones,  with  vigorous  buds,  and  have  them  at  least  two  feet 
long.  You  may  test  this  statement  1  have  made  about  the  storing 
of  food  in  the  twigs,  and  the  one  about  the  unfolding  of  the  leafy 
shoots.  Get  a  number  of  them  from  the  orchard — samples  from 
cherry,  plum  and  apple  trees;  from  maple  and  elm  and  any 
other  familiar  tree.  Put  them  in  jars  of  water  and  set  them  where 
they  get  the  sun  on  a  convenient  window  shelf.  Give  them 
plenty  of  water,  and  do  not  crowd  them.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
change  the  water,  but  cutting  the  ends  slanting  and  under  water 

570 


How  Trees   Spend  the  Winter 

every  few  days  insures  the  unimpeded  flow  of  the  water  up  the 
stems  and  the  more  rapid  development  of  the  buds  you  are 
watching.  When  spring  comes  there  are  too  many  things  that 
demand  attention.  The  forcing  of  winter  buds  while  yet  it  is 
winter  is  the  ideal  way  to  discover  the  trees'  most  precious  secrets. 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  PK£SS,  GARDEN  CTTY,  N.  Y. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


THZ   TALLIIT   TRZIt    IN   THX    WORLD 

Giant  Eucalyptus — Eucalyptus  amyg- 

dalina — Australia 470  feet 

Big   Tree — Sequoia    WtUingtonia — 

W.  Am 350   " 

Redwood — Sequoia     temptrvirent — 

California 315   " 

Sugar    Pine — Pinus  Lambertiana — 

Pacific  Coast 300  " 

Douglas  Spruce — Psudotsuga  mucro- 

Buro— Pacific  Coast 300  " 

Western    Hemlock — Tsuga     httere- 

phylla—Vicific  Coast 250  " 

Western    Larch — Larix   occldeatalit 

—Pacific  Coast 150   " 

Western  Arbor  Vitae — Thuya  gigan- 

f«(3— Pacific  Coast 200   " 

Buttonwood — Platanus    eccidentalii 

—E.Am 160  " 

Red  Oak — S^uercus  rubra — E.  Am.  .    150   " 
Tulip  Tree — LiriadendrenTulipijera  150   " 

THE    OLDtST   TREIS    IN   THK    WORLD 

(Probable  age  limit) 
Dragon  Tree — Dracttna  Draco — 

Canaries 6/x»  years 

Baobab  Tree — Adansonia  digitata 

—Africa 5/x»    " 

Bald   Cypress — Taxedium  mucro- 

natum — Mexico 4/300    " 

Oriental    Plane — Platanus    erien- 

taJis — Europe  and  Asia Afioo    " 

Eastern  Cyprtti—Cupreisus  sem- 

pervirent — Europe  and  Asia.  . .  3/X0    " 
European  Yew — Taxui  baccata — 

Europe,  Asia  and  Africa 3 ,000    " 

European   Chestnut — Castanea 

saliva — Europe J/X»     " 

English    Oak — ^uercas    peduncu- 

/a/fl— Europe 2,000    " 

Big  Tree — Sequoia  fVellingtonlM — 

California   2,000     " 

Cedar  of  Lebanon — Cedrus  Lthani 

Asia  Minor 2,000    " 

APPROXIMATX  AGES  AT  WHICH  TREES  MATtJRS 

White  Pine— Pmuj  Strebus 250  years 

White  Oak— ^«*rf ttj  aiba 200    " 

Chestnut — Castanea  dtntata 200    " 

Elms — Ulmus  spp fo    " 

Beech — Fagus  Americana 100    " 


Poplars — Populus  spp 50  " 

Birches — Betula  spp 50  " 

Willows — Salix  spp 50  " 

Basswoods — Tilia  spp 100  " 

Catalpa — Caialpa  speciosa 25  " 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana  .  80  " 

RELATIVE   RAPIDITY   OF   GROWTH   OF  FAMILIAR 
TRIES 

[From  report  of  W.  F.  Fox,  Superintend- 
ent of  State  Forests,  New  York] 

Three-inch   saplings,  in   favourable  situa" 
tions,  will,  in  twenty  years,  have  diameters  of! 

Silver  Maple — Acer  saccharinum  ,  .  21  inches 

Box  Elder — Acer  Negundo 21  " 

American  Elm — Ulnus  Americana  19  " 
Tulip  Tree— Liriodendron  Tulipi- 

fera 18  " 

Sycamore — Platanus  occidentalis . .    18  " 

Basswood — Tilia  Americana 17  " 

Catalpa — Catalpa  speciosa 16  " 

Red  Maple — Acer  rubrum 16  " 

Ailanthus — Ailanthus  glandulosa.  .     16  " 
Cucumber  Tree — Magnolia  acumi- 
nata      15  " 

Chestnut — Castanea  dentata 14  " 

Yellow  Locust — Robinia  Pseudaca- 

cia 14  " 

Hard  Maple — Acer  Saccharum 13  " 

Horse  Chestnut — /Esculus  Hippo- 

castanum 13  " 

Honey    Locust — Gleditsia    triacan- 

thos 13  " 

Red  Oak — Quercus  rubra 13  " 

Pin  Oak — Qjiercus  palustris 13  " 

Scarlet  Oak — ^uercus  coccinea.  .  .  .    13  " 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana..    12  " 

White  Oak — Quercus  alba 11  " 

Hackberry — Celtis  occidentalis 10      " 

TREES    THAT    SPROUT    FROM    THE    STUMP 

Black  Locust — Robinia  Pseudacacia 

Chestnut — Castanea  dentata 

Oaks — i^uercus  spp. 

Ashes — Fraxinus  spp. 

Elms — Ulmus  spp. 

Maples — Acer  rubrum  and  saccharinum 

Beech — Fagus  Americana 

Birches — Betula  spp. 

Basswood — Tilia  spp. 

Willows — Salix  tpp. 


575 


Appendix 


Poplars — Populus  spp. 
Eucalyptus — Eucalyptus  spp. 
Catalpa— Ca/a//)a  spp. 
Osage  Orange — Toxylon  pomijerum 
Pitch  Pine — Pinus  rigida 
Shortleaf  Pine— P/nui  echinata 
Hickory  (shagbark)  Hicoria  ovata 
Walnut  (black)  Juglans   nigra 
Redwood — Sequoia  sempervirens 
Ailanthus — Ailanthus  glandulosa 

TREES   PREFERRING   WET    SOIL 

Red  Maple — Acer  ruhrum 

Silver  Maple — Acer  saccharinum 

Sweet  Gum — Liquidamhar  Styracifua 

Red  Birch — Betula  nigra 

White  Birch — Betula  populifolia 

Big  Shell-bark  Hickory — Hicoria  laciniosa 

Tupelos — Nyssa  spp. 

Bald  Cypress — Taxodium  distichum 

Pin  Oak — ^uercus  palustris 

Swamp  White   Oak — ^uercus   platanoides 

Willow  Oak — Sluercus  Phellos 

Poplars — Populus  spp. 

Willows — Salix  spp. 

Alders — Alnus  spp. 

Black  Ash — Fraxinus  nigra 

Black  Spruce — Picea  Mariana 

Blue  Beech — Carpinus  CaroUniana 

Sycamore — Platanus  occidentalis 

Swamp  Bay — Magnolia  glauca 

Tamarack — Larix  Americana 

TEN   BROAD-LEAVED    TREES   HAVING  WEEPING 
FORMS 

Silver  Maple — Acer  saccharinum,  var.  Wieri 

White  Birch — Betula  alba,  var.  pendula 

Beech — Fagus  Americana,  var.   pendula 

Ash — Fraxinus  excelsior,  var.  pendula 

Plum — Prunus  pendula 

Cherry — Prunus  serotina,  var.  pendula 

Willow — Salix  Babylonica 

Linden — Tilia  petiolaris 

Elm — Ulmus  scabra,  var.  pendula 

Oak — ^uercus  pedunculata,  var.  pendula 

TEN  TREES    FOR   SMOKY   CITIES 

(Evergreens  cannot  endure  smoke) 

Honey  Locust — Gleditsia  triacanthos 

American  Elm — Ulmus  Americana 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana 

Cottonwood — Populus  deltoidea 

Ailanthus — Ailanthus  glandulosa 

Horse  Chestnut — JEsculusHippocastanum 

Buttonwood — Platanus  occidentalis. 

Lindens — Tilia  spp. 

Maples — Acer  spp. 

Balm  of  Gilead — Populus  balsamifera 


TREES    WITH    LARGE    SPREADING    CROWNS 

(Suitable  for  wide  streets  and  roadways.) 

American  Elm — Ulmus  Americana 

Silver  Maple — Acer  saccharinum 

Honey  Locust — Gleditsia  triacanthos 

Tulip  Tree — Liriodendron  TuUpijera 

Sycamore — Platanus  occidentalis 

Cottonwood — Populus  deltoidea 

Red  Oak — ^uercus  rubra 

Black  Oak — i^uercus  velutina 

Live  Oak — ^uercus  Virginiana 

White  Oak — ^uercus  alba 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana 

Chestnut — Castanea  dentata 

Horse  Chestnut — Msculus  Hippocastanutn 

Silver  Poplar — Populus  alba 

Black  Walnut — Juglans  nigra 

TEN  VERY  TALL  DECIDUOUS  TREES 

(Suitable  for  avenues  and  parks) 

Buttonwood — Platanus  occidentalis 
Black  Walnut — Juglans  nigra 
Tulip  Tree — Liriodendron  TuUpijera 
Pin  Oak — Quercus  palustris 
Red  Oak — ^uercus  rubra 
Black  Oak — Qjiercus  velutina 
Cottonwood — Populus  deltoidea 
American  Elm — Ulmus  Americana 
Bald  Cypress — Taxodium  distichum 
Honey  Locust — Gleditsia  triacanthos 

TEN    VERY     NARROW     PYRAMIDAL    TREES 

(Suitable  for  formal  gardens.) 

Red  Cedar — Juniperus  Virginiana 

Firs — Abies  spp. 

Spruces — Picea  spp. 

Larches — Larix  spp. 

Bald  Cypress — Taxodium  distichum 

Arbor  Vitae — Thuya  spp. 

Lombardy  Poplar — Populus  nigra,  \aT.  Italica 

Yellow  Cypress — Chamacyparis  Nootkatensis 

Port    Orford    Cedar  —  Chamacyparis    Law 

soniana 
Ginkgo — Salisburia  adiantijoUa 

TEN  TREES   UNDESIRABLE  FOR  STREET  PLANT- 
ING 

Box    Elder — Short-lived;    easily    broken    by 

wind. 
Silver  Maple — Short-lived;  easily  broken  by 

wind. 
Virgilia — Low     branched;      easily     broken; 

flowers  stolen. 
Carolina  Poplar — Short-lived,  coarse;  easily 

broken. 
Mountain  Ash — Too  small;  branches  broken 

by  thieves. 


576 


Appendix 


Dogwoods — Too  small;  branches  broken  by 

thieves. 
Black  Locust — Foliage  late  and  soon  falling; 

frame  ugly  when  bare. 
Kentucky  Coffee  Tree— Needs  rich  soil;  dead 

looking  when  bare. 
Butternut — Short-lived,  branches  low,  infested 

by  insects. 
Evergreens— Give  little  shade;  branches  low. 

TEN    BROAD-LEAVED    EVERGREENS 

American  Holly — Ilex  opaca 

Great  Laurel — Rhododendron   maximum 

Swamp  Bay — Magnolia  glauca 

Great-flowered  Magnolia — Magnolia  foetida 

Live  Oak — Quercus  Virginiana 

California  Live  Oak — ^uercus  agrifolia 

Red  Bay — Persea  Borhonia 

Laurel  Cherry — Prunus  Caroliniana 

Evergreen   Buckthorn — Rhamnus   crocea 

Mountain  Laurel — Kalmia  lati folia 

TREES    WITH    VERY    LARGE    LEAVES 

Magnolias — Magnolia  spp. 
Large-leaved    Maple — Acer    macrophyllum 
Hercules'  Club — Aralia  spinosa 
Papaw — Asimina  triloba 
Kentucky  Coffee  Tree — Gymnocladus  dioicus 
Catalpa — Catalpa  speciosa 
Ailanthus — Ailanthus  glandulosa 
Bur  Oak — ^uercus  macrocarpa 
Paulownia — Pauloivnia  imperialii 
Walnuts  and  Hickories — Juglans  and  Hicoria 
spp. 

TREES  WITH   NARROW  OR  FINELY.  CUT  LEAVES 

Willows — Salix  spp. 
Locust — Robinia  Pseudacacia 
Honey  Locust — Gleditsia  triacanthos 
Black  Cherry — Prunus  serotina 
Bald  Cypress — Taxodium  distichum 
Most  Evergreens — Coniferae 
Willow  Oak—iluercus  Phellos 
Sumachs — Rhus  spp. 

(Cut-leaf  varieties  of  many  other  kinds.) 

TREES  WITH  FRAGRANT  FLOWERS 

Magnolias — Magnolia  spp. 

Plums  and  Cherries — Prunus  spp. 

Lindens — Tilia  spp. 

Apples — Malus  spp. 

Locusts — Gleditsia,  Robinia  and    Cladrastis, 

spp. 
Hawthorns — Crat^gus  spp. 
Juneberries — Amelanchier  spp. 

TREES    WITH    SHOWY   WHITE    FLOWERS 

Blooming  before  the  leaves: 

Flowering  Dogwood — Cornus  forida 
Plums  and  Cherries — Prunus  spp, 
Shadbush — Amelanchier  spp. 


Blooming  after  the  leaves: 

Mountain  Ashes — Sorbus  spp. 

Elders — Sambucus  spp. 

Fringe  Tree — Chionanthus  Virginiia 

Viburnums — Viburnum  spp. 

Sourwood — Oxydendrum  arboreum 

Loblolly  Bay — Gordonia  Lasianthus 

Basswoods — Tilia  spp. 

Hercules'  Club — Aralia  spinosa 

Magnolias — Magnolia  spp. 

Black  Locust — Robinia  Pseudacacia 

Ycllowwood — Cladrastis  lutea 

Rhododendrons — Rhododendron  maximum 

Hawthorns — Cratcegus  spp. 

Buckeyes  and  Horse  Chestnuts — /Esculut 

spp. 
Catalpas — Catalpa  spp. 
Silverbell  Trees — Mohrodcndron  spp. 

TREES     WITH     SHOWY     YELLOW     FLOWERS 

Tulip  Tree — Liriodendron  Tulipifera 
Cucumber  Trtc— Magnolia  acuminata 
Yellow  Cucumber  Tree — Magnolia  cordata 
Chestnut — Castanea  dentata 
Willows — (Staminate) — Salix  spp. 
Sassafras — Sassafras  Sassafras 
Witch  Hazel — Hamamelis  Virginiana 
Yellow  Buckeye — Msculus  octandra 
Birches — (Staminate) — Betula  spp. 

TREES    WITH    SHOWY    PINK    FLOWERS 

Red  Bud — Cercis  Canadensis 
Crab  Apple — Malus  coronaria 
Clammy  Locust — Robinia  viscosa 
Mountain  Laurel — Kalmia  lati  folia 
Rhododendron — Rhododendron  maximum 

TREES  WITH   SHOWY  RED  FLOWERS 

Red  Maple — Acer  rubrum 
Sumachs— Rhus  spp. 
Papaw — Asimina  triloba 

TREES      HAVING     ONE     OR      BOTH      KINDS      O* 
FLOWERS    IN   CATKINS 

Both  kinds  on  the  same  tree: 

Chestnuts 

Oaks 

Hickories 

Walnuts 

Birches 

Alders 

Hornbeams 

Pines,  and  other  Conifers 
Tzvo  kinds  on  separate  trees: 

Poplars 

WUlows 


TREES   WITH    SHOWY    RED    FRUfTS 

Flowering  Dogwood — Cornus  forida 
Viburnum — Viburnum  Lentago 
Mountain  Ash — ^grbuf  Americana 


577 


Appendix 


Cherries  and  Plums — Prunus  spp. 
Hawthorns — Cratagus  spp. 
Sumachs— Rhus  spp. 
Yews — Taxus  spp. 
Hollies — Ilex  spp. 
Red  Maple — Acer  ruhrum 
Magnolias — Magnolia   spp. 
Burning    Bush — Evonymus    atropurpureus 
Red  AUanthus — Ailanthui    glandulosa    var. 
erythrocarpa 

TREES    WITH    BRIGHT    AUTUMN    FOLIAGE 

Leaves  turning  red: 

Sumachs — Rhus  spp. 

Red  Maple — Acer  ruhrum 

T\i}pt\o—N yssa  sylvatica 

Sweet  Gum — Liquidamhar  Styracifua 

Dogwood — Cornus  forida 

Juneberry — Amalanchier    Canadensis 

Hawthorn — Crataegus  Crus-gaUi 

Scarlet  Oak — Quercus  coccinea 

Red  Oak — ^uercus  rubra 

Burning    Bush — Evonymus    atropurpureus 

Sorrel  Tree — Oxydcndrum  arhoreum 
heaves  Turning  Tellow: 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana 

Beech — Fagus  Americana 

White  Maple — Acer  saccharinum 

Tulip  Tree — Liriodendron  Tulipijera 

Larch — Larix  spp. 

Ginkgo — Salishuria  adianiifolia 

Hickories — Hicoria  spp. 

Walnuts — Juglans  spp. 

Locusts — Robinia,  Cladrastis  and  Gleditsia 
spp. 

Willows — Salix  spp. 

Poplars — Populus  spp. 

Chestnut — Castanea  dentata 

Ailanthus — AUanthus  glandulosa 

Cucumber  Tree — Magnolia  acuminata 

White  Birch — Betula  populifolia 

Bur  Oak — i^uercus  macrocarpa 


Leaves  Turning  to  Mixed  Red  and  Tellow: 

Hard  Maple— ^ccr  Saccharum 

Sweet  Gum — Liquidamher  Styracifua 

Sassafras — Sassafras  Sassafras 

Black  Birch — Betula  lenta 
Leaves  Turning  Purple: 

White  Ash — Fraxinus  Americana 

White  Oik— i^uercus  alba 

Red  Oak — Q^uercus  rubra 

Dogwood — Cornus  alternifoUa 

EUROPEAN  TREES  WIDELY  PLANTED 

White      Birch — Betula     alba     (horticultural 

forms) 
Scotch  Pine — Pinus  sylvestris 
Austrian  Pine — Pinus  Laricio,'ViT.  Austriaca 
Norway  Spruce — Picea  excelsa 
Norway  Maple — Acer  platanoides 
Beech — Fagus  sylvatica 
English  Walnut — Juglans  regia 
English  Ozk-^luercus  Robur 
English     Hawthorn — Crataegus     Oxyacantha 
European  Lindens — Tilia  spp. 
European  Plane — Platanus  orientaJis 
Fig — Ficus  Car  lea 

ASIATIC    TREES    WIDELY    PLANTED 

Magnolias — Magnolia  spp.  and  varieties 

China  Tree — Melia  Azadarach 

Hercules'  Club — Aralia  Chinensis 

Cedars — Cedrus  Deodara  and  Libani 

Japanese  Maples — Acer  spp. 

Horse  Chestnut — Msculus  Hippocastanum 

Ginkgo — Salishuria  adiantifolia 

Ailanthus — Ailanthus  glandulosa 

Paulownia — Paulownia  imperialis 

Paper   Mulberry — Broussonetia   papyrifere 

Apple — Malus  spp.  and  Tarieties 

Pear — Pyrus  communis  in  varieties 

Peach — Prunus  Persica 

Almond — Prunus  Amygdalus 

Many  Conifers 


578 


INDEX 


Abele.  I  S3 
Abies  amabilis,  8x 
balsamea,  80 

concolor,  83 

Fraseri,  81 

grandis,  81 

lasiocarpa,  83 

tnagnifica,  84 

var.  Shastensis,  8  s 

nobilis,   83 

Nordmanniana,  80 

venusta,  83 
Acacia,  green-barked,  345 

three-thomed,  335 
Acacta  Arafcica,  344 

Farncsiana,  344 

Greggii,  344 

Wrightii,  344 
AcERACE^E,  367 
Acer  barbatum,  374 

campestris,  380 

circinatum,  373 

dasycarpuni,    371 

Floridanum,  37s 

glabrum,  377 

grandidcniata,  37s 

Japoiiicum,  379 

macrophyllum,  372 

Negundo,  9,  377 

nigrum,  375 

Nikoensis,   379 

palniatum,  379 

PsMMsytoanicMrH,  376 

platanoides,  379 

pseudo-platanus,  379 

r«6rMm,    368 

saccharinutn,  371,  374 

saccharum,  8,  374 

spicatum,  376 
Acorns,  Uses  of,  223 
^sculus  austrina,  384 

Californica,  384 

carjtca,  385 

glabra,  383 

Hippocastanum,  385 

octandra,  384 

Pavia,  385 
Agriculture,  Department  of,  516 
Aila>ithn^  glandulosa,  351 
Alder,  Alaska,  177 

black,  180,  36a 

hoary,   181 

lanceleaf,  179 

Oregon,    178 

paperleaf,  179 

red,   178 

seaside,  177 

speckled,  181 

white,   179 
Alders,  The,  177 
Alligator-wood,  276 
Almond,  324 
.4/nMS  ^lutinosa,  180 

tncana,  181 

Japonica,  tSi 

maritima,  ij/ 


A/n«5  oblongifolia,  179 

Oregcma,  178 

rhombifolia,  179 

Sitchensis,  177 

tenuifolia,  179 

titicloria,   181 
Alternation  of  generations,  no 
.4m^/anc^i<rr  alnifolia,  298 

Canadensis,  296 

obovalis,   298 
AmjTts  Elemifcra,  350 

AnACARDIACE^,    3SS 

Angelica  tree,  404 
Anonace^,   261 
Anona  glabra,  263 

muricata,  363 
Apple,  cedar,  no 

common  wild,  287 

double  flowered  prairie  crab,   387 

Fameuse,  288 

Iowa  crab,  287 

Japanese,  290 

narrow-leaved  crab,   286 

Newtown  pippin,   389 

Oregon  crab,   286 

pond,    261 

§rairie  crab    387 
iberian  crab,   290 
Snow,   288 
Soulard's,  287 

wild  crab,    285 
Appleseed  Johnnie,   289 
Aquifoliace^,  360 
Aquifolium,  361,  363 
Araliace.*,  404 
.4ra/ta  spinosa,  404 
Arboriculture,  461 
Arbor  Vitae,  91 

giant,  9a 
Ar6«iM5  Arizontca,  42a 

Menziesii,  422 

Uficdo,  423 

A'a/apens»5,  42a 
Arrah,  380 
Ash,  "bee-sucken,"  443 

Biltmore,  440 

black,   433 

blue,  437 

European,  434 

fiddleback,  43s 

flowering,  440 

green,   436 

hoop,   432 

mountain,  292,  433,  440 
elder-leaved,  293 
European,  394 

Oregon,  438 

prickly,   348,  433 

pumpkin,  439 

ram's  horn    435 

red,  435 

swamp,  440 

wafer,  349 

water,  440 

white,  43a 

yellow,    43» 


579 


Ashes,  Tiia    4,u 

The  Mountain,  293 
Asimina  triloba,  2O1 
Aspen,  14S 

large-toothed,  150 
Avicennia  nilida,  401 

Balm,  copalm,  277 
Balm  of  Gilcad,  151 
Balsam,  Canada,  80 
Baretta,   350 
Bark   Functions  of,  567 
Bartram,  quoted,  263 
Bassvvood,  394 

downy,  397 

white,   396 
Bay,  Loblolly,   399 

red,  265 

rose,  418 

swamp,  26s 
Bayonet,  Spanish,  123 
Bee  Tree,   396 
Beech    American,  182,  488 

blue,  16s 

European,   185 

uses  of,  543 

vernation  of,  551 
Beeches,  The,  182 
Betula  alba,  17s 

lenta,    173 

lutca,  171 

nigra,  \T2 

occidentalis,  175 

papyrifera,  169 

populifolia,  168 
Betulace^,  126,  167,  177 
Bignoniace^,  445 
Big  Tree,  86 
Billia,   3S3 
Birch,  aspen-leaved,  168 

black,   173 

canoe,   169 

cherry,  173 

grey,  171 

paper,   169 

purple,  1 8s 

red,   172 

river,  172 

sweet,  173 

weeping,  185 

Western  black,  175 

white,  168,  17s 

yellow,  171 
Birches,  The,  167,  492 
Bittemut,    143 
Blackwood,  Australian,  344 
Bluewood,   391 
Board  measure,  503 
Bordeaux  mixture,  515 
Box  Elder,  377 
Boxwood,    363 

Florida,   366 
BroHssonetia  papyrifera,  24a 
Buckeye,  Big,  384 

California,   384 

fetid.  383 

Ohio,  383 

red,   38s 

Spanish,   387 

sweet,  384 

yellow,  384 
Buckeyes,  The,  382 
Buckthorn,  Cascara,  390 

English,   389 

evergreen,  390 

yellow,  390 
Buckthorns,  The,  389 
Bud,  definition  of,  ssi.  s68 
Budding,  shield,  498 


580 


Buds,  scales  of,  569 
Burning  Bush,  36s 
Burscra  Simaruba,  354 

BuRSERACEvE,    354 

Butternut,    126 
Buttonwood,  279,  40a 

Cacti,  The,  124 
Calabash  Tree,  black,  447 
West  Indian,  448 
Calipers,  503 
Cambium,  556 
Catncllia   Tliea,  399 

CAPRIFOLIACEyE,    449 

Carpinus  Bclitlus,  i66 

Caroliniana,  165 
Carbon,  source  of,  553 
Carica  Papaya,  26a 
Cassie,  344 
Castanca  crenata,  186 

dentata,  186 

pumila,  1 88 

sativa,   186 
Castanopsis  chrysophylla,  189 
Catalpa,   445 

hardy,  447,  473 

raising  of,  472 

Western,   447 

Yaggy  plantation,  47a 
Catalpa  Catalpa,  445 

speciosa,  447 
Catalpas,  The,  445 
Cat's  Claw,  343,  344 
Ceanothns  arboreus,  39a 

spinosus,  392 

thyrsfflorus,  391 
Cedar,  incense,  94 

red,  92,  105 

rock,  108 

stinking,   114 

white,  99 
Celastrace^,  365 
Cclasirus  scandens,  365 
Cells,  miiltiplication  of,  557 

palisade,  552 
Celtis  Australis,  237 

Mississippiensis,   237 

occidentalis,  236 
Cercidium  floridum,  345 
Cercis  Canadensis,  334 

Chincnsis,   335 

pubesccns,   334 

Tcxcnsis,  334 
ChamcBcyparis  Lawsoniana,  100 

Nootkatensis,  99 

thyoidcs,  99 
Chapote,  426 
Charcoal,  531 
Cherry,  bird,  327 

camelian,  416 

choke,  329 

Indian,    390 

Japanese,  331 

pie,  330 

pin,  327 

rum,  328 

sour,  330 

sweet,  331 

Western  wild    330 

wild  black,  328 

wild  red,  327 
Chestnut,  American,  186 

annual  growth  of,  556 

European,    i85 

golden-leaved,  189 

horse,   385 

Japanese,  186 
Chestnuts,  The,  186 
Chilcpsis  linearis,  447 


Index 


China  Berry,  353 
China  Tree,  354 

wild,    387 
Chinquapin,  18S 
Chionanthns  Virginica,  443 
Christmas  trees,  532 
Cinchona  tree,  533 
Citharaxylon  vtllosum,  403 
Citronwood,  380 
Coccothrinax  jticunda,  121 
Cladrastis  liUca,  341,  432 
Condalia  obovala,  391 
Conifers,  1 7 
ConocarpHS  crccta,  402 
Coral  Bean,  344 
Cork,    226 

CORNACE/E,   407 

Cornel,  407,  416 
silky,   415 
Cornus  altcrnifolia,  414 
Amonmm,   415 
asperifolia,  414 
Bailcyi,  415 
fiorida,  411 
mas,  416 
Niiitallii,  414 
slolonijcra,  41s 
Coryliis,    162 
Cotinus  Amcricanus,  358 

Cotiniis,  359 
Cottonwood,  146,  148,  529 
black,    152 
lance-leaved,   150 
Mexican,   150 
narrow-leaved,  150 
swamp,  152 
CratcBgus,  (sstivalis,  308 
apiifolia,  316 
apiomorpha,    309 
aprica,  315 
Arnoldiana,  304,  310 
Ashci,  315 
Boyntoni,  314 
brachyacantha,  317 
coccinca,  314 
coccinioides,  313 
collina,  307 
cor  data,  317 
Crus-galli,   305 
Douglasii,   319 
Ellwangcriana,   313 
Holmesiana,  312 
macracantha,  318 
Mohri,  306 
mollis,  310 
o/>tmo,  31  s 
OAryocawZ/ia,  319 
pruinosa,  309 
punctata,  306 
submollis,  311 
tomentosa,   318 
viridis,  30S 
Creosote,  537 
Crescenlia  cucurbitina,  447 

Cujetc,  448 

Cross,  artificial,  500 

natural,   500 

Cruiser,  timber,  503 

Cucumber  tree,  252 

large-leaved,  251 
yellow,  253 
Cupressus  Arisonica,  98 
GovcJitana,  98 
Macnabiana,  98 
macrocarpa,  96 
scmpcrvircns,  -98 
Cydonia  Japonic  a,  291 

vulgaris,  291 
Cypress,  Arizona,  98 


58. 


Cypress,  bald,  loi 

grain  of,  560 

knees  of,  loa 

Lawson,    100 

Macnab,  98 

Mexican,  loi 

Monterey,  96 

Sitka,  99 
Cypresses,  The,    96 

Dagger,  Spanish,  123 
Dendrology,  461 
Diospyros  Ebenum,  424 

Texana,  426 

Virginiana,  424 
Distillation,  Classen  method,  531 

dry,  53? 

turpentine,  530 
Dogwood,  alternate -leaved,  414 

Bailey's,  415 

European,  416 

flowering,  411 

Jamaica,  34s 

platform,  415 

red-osier,  415 

rough-leaved   414 

Western,  414 
Dogwoods,  The,  407    410 

Ebenace^,  424 
Ebony,  424 

green,  43s 

Texas,  343 
Elder,  black-berried,  451 

box,  377 

golden,  45 1 

Mexican,  451 

pale,  452 

red-berried,  457 
Elderben-y,   Brainerd,  451 
Elders,  The,  449,  451 
Electricity,  521 
Elm,  American,  230 

cedar,   236 

cork,   9,   23s 

feathered,   232 

mountain,   23s 

red,  233 

rock,  235 

sUppery,  233 

small-leaved,  23S 

wahoo,  23s 

water,  238 

white,  230 

winged,   235 

witch,  233 

wych,   233 
Elms,  The,  229 
Ericace^,  417 
Eucalyptus,  87 
Eucalyptus  globulus,  474  ' 

plantations  of,  474 
Evelyn,  cjuoted,  224,  241 
Evergreens,   12 

pruning  of,  510 
Evonymus  atropurpureus,  365 
ExotJiea  paniculata,  387 

Fagace>e,  182,  186,  190 
Fagara  Americana,  348 

Clava-Hcrcuhs,  348,  406 

Fagara,   349 

flava,  349 
Fagus  Americana,  182 

sylvatica,  185 
Femow,  B.  E.,  quoted    20 
Ficus  aurcum,  24s 

Carica,  244 

populnca,  24s 

Sykomorus,  283 


Index 


Fiddlewood,  403 
Fig,  golden,  24s 

Pharaoh's,  28a 

poplar-leaf,  24s 
Figs,  the,  239,  244 
Fir,  balsam,  80,  81,  8a 

European,  80 

i[apanese,  80 
ovely,   81 

Nordmann's,  80 

red,  69,  83,  84 

silver,  83 

white,  81,  83 
Fires,  forest,  517 
Firs,  The,  79 
Foliage,  zone  of,  565 
Forest,  luxury,  45s 

mixed,  456 

petrified,  539 

protective,  455 

supply,   455 
Forestry,  Bureau  of,  460,  S38.  S04 

commercial,  457 

definition  of,  45s,  457 

extensive,  458 

intensive,   457 

official  organ  of,  460 

teaching  of,  460 
Forests  as  soil  makers,  534 

by-products  of,  529 

European,  534 

influences  of,  534 
Franklinia,  399 
Fraxinus  Americana,  432 

var.  microcarpa,  433 

anomala,  440 

Biltmoreana,  440 

Caroliniana,  440 

Excelsior,  434 

Greggii,  440 

lanceolata,  436 

nigra,  433 

Oregona,  438 

Ornus,  440 

Pennsylvanica,  435 

profunda,  439 

quadrangulata,  437 

Texensis,  440 

velutina,  440 
Fremontia,  7 
Frijolito,  344 
Fringe  Tree,  443 
Fumigation,   514.  Si7 
Fungi,  514 

Game  preserve,  456 

Ginkgo,  17 

Gleditsia  aquatic  a,  337 

Texana,   337 

triacanthos,  335 
Gordonia  Altamaka,  390 

Lasianihus,  399 
OoRDONiAS,  The,  399 
Grafting,  496 
Grain,  cross,  560 

definition  of,  559 

straight,   560 

wavy,  561 
"Grazing,  forest,  519 
Cuaiacum  officinale,  347 

sanctum,  347 
Gum,  black,  408 

blue    474 

cotton,  410 

red,  409 

sour,  408 

sweet,  274 
Gums,  S3? 
Gumbo  Limbo,  354 


58: 


Gyminda  Grisehachii,  365 
Gymnocladus  dioicus,  338 
Gymnosperms,  17 

Hackberries,  The,  229,  236 
Hackberry,  236,  237 
Hcematoxylon  Campechianunt,  391 
Hamamelidace/E,  270 
Hamamelis  Virginiana,  270 
Haw,  307,  308    309,  314,  31S 

apple,  308 

black,  319,  450 

dotted,  306 

English,  319 

hogs,   317 

May,  308 

longspine,   318 

parsley,  316 

pear,   318 

red,  310,  311,  312,  313 

scarlet,  309,  310,  312,  314 
Hawthorns,  The,  299 
Hazel,  162 
Heaths,  The,  417 
Helietta  parviflora,  350 
Hemlock,  73 

Carolina,   75 

ground,    117 

mountain,  77 

peehngof,  S33 

stripping  bark  of,  467 

Western,  76 
Hercules'  Club,  The   404 
Hicoria  alba,  139 

aquatic  a,  144 

Carolince-septentrionalis,  139 

glabra,  134 

laciniosa,  135 

microcarpa,  135 

minima,  143 

myristiccBJormis,  140 

odorata,  135 

ovata,   137 

Pecan,  141 

villosa,  135 
Hickories,  The,  132 
Hickory,  big  bud,  139 

nutmeg,   140 

pale -leaf,  135 

shagbark,    137 

shagbark.  North  Carolina,  139 

shellbark,  137,  139 

shellbark,  big,  135 

swamp,  143 

water,   144 

white,  134 

vernation  of,  138    SS^ 

HlPPOCASTANACB^,    382 

Hollies,  The,  360 
Holly,  Dahoon,  363 

English,  361 

European,  36 x 

Japanese,  36a 

meadow,  364 

mountain,   364 

swamp,  364 
Honey  Pod,  346 
Hop  Tree,  349 
Hornbeam,  American,  165 

European,   166 

hop,  163 
Hornbeams,  The,  i6a 
Hornets,  nests  of.  S44 
Horse  Beans,  343 

smaU-leaved,  343 
Horse  Chestnut,  38s 

leaf,  fall  of,  562 
Horse  Sugar,  430 
How  Trees  Spend  The  Winter,  566 


Inucx 


Huisache,   344 
Humus,   564 
Hybridisation,   499 
Hybrids,  propagation  of,  soo 
Hypclate  trijoliata,  388 
Hypsomcter,  I'^austman's,  soa 

Jchthyomclhui  Pisciptda,  34s 
Ilex  Aquijoliiiin,  361 

Cassinc,   363 

var.  niyrtifolia,  363 

dccidiia,   364 

lavigata,  362 

latifolia,   362 

monticola,  364 

opaca,  362 

Paraguaricnsis,  360 

Sieboldi,  362 

verticdlata,  362 

vomit oria,  363 
Indian  Bean,  44s 
Inkwood,  387 
Insects,    SIS 
Ironwood,  163,  387 

black,  391 

red,  391 

Sonera,    34S 

Western,   164 

white,  388 
Ivy,  poison,  358 

Judas  Tree,  334 

JUGLANUACE^,    12$ 

Juglans  Californica,  130 

cordiformis,  ia6 

cinerca,  126 

nigra,  128 

regia,  126,  130 

rupestris,  130 

Sieboldiana,  126 
Juneberry,  296 
Juniper,.  California,   107 

checker-barked,  107 

drooping,  107 

dwarf,   106 

mountain,    108 

one-seeded,  108 

red,  loS 

Rocky  Mountain,  no 

Southern  red,  no 

Utah,    107 

Western,  in 
Junipers,  fruit  of,  17 
Junipers,  The,  104 
Juniperus  Barbadensis,  no 

Californiccu,  107 

communis,  106 

ftaccida,   107 

monosperma,  108 

occidentalis,  in 

pachyphlcBa,  107 

sabinoides,   108 

scapulorum,  no 

Utahensis,  107 

Virginiana,  108 

Kaki,  426 

Kalm,  Peter,  8,  51,  421 

Kalmia  latifolia,  420 

Kermes,   223 

Key  to  Families  of  Trees,  14 

Kinnikinnick,  415 

Knots,  structure  of,  559 

Krugiodcndron  ferreum,  24s,  391 

Lacquer  Tree,  356 
Lacquer  work,  Japanese,  257,  542 
Laguiicularia  raccmosa,  402 
Lancewood,  266 


583 


Langucs  de  femmes,  153 
Larch,  alpine,  62 

EuroiJean,  58 

Japanese,  58 

Western,  61 
Larches,  The,  58 
Larix,  s** 

Americana,  59 

decidua,  58 

G'rinithi,  58 

Karmpjert,   58 

leptokpis,  58 

Lyallii,  62 

occidentalis,  61 
Laurace^,   264 
Laurel,  California,  266 

mountain,   4«o 
Laurels,  The,  264 

cherry,  330 
Laurus  nobilis,  330 
Leaf  mosaic,  232 
Leaves,  age  limit  of,  565 

autumnal  colouring  of,  564 

breathing  of,  s<J7 

death  of,  S55 

ripening  of,  563 

shedding  of,  562 

structure  of,   552 

unfolding  of    551 

work  of,  551 
Leguminos.«,  332 
Lenticels,  568 
Leucjena,  34s 

chalky,  345 
Leuccena  Greggii,  345 

pulverulenta,   34s 
Liber,    544 

Libocedrus  dccurrens,  94 
Lignum-vitae,  The,  347 
Lilac,  California,  391 

spiny,  392 
Liliace-e,  123 
Limbs,  age  of,  559 

insertion  of,  539 
Lime,  European,  398 

Ogeechee,  409 

wild,  349 
Linden,  American,  394 

laroad-leaved,  398 

European,   397 

Neustadt,  394 

weeping  silver,  398 
Lindens,  The,  393 
Linnaeus,  7,  8,  393 
Liquidambar,  409 
Liquidambar  orientalis,  277 

Styraciflua    274 
Liriodendron  Tulipijera,  258 
Locust,  339 

black,  339,  S16 

bristly,  341 

clammy,  341 

honey,  335 

New  Mexican,  341 

Texan  honey,  337 

water,  337 

yellow,  339 
Log  Scale,  503 
Logwood,  391 
Lotus  tree,  237 

Madiera,  353 
Madrona,    422 

Mexican,  42 a 

Arizona,  422 
Magnolia,    8 

Campbell's,  2S7 

dwarf,  257 

great  laurel,  248 


Magnolia,  laurel,    251 

mountain,   254 

purple,  256 

starry,  256 

swamp,  249,  562 

Watson's,    257 

Yulan,  256 
Magnolia  acuminata,  25a 

Campbelli,   257 

cordala,    254 

fcBtida,  24S 

Eraser i,   254 

glauca,  249 

gloriosa,   249 

erandiflora,  248 

hypoletica,   257 

Kobus,  256 

macrophylla,   251 

obovata,   256 

parvi flora,   256 

pumila,   257 

So«to«gea>ia,   2SS 

stellata,  254 

<rt>^<aia,  254 

VKa/junt,   25  7 

yj</aM,  256 
Magnoliace.e,  246 
Magnolias,  The,  246 
Mahogany,  The,  353,  357 
Maidenhair  Tree,  17 
Mains  angustifolia,  286 

baccala,  290 

coronaria,  28s 

floribunda,   291 

loensis,    287 

loensis  flore  plena,  287 

Malus,  287 

rivularis,  286 

Soulardi,  287 
Mangrove,  black,  241 

red,  401 

white,  402 
Mangroves,  The,  401 
Manna,  441 
Maple,  ash-leaved,  377 

bird's  eye,  370,  560 

black,   375 

black  sugar,  375  \ 

broad-leaved,  372  .        \ 

curly,  370,  560  \ 

dwarf,  377  \ 

Florida,   375 

goose-foot,  377 

hard,    374 

Japanese,  378 

large-toothed,  37s 

mountain,   376 

Norway,  379 

Oregon,   372 

pavonaceous,  380 

red,  368 

rock,  374 

scarlet,  368 

silver,   370,  371 

soft,  371 

striped,    376 

sugar,   374 

swamp,    3 68 

sycamore,   2S3,  379 

vine,  373 
Maples,  The,  367 
Medlar,    291 
Meliace^,  353 
Melia  Azederach,  353 

var.   umbraculiformis,   353 
Mespihis  Germanica,  291 
Mesquite,  346 
Metopiuni  Alctopium,  358 
Mills,  acid,  531 


Mimosa,   34S 
Mistletoe,    361 
Mockernut,  139 
Mohrodcndron  diptera    430 

ielraptera,   428 

var,  Meehani,  429 
Moose  wood,  376 
MoRACE/E,  239 
Morus  alba,  240 

ccltidifolia,   241 

nisra,   241 

rubra,  240 
Mould,  leaf,  564 
Muir,  John,  3,  5,  27,  29,  30,  31,  85,  04,  113. 

373 
Mulberry,  Mexican    241 

paper,  242,  543 

red,  240 

white,  240 
Mulberries,  The,  239 
Mycorhiza,  487 
Myrtle,  blue,  391 

Nannyberry,  rusty,  450 
Naval  Stores,  38,  529 
Nettle  Tree,  236,  237 
Nomenclature,    8 
Nothofagus,    1 82 
Nutmeg,  California,   114 
Nyssa  aquaiica,  410 

Ogcche,  409 

sylvatica,  408 

var.  biflora,  409 

Oak,  antique,  222 
barren,  218 
basket,  206 
bear,  218 
black,  21S 
blackjack,   218 
blue,  193 
bog,  222,  539 
bur,  200 

California  black,  210 
California  live,  210 
California  white,  193 
champion,   213 
chestnut,  191,  203 
chincapin,   204 
cork,  226 
cow,  206 
Durand,   198 
English,   327 
European,   335 
fibres  of,  558 
galls  of,   224 
gold-cup,  209 
highland,  210 
hokn,   228,  361 
iron,  202 
Kellogg,  210 
knees  of,  197,  203 
laurel,  220,  221 
live,  196 
maul,   209 

medullary  rays  of,  559 
mossy-cup,    200 
mountain  live,  209 
mountain  white,  193 
openings,  201 
Oregon  white,  195 
overcup,   202 
Pacific  post,  195 
pin,   211 
post,  202 

quarter-sawed,   559 
red,   212 

rock  chestnut,  204 
scarlet,  214 


584 


Index 


Oak,  scrub,  218 

shingle,   220 

Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  194 

Spanish,   218 

swamp  post,  202 

swamp  Spanish,  211 

swamp  white,  205 

tanbark,  igi,  203,  533 

Texan  red,  213 

turkey   217,  228 

wainscot,  228 

water,  219 

weathered,  541 

white,   198 

willoNT-,  219 

yellow,  204,  215 
Oaks,  ages,  of,  228 

black    208 

Chinese,   228 

Japanese,   228 

white,   192 
Oaks,  The,  190 
Ocotca  Catesbyana,  266 
Oilnut,  126 
Oleace^,  431 
Olneya  Tesota,  34s 
Osage  Orange,  The    239,  242 
Osier,  golden,  161 
Ostrya  Knowltoni,  164 

Viriginica,   163 
Oxydendrunt  arboreum,  423 

Pagoda  Tree,  Japanese,  34s 
Paint,  S39.  S40 
Palm,  date,  470 

desert,  120 

royal,   119 

Sargent,   120 
Palm^,  118 
Palmetto,  cabbage    121 

Mexican,  122 

silk-top    120 

silver-top     121 
Palms  and  the  Palmettos   The,  h 
Papaw,  melon,   262 
Papaw,  The,  261,  262 
Paper,  making  of,  460,  546 

raw  materials  of,  543 

wooden,   543 
Papyrus,  543 
Paradise  Tree,  351 
Parkinson,  quoted,  176 
Parkinsonia  actileata,  343 

micro phylla,   343 
Parks,  city,  456,  458 

national,  456,  458,  459 

state,  45 
Pasania  densiflora,  9,  191 
Paulownia  imperialis,  448 
Pear,    291 

alligator,  265 

Avacado,  265 

swamp  sugar,  298 
Pecan,  141 

bitter,   144 
Pecanicr,  142 
Pepperidge,  408 
Pepperwood,  348 
Persea  Borbonia,  265 

gratissima,  265 

pubcsccns,   265 
Persimmon,    424 

black,  426 

Japanese,  426 
Persimmons,  The,  424 
Peruvian  bark  tree,  227 
Picia,  63 

Breweriana,  67 

Canadensis,  66 


Picia,  Engelnianni    6s 

excelsa,  64 

Alariana,  64 

oricntalis,  64 

Parryana    66 

rubens,   65 

Sitchcnsis,  68 
Pignut,    134 
Pine,  Aleppo,  53 

Arizona  white,  26 

Austrian,   52 

Bhotan,  54 

big  cone,  39 

bull,  44 

cedar,  50 

cluster,   Si 

Corsican,   56 

Cuban,  41 

Digger,  34 

foxtail,  30 

frankincense,   35 

Georgia,  22 

grey,  51 

hard,  21,  542 

Himalayan,  54 

jack,  22,  51 

Japanese,   54 

Jersey,   50 

knob  cone,  40 

Korean,  54 

lacebark,   54 

limber,    29 

Loblolly,  10,  34 

longleaf,  36,  529 

Macedonian,  53 

marsh,   36 

meadow,    35 

Mexican  white,  54 

Monterey,  46 

mountain,  26 

Mugho,  53 

North  Carolina   46 

Norway,  46 

nut,   31 

old-field,  34 

pitch,  21,  32,  39 

pond,  36 

poverty,  48 

prickle-cone,  31,  47 

red,  46 

Rocky  Mountain  white,  39 

rosemary,  35 

sand,  so 

Scotch,   53 

screw,  so 

scrub,  48,  so,  51 

shortleaf,  44 

silver,  26 

soft,    22 

spruce,   50 

stone,  S3 

sugar,  27 

swamp,  41 

Swiss,    53 

Swiss  stone,  57 

Table-Mountain,  48 

torch,  3S 

Torrey's,   33, 

umbrella,  55 

Western  yellow,  42 

white,  23 

lumbering  of,  462 

raising  of,  475 

white  bark,  30 

yellow,  21,  34 
Pines,  The,  20 

exotic,   52 
Pifion,  31 
Pinus,  18,  20 


585 


Index 


Pinus,  albicauUs,  30 

aristata,  30 

Arizonica,  34 

attenuata,  40 

Ayacahuite,   S4 

Balfouriana,  30 

Bungeana,  54 

CartbcBa,   41 

Cetnbra,  S3 

cembroides,   S' 

clausa,    50 

ca«<or/a,  48 

Coulteri,  39 

densiftora,  S4 

divaricata,  si 

echinata,  44 

edulis,  31 

e*ce/sa,  54 

flexilis,  29 

glabra,   50 

Halapensis,  S3 

Koraiensis,   S4 

La»w6ffr/ia«o,  a? 

Laricio,  var.  AjM^rioca,  5a 

hngifolia,  54 

monophylla,  31 

montana,   S3 

var.  Mughus,  S3 

monticola,  26 

muricaia,  47 

palustris,  36 

Pence,    S3 

Pinaster,   S3 

Pinea,    S3 

ponder osa,  43 

pungens,   48 

quadrifolia,   31 

radiata,  46 

resinosa,  46 

rtgKia,   39 

Sofrtntana,  34 

serotina,  36 

sirobiformus,  26 

Strobus,  83 

sylvestris,  47.  S3 

T<rda,    34 
Thunbergi,  S4 
Torreyana,  33 
Virgtnta«o,   5° 
Pistacia,  35  5 
Pistachio-nut  Tree,  3SS 
Pitch,  S3 1 
Planer  tree,  238 
Planera  aquatica,  238 
Plane  Tree,  American,  279 

oriental,   282 
Platanace^e,   278 
Platanus  occidentalis,  279 
orientalis,    382 
racemoxa,  281 
l^rigferit,  281 
Plum,  beach,  326 
Canada,   32S 
Chickasaw,  325 
darling,   391 
European,   326 

Japanese,  326 
liner,  326 

Pacific,   326 

sand,  326 

Wayland,   326 

wild  red,  322 

wild  yellow,  322 
Plums  and  Cherries,  The,  321 
Pod-bearers,  The,  332 
Poison  "'"od,  358 


Poplar,  black,   iS3 
Carolina,   147 
Lombardy,   iS4 
white,   I  S3 
yellow,  258 
Poplars,  paper  of,  S48 

seed,   dispersal  of,  49a 
Poplars,  The,   145 
Populus  acuminata,   150 
alba,  I  S3 
angustifolia,  iso 
balsamijera,  ist 
deltoidea,  146 

var.  Carolinensis,  147 
Fremontii,   148 
grandidentata,  15a 
heterophylla,  152 
Me^tcawa,   iso 
mgra,   is3 

var.  ^/fgatix,  iS4 
var   Italica,  iS4 
tretnuloides,  148 
trichocarpa,  152 
Wislizeni,  148 
Prickwood,  36  s 
Pride  of  India,  353 
Propolis,  isi 
Prosopis  juliflora,  346 

pubescens,  346 
Protoplasm,  SS4 

freezing  of,  569 
Prunes,  326 

Pruning  of  Trees,  The,  506 
Pruning,  principles  of,  so8 
Prunus,  Allcghaniensis,  326 
Americana,  322 
angustifolia,    32s 
Avium,  331 
Caroliniana,  322 
Cerasus,   330 
demissa,  330 
domestic  a,   326 
emarginata,  322 
hortulana,    32s 
integrifolia,  330 
nigra,  32s 
Pennsylvanica,   327 
Pseudo-Cerasus,  331 
serotina,  328 
sphcErocarpa,  322 
subcordata,  321,  326 
trifiora,  326 
umbellata,    326 
Virginiana,  329 
Pseudopheenix  Sargenti,  lao 
Pseudotsuga,  69 

macrocarpa,   71 
niMcroMO/a,  69 
Pielea  angustifolia,  349 

trifoliata,  349 
PyrMS  communis,   291 

Quaking  Asp,  148 
Quassia,   351 
Quassin,   3S1 
Quebracho  Wood,   S33 
Quercitron,  217 
ywijrcMS,   192 

ocjontnota,   204 

agrifolia,  210 

a/fca,  198 

breviloba,  198 

Calif ornica,  210 

Catesbcei,  217 

cerris,   228 

chrysolcpis,  209 
-— ■-<"!    214 


Poplar,  S29 


Index 


Qutrcus,   Douglasii,   193 
esculus,    335 
Garryana,  19s 

flandulijera,   338 
lex,  238,  361 
itnbricaria,  3  30 
laurifolia,  331 
hbata,  193,  333 
lyrata,  202 
ntacrocarpa,  300 
Marilaniica,  318 
minor,  202 
Michauxii,  206 
nana,   218 
m'gra,  219 
palustris,  21 1 
Phellos,  219 
platanaides,  20S 
prittoides,    204 
Prinwi,    203 
Robur,  227 
rubra,   2 1 2 
Suber,  226 
rexona,   215 
Valonia,  223 
variabilis,    228 
velutina,   21s 
Virginiana,  196 

Quince,    291 

Japanese,    291 
Quinine,  227 

Redbud,  334 

Chinese,  33 S 

downy,    334 

Texas,  334 
Redwood,  The,  86-89 
Reproduction  by  cuttings,  494 

by  seeds,  492 
Reservations,  grazing  on,  si9 

park,  456,  481 
Retama,  343 
Retinospora,   100 
i?eynos»a  septentrionahs,  391 
Rhamnace/E,  389 
i?Aamn«5  Caroliniana,  390 

cathartica,   389 

crocea,  390 

jrangula,  389 

Purshiana,  390 
Rhizdphorace^e,  401 
Rhizoplwra  Mangle,  401 
Rhododendron,  great,  418 
Rhododendron  Catawbiense,  419 

maximum,  418 
Rhododendron,  The,  417 
i2AM5  copallina,  3S7 

glabra,  358 

Htr/a,   356 


integrifolia,  3S7 


endron,  358 

vernicifera,  3S6 

Vernix,  356,  357 
Roan  Wood,  294 
Robinia,  8,  339 

hispida,   341 

Neo-Mextcana,  341 

Pseudacacia,  339 

VMcoia,  341 
Roots,  work  of,  488 
Rosacea,  284,  292,  296   399,  321 
Rotation,  458 
Rowan  tree,.  294 
Roystonea  regia,  119 
Rubber  trees,  S33 
RuTACE.E,  348 
Sata/ A/irxtcana,  132 

Palmetto,  121 


Salicace^e,   14s.    «SS 
Salisburia  adianttfoUa,  17 
Sa/i*  a/6a,  var.  vttellina.  161 
amvgdaloides,  158 
Bahylonica,  x.i7 

var.  dolorosa,  1  57 
balsamifera,   161 
Bcbbiana,  160 
Caprca,  var.  pendula,  157 
cordata,  var.  Mackenzieana,  160 
discolor,    iS7 
fiuviatilis,    158 

var.  argyrophylla,  158 
fragilis,    iS7 
Hookeriana,  160 
Icevigata,  159 
lasiandra,    i  S9 
longipcs,   is8 
hutda,  159 
Missouriensis,   139 
m'gra,    iS7 
pentandra,   iS7 
sessilijolia,   158 
Sarnbucus  glauca,  452 
Mexicana,  451 
Mjgra,   451 
Sap,  crude,  SS3 

sugarj',  28 
Sapindaceae,  387 
Sapindus  marginaius,  387 

Saponaria,  387 
Sargent,  Professor  Charles  A..  «) 
Sassafras,  The,  264,  2^7 
Sassafras  Sassafras,  267 
Satinwood,  349,  52? 
Schafferia  frutescens,  366 
Sciadopitys  verticillata,  ss 
Screw  Bean,  346 
Seed,  dispersal  of,  492 
Sequoia,    86 

sempervirens,    89 
Wellingtojtia,   86 
Serenoa  arborescens,  120 
Service  berry,  296 
longleaf,   298 
Western,   298 
Service-berries,  The,  29* 
Shadhush,    296 
Sheepberry,    449 
SheUbark,  big,   13S 

little,    137 
Silverbell  Tree,  428 
Silviculture,  461 
Simaruba  glauca,  331 
Simarubace^,  351 
Slash,  45  7 
Sloe,  Alleghany,  326 

black,  326 
Smoke  Tree,  The,  358,  350 
Snowdrop  Tree,  428 
Soapberry,  387 
Sopltora  affinis,  34s 
Japonica,    345 
secundiflora,   344 
Sorbus  Americana,  292 
AucMparici,   294 
sambucifolia,   293 
Sorrel  Tree,  423 
Soursop,  363 
Sour wood,   423 
Species  Plantarum,  8 
Spic    trees,  S33 
Spraying,    515 
Spring,  burst  of,  570 
Spruce,  63,  460,  510,  528,  548 
big  cone,   71 
black,   64,  357 
blue,   66 
Caucasian,    64 


587 


Index 


Spruce,  consumption  of,  S44 

Douglas,   69 

Engelmann,  65 

Norway,   64 

r«d,  6s 

Sitka,  68 

tideland,  68 

weeping,    67 

white,    66 
Spruces,  The,  63 
Sumach,  dwarf,  357 

hairy,  356 

mountain,   357 

poison,   356,  3S7 

smooth,   3S8 

staghorn,  356 

Western,  357 

Venetian,    359 
Sumachs,  The,  355 
Stagbush,   45 1 
Starch-making,   554 
Sting  tongue,  348 
Stipules,  function  of,  5sa 
Stomates,   555 
Storax,   277 
Strawberry  Tree,  423 
Styrace^,  428 
Styrax,   277 
Suckers,  494 
Sugarberry,  236,  237 
Sulphite,  making  of,  545 
Sweet  Leaf,  430 
Swictcnia  Mahogani,  353 
Sycamore,   279 

Arizona,   281 
California,  281 
fungus  on,   281 
oriental,  282 
Sycamores,  The,  278 
Symbiosis,  488 
Symplocos  cratcBgoides,  430 

tinctoria,  430 
Synonym,  8 

Tamarack,   59 

Tan  bark,  hemlock,   74 

Tanbark  trees,   533 

Tannin,  trees  producing,  533 

Tar,  531 

Taxace^,  113 

Taxodium  distichum,  loi 

mucronatum,   loi 
TaxHs,  baccata,  115 

brevifolia,    116 

Floridana,   117 

minor,  117 
Tea  plant,  399 
Teak,  403 

Tectoria  grandis,  403 
Thatch,  120,  121 

brittle,  121 
Theace^,  399 
Thorn,  cockspur,  305 

.     Washington,   317 
Ihrtnax  Floridana,   120 

Keyensis,    121 

microcarpa,  121 
Thuya,  91 

Japonic  a,  91 

occidentalis,  91 

orientalis,  91 

plicata,  92 
Thuyopsis,   91 
Tilia  Americana,  394 

argentea,   398 

EuroptBa,    397 

heterophylla,   396 

Michauxii,  397 

petiolaris,  398 


Tilia,   platyphyllos,   398 
pubcscens,   397 
tomentosa,   398 
vulgaris,  397 

TiLIACE/E,    393 

Timber,  measurement  of,  50  ? 
Toothache  Tree,  348 
Torchwood,  350 
Torreya,  California,   114 
Florida,   114 
Japanese,    113 
Torreyas,  The,   113 
Toxylon  pomiferutn,  242 
Transpiration,   553,   567 
Transplanting  trees,  486 
Tree,  habit  of,  560 

gross  structure  of,  536 
growth  of,   556,  567 
Tree-planting,  cooperative,  471 

profitable,   470 
Tree  of  Heaven,  352 

surgery,   511 
Trees,  age  of,  87,  loi,  m,  ii6,  558 
breathing  of,  555 
city,  519 
diameter  of,   503 
diseases  of,  515 
enemies  of,  513 
food  of,   5  53,  567 
girdling  of,   566 
guards  of,  520 
"heeling  in,"  489 
how  measured,  501 
injuries  of,  521 
multiplication  of,  493 
nut-bearing,    533 
"puddling",  498 
rules  for  planting,  489 
size  of,  87,  loi,  III,  116 
succession  of,  492 
winter  aspect  of,  566 
Truffles,  225 
Tsuga,   72 

Canadensis,   73 
Caroliniana,  75 
heterophylla,  76 
Mertensiana,    77 
Tulip  Tree,  The,  246,  258 
Tuniion  Calif ornica,  114 
grandis,   114 
micifera,   113 
iaxifolium,  114 
Tupelo,   408 

sour,  409 
TuPELOs,  The,  407 
Turpentine  gathering,  529 
Turpentine  Tree,   355 
Twigs,  forcing  of,  570 

Ulmace^,  229 
Ulmus  alata,   235 

Americana,  230 

campestris,  231,  23a 

crassifolia,   236 

fulva,   233 

racemosa,  9,  335 

serotina,  236 

Tltomasi,  9,  235 
Umbellaria  Californica,  266 
Umbrella  tree,  254 

Chinese,   353 
ear-leaved,  254 
Ungnadia  spcciosa,  387 

Viburnum  Lcntago,  449 

prunifolium,  450 

rufidulum,  450 
Viburnums,  The,  449 
Virgilia,  341,  43. 


MANt  HESTER, 
INOUNA 


